The Maghreb Union Countries

The Maghreb (Arabic: المغرب , Berber: Tamazɣa) is usually defined as much or most of the region of Northwest Africa, west of Egypt. The traditional definition as being the region including the Atlas Mountains and the coastal plains of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and (usually) Libya, was later superseded, especially since the 1989 formation of the Arab Maghreb Union, by the inclusion of a fifth nation, Mauritania, and of the disputed territory of Western Sahara (mostly controlled by Morocco). During the Al-Andalus era in Spain, the Maghreb's inhabitants, Maghrebis, were known as "Moors";^[1] the Muslim areas of Spain in those times were usually included in contemporary definitions of the Maghreb---hence the use of 'Moor' or 'Moors' to describe the Muslim inhabitants of Spain by Christian and other Western sources.

Historical terms for the region or various portions of it include Numidia, Libya, and Africa in classical antiquity. The term maghrib is in origin an Arabic word for "west, occident", denoting the westernmost territories that fell to the Islamic conquests of the 7th century.^[2] Today, it is used as a proper noun denoting the Maghreb, also known as المغرب العربي al-maghrib al-ʻarabīy "the Arab Maghreb" or المغرب الكبير al-maghrib al-kabīr "the great Maghreb" in Arabic. The definite form al-maghrib is used for the country of Morocco in particular. The Berber language alternative term for al-maghrib, Tamazgha,^[3] has been popularized by Berber activists since the last quarter of the 20th century.

Before the establishment of modern nation states in the region during the mid-20th century, Maghreb most-commonly referred to a smaller area between the Atlas Mountains in the south and the Mediterranean Sea, often also including eastern Libya, but not modern Mauritania. As recently as the late 19th century it was used to refer to the Western Mediterranean region of coastal North Africa in general, and to Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia in particular.^[2]

Partially isolated from the rest of the continent by the Atlas Mountains and the Sahara desert, inhabitants of the northern parts of the Maghreb have long had commercial and cultural ties to the inhabitants of the Mediterranean countries of Southern Europe and Western Asia, going back at least to the Phoenicians in the 1st millenium BC (the Phoenician colony of Carthage having been founded, according to tradition, in what is now Tunisia circa 800 BC ).

The region was somewhat unified as an independent political entity during the rule of the Berber kingdom of Numidia, which gave way to centuries of rule by the Roman Empire, followed by the brief domination of the Vandal Kingdom, the equally brief re-establishment of "Roman" rule by the Byzantine Empire, and later the more-enduring rule of the Islamic Caliphates and Emirates under Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid, Almoravid, Almohad, Hammadid, Zirid, and Marinid dynasties (to name some of those among the most prominent) during the 8th to 13th centuries, and that of the Ottomans, at least nominally, thereafter.

The five modern states of North Africa established the Arab Maghreb Union in 1989 to promote cooperation and economic integration in a common market. It was envisioned initially by Muammar Gaddafi as an Arab superstate, ignoring the Berber identity of many North Africans. The union included Western Sahara implicitly under Morocco's membership,^[4] putting Morocco's long cold war with Algeria to a rest. However, this progress was short-lived, and the union is now frozen. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco over Western Sahara re-emerged strongly, reinforced by the unsolved borderline issue between the two countries. These two main conflicts have hindered progress on the union's joint goals and practically made it inactive as a whole.^[5]

History[link]

Magreb head ornament (Morocco)

The Great Mosque of Kairouan, founded by the Arab general Uqba Ibn Nafi (in 670), is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb;^[6] city of Kairouan, Tunisia.

Prehistory[link]

After the end of the Ice Age about ten thousand years ago, when the Sahara dried up, contact between the Maghreb and sub-Saharan Africa was extremely limited.

Antiquity[link]

Many ports along the Maghreb coast were occupied or constructed by the Phoenicians, particularly the Carthaginians, whose main settlements along the North African littoral between the Pillars of Hercules and the Libyan coast east of ancient Cyrenaica, centered in the Gulf of Tunis (Carthage, Utica) dominated the trade and intercourse of the Western Mediterranean for centuries. With its defeat of Carthage in the Punic Wars---greatly helped by the defection of the Carthaginian's eastern Numidian Massylii client-allies under their King Massinissa to the Roman cause in 206 BC---Rome took over many of these ports, and ultimately it took control of the entire Maghreb north of the Atlas Mountains. Remaining outside its control were only some of the most mountainous regions like the Moroccan Rif. With the 5th Century AD fall of the Western Roman Empire as a result of the pressures of the Barbarian invasions, the Vandals, crossing over from Spain, overran much of the Roman province of Africa, establishing the short-lived Vandal Kingdom with its capital at Carthage in 430 BC. A century later, the Byzantine emperor Justinian sent a force under his general Belisarius, which, contrary to contemporary expectations, succeeded in destroying the Vandal kingdom; Byzantine rule lasted but a scant century more, until the coming of the Arabs in the 640's AD.

Middle Ages[link]

The Arabs reached the Maghreb in early Umayyad times. Arab expansion and the spread of Islam pushed the development of trans-Saharan trade. While restricted due to the cost and dangers, the trade was highly profitable. Commodities traded included such goods as salt, gold, ivory, and slaves, who were taken from both the Sahel and Sub-Saharan regions, as well as southern Europeans enslaved by Muslim pirates and raiders. Arab control over the Maghreb was quite weak. Various Islamic variations, such as the Ibadis and the Shia, were adopted by some Berbers, often leading to scorning of Caliphal control in favour of their own interpretation of Islam.

The Arabic language became widespread only later, as a result of the invasion of the Banu Hilal, unleashed by the Fatimids in punishment for their Zirid clients' political defection and abandonment of Shiism in the 12th century. Throughout this period, the Maghreb most often was divided into three states roughly corresponding to modern Morocco, western Algeria, and eastern Algeria and Tunisia. The region was occasionally briefly unified, as under the Almohads, and briefly under the Hafsids.

Early modern history[link]

1707 map of northwest Africa by Guillaume Delisle, including the Maghreb

After the Middle Ages, the Ottoman Empire loosely controlled the area east of Morocco.

Modern history[link]

After the 19th century, areas of the Maghreb were colonized by France, Spain and later Italy.

Today more than two and a half million Maghrebi immigrants live in France, many from Algeria and Morocco. In addition, there are 3 million French of Maghrebi origin (in 1999) (with at least one grand-parent from Algeria, Morocco or Tunisia).^[7] Another estimation gives a number of six million.^[8]

Populations[link]

Algiers, Algeria

Casablanca, Morocco

Maghreb is home to 1 per cent of the global population as of 2010. Maghrebi people include Moroccans (along with Sahrawis), Algerians, Libyans, Mauritanians, and Tunisians.^[9] Maghrebis are largely composed of Berber and Arab descent with European and Sub-Saharan elements.

Various other influences are also prominent throughout the Maghreb. In northern coastal towns, in particular, several waves of European immigrants influenced the population in the Medieval era. Most notable were the moriscos and muladies, that is, the indigenous Spaniards who had earlier converted to the Muslim faith and were fleeing, together with ethnic Arab and Berber Muslims, from the Spanish Catholic Reconquista. Other European contributions included French, Italians, and others captured by the corsairs.^[10]

Historically the Maghreb was home to significant Jewish communities called Maghrebim who predated the 7th century introduction and conversion of the region to Islam. These were later augmented by Spanish Sephardic Jews who, fleeing the Spanish Catholic Inquisition, established a presence in North Africa, chiefly in the urban trading centers. They have contributed to the wider population through conversion and assimilation.

Another significant group are Turks who came over with the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. A large Turkish descended population exists, particularly in Tunisia and Algeria.

Sub-Saharan Africans joined the population mix during centuries of trans-Saharan trade. Traders and slaves went to the Maghreb from the Sahel region. On the Saharan southern edge of the Maghreb are small communities of black populations, sometimes called Haratine, who are apparently descended from black populations who inhabited the Sahara during its last wet period and then migrated north.

In Algeria especially, a large European minority, the "pied noirs", immigrated and settled under French colonial rule in late 19th century. The overwhelming majority of these, however, left Algeria during and following the war for independence.^[11]

The Maghreb shares a common culinary tradition. Habib Bourguiba defined it as the part of the Arab World where couscous is the staple food, as opposed to Eastern Arab countries where white rice is the staple food. In terms of food, similarities beyond the starches are found throughout the Arab world.

Religion[link]

Night view from Tunis

The original religions of the Northern African peoples of the area seem [5] to have been based and related with fertility cults of a strong Matriarchy pantheon, given the social and linguistic structures of the Amazigh cultures antedating all Egyptian and eastern, Asian, northern Mediterranean, and European influences.^[12]

Historic records of religion in the Maghreb region show its gradual inclusion in the Classical World, with coastal colonies established first by Phoenicians, some Greeks, and later extensive conquest and colonization by the Romans. By the 2nd century common era, the area had become a center of Phoenician-speaking Christianity,where bishops spoke and wrote in Punic,and even Emperor Septimius Severus was noted by his local accent. Both Roman settlers and Romanized populations converted to Christianity. The region produced figures such as Christian Church writer Tertullian (c. 155 – c. 202); and Christian Church martyrs or leading figures such as Perpetua and Felicity (martyrs, c. 200 AD);St Cyprian of Carthage (+ 258); St. Monica; her son the philosopher St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo I (+ 430) (1); and St Julia of Carthage (5th century.)

The domination of Christianity ended when Arab invasions brought Islam in 647. Carthage fell in 698 and the remainder of the region followed in subsequent decades. Gradual Islamization proceeded, although surviving letters showed correspondence from regional Christians to Rome up until the 9th century. Christianity was still a living faith. Christian bishoprics and dioceses continued to be active, with relations continuing with Rome. As late as Pope Benedict VII (974-983) reign, a new Archbishop of Carthage was consecrated. Evidence of Christianity in the region then faded through the 10th century.^{[citation needed]}

During the 7th century, the region's peoples began their nearly total conversion to Islam. There is a small but thriving Jewish community, as well as a small Christian community. Most Muslims follow the Sunni Maliki school. Small Ibadi communities remain in some areas. A strong tradition of venerating marabouts and saints' tombs is found throughout regions inhabited by Berbers. Any map of the region demonstrates the tradition by the proliferation of "Sidi"s, showing places named after the marabouts. Like some other religious traditions, this has substantially decreased over the 20th century. A network of zaouias traditionally helped proliferate basic literacy and knowledge of Islam in rural regions.

Maghrebi traders in Jewish history[link]

In the 10th century, as the social and political environment in Baghdad became increasingly hostile to Jews, some Jewish traders emigrated to the Maghreb, especially Kairouan in Tunisia. Over the following two or three centuries, such Jewish traders became known as the Maghribis, a distinctive social group who traveled throughout the Mediterranean World. They passed this identification on from father to son. Their tight-knit pan-Maghreb community had the ability to use social sanctions as a credible alternative to legal recourse, which was anyway weak at the time. This unique institutional alternative permitted the Maghribis to very successfully participate in Mediterranean trade.^[13]

Geography[link]

Ecoregions[link]

The Maghreb is divided into a Mediterranean climate region in the north, and the arid Sahara in the south. The Magreb's variations in elevation, rainfall, temperature, and soils give rise to distinct communities of plants and animals. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) identifies several distinct ecoregions in the Maghreb.

Mediterranean Maghreb[link]

The portions of the Maghreb between the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea, along with coastal Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in Libya, are home to Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub. These ecoregions share many species of plants and animals with other portions of Mediterranean Basin. The southern extent of the Mediterranean Maghreb corresponds with the 100 mm isohyet, or the southern range of the European Olive (Olea europea)^[14] and Esparto Grass (Stipa tenacissima).^[15]

• Mediterranean acacia-argania dry woodlands and succulent thickets (Morocco, Canary Islands (Spain), Western Sahara)
• Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia)
• Mediterranean woodlands and forests (Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia)
• Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Spain)
• Mediterranean High Atlas juniper steppe (Morocco)

Saharan Maghreb[link]

The Sahara extends across northern Africa from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. Its central part is hyper-arid and supports little plant or animal life, but the northern portion of the desert receives occasional winter rains, while the strip along the Atlantic coast receives moisture from marine fog, which nourishes a greater variety of plants and animals. The northern edge of the Sahara corresponds to the 100 mm isohyet, which is also the northern range of the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera).^[15]

• North Saharan steppe and woodlands: This ecoregion lies along the northern edge of the Sahara, next to the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregions of the Mediterranean Maghreb and Cyrenaica. Winter rains sustain shrublands and dry woodlands that form a transition between the Mediterranean climate regions to the north and the hyper-arid Sahara proper to the south. It covers 1,675,300 square km (646,800 square miles) in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia, and Western Sahara.^[16]
• Atlantic coastal desert: The Atlantic coastal desert occupies a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast, where fog generated offshore by the cool Canary Current provides sufficient moisture to sustain a variety of lichens, succulents, and shrubs. It covers 39,900 square kilometres (15,400 sq mi) in Western Sahara and Mauritania.^[17]
• Sahara desert: This ecoregion covers the hyper-arid central portion of the Sahara where rainfall is minimal and sporadic. Vegetation is rare, and this ecoregion consists mostly of sand dunes (erg), stone plateaus (hamada), gravel plains (reg), dry valleys (wadi), and salt flats. It covers 4,639,900 square km (1,791,500 square miles) of Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Sudan.^[18]
• Saharan halophytics: Seasonally flooded saline depressions in the Maghreb are home to halophytic, or salt-adapted, plant communities. The Saharan halophytics cover 54,000 square km (20,800 square miles), including Tunisian salt lakes of central Tunisia, Chott Melghir in Algeria, and other areas of Egypt, Algeria, Mauritania, and Western Sahara.^[19]

Genetics of the Maghreb population[link]

The Y-chromosome genetic structure of the Maghreb population seems to be mainly modulated by geography, The Y-DNA Haplogroups E3b and J, which are so common among the population of North African and the Middle East, Haplogroups E3b and J, are the most widespread among North African groups especially E1b1b1b (E-M81, formerly E3b1b) which is typical of the indigenous Berbers of North-West Africa. In some parts of Morocco E1b1b1b can peak at 80% of the population. Followed by Haplogroup J especially J1^[20] [6], which is typically Middle Eastern it can reach a frequencies of 35% in the region,^[21][22] and its highest density is founded in the Arabian Peninsula,^[22] Followed by Haplogroup R1^[23] which has been observed in North African though with lower frequency. The Y-DNA Haplogroups shown above are observed in both Arab and Berber-speakers.

The Northwest-African Y chromosome pool (including both Arab and Berber populations) may be summarized as follows where only two haplogroups E1b1b and J comprise generally more than 80% of the total chromosomes:^{[24][25][26][27][28][29][30]}

Economy[link]

Maghreb countries by GDP (PPP)[link]

List by the International Monetary Fund (2009)	List by the World Bank (2009)	List by the CIA World Factbook (2009)
Rank Country GDP (PPP) $M 23  Libya 90,840 47  Algeria 233,098 57  Morocco 136,728 71  Tunisia 82,226 146  Mauritania 6,221	Rank Country GDP (PPP) $M 23  Libya 90,840 40  Algeria 285,591 56  Morocco 146,383 70  Tunisia 86,427 144  Mauritania 6,021	Rank Country GDP (PPP) $M 21  Libya 90,840 44  Algeria 244,300 57  Morocco 145,200 71  Tunisia 83,550 148  Mauritania 6,494

Modern territories[link]

Medieval regions[link]

See also[link]

Amazigh Moroccan Democratic Party Arab Maghreb Union Arab people Barbary Coast History of Algeria History of Morocco History of Tunisia Jews and Judaism in North Africa

Africa portal Francophonie portal Maghreb people Maghreb toponymy Maghrebi script Mashriq ("east" or poetically, "place of sunrise") Moors Mughrabi Northwest Africa Tamazgha

References and notes[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Magreb

• Politics, economics, and human affairs analysis in the Maghhreb
• Maghreb Radio Stations
• News and Views of the Maghreb

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This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in the German Wikipedia. (February 2011) Don't speak German? Click here to read a machine-translated version of the German article. Click [show] on the right to review important translation instructions before translating. Google's machine translation is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. After translating, {{Translated|de|Kenza Farah}} must be added to the talk page to ensure copyright compliance. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation.

This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in the French Wikipedia. (February 2011) Don't speak French? Click here to read a machine-translated version of the French article. Click [show] on the right to review important translation instructions before translating. Google's machine translation is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. After translating, {{Translated|fr|Kenza Farah}} must be added to the talk page to ensure copyright compliance. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation.

Kenza Farah (born July 8, 1986) is an Algerian singer. She is considered^{[by whom?]} the second internet success story in the French music industry, after Yelle. Her album Authentik, released in 2007, went gold in its second week.^[1]

Career beginnings[link]

Born into a family of six children, Kenza Farah born in Bejaia (Kabylie - Algeria) but grew up in the 15th arrondissement of Marseille. At age 14, she began playing shows neighborhood and wins singing contest. Following the singing competition, Kenza Farah meet the producers that allow it to record some songs in the studio, including Mon Ange, Tresor and Il ma trahie. It is then noticed by the producer Abdel.B which allows him to sign the production of an album in December 2006 with an independent label, Karismatik.

Discography[link]

Authentik[link]

Authentik is an album of R & B, Hip Hop Soul and French, written and performed by French-Algerian singer Kenza Farah. The album contains 18 tracks (including two on the reissue) and guest appearances with Sefyu, Le Rat Luciano, Idir, Big Ali and The Silence of the Mosques. It was released June 11, 2007 in France.

1. Dans mon monde
2. Je me bats
3. Moi j'ai 20 ans
4. Ou va le monde
5. Lettre du front feat. Sefyu
6. Il m'a trahie
7. Dans les rues de ma ville
8. Trop d'flow feat. Big Ali
9. Mi amor
10. Ne me dites pas
11. Appelez moi Kenza
12. Sur tous les chemins feat. Le Rat Luciano
13. Sous le ciel de Marseille feat. Idir
14. Toi et moi
15. Cris de Bosnie feat. Le Silence des Mosquées
16. Les enfants du ghetto
17. Bye Bye
18. Leve la tête

Authentik Mixtape[link]

1. Intro Dj Roc j
2. 15éme Hardcore (Feat G.a.p/Soosol)
3. Faut il que je sois ?
4. Freestyle Skyrock
5. Trésor
6. Terre à terre (Feat Kamelancien)
7. Je reprends mes ailes
8. Quoi qu'il arrive (Feat Tino/Section fidjo)
9. L'Amour ou la Passion
10. Tu reconnais (Feat Kayline & Moh/S.krim)
11. Plus rien sans toi (Feat T-north)
12. On vous aime tant (Feat Alonzo & Ligne 26 & Sale équipe)
13. Freestyle Skyrock
14. Il m'a trahie + Medley (l'amour s'en va, d'amour ou d'amitié..)
15. Seule sans toi
16. Nos différences
17. Face à la mort (Feat Bouda/15eme Processus)
18. Flashback (Feat K-RhYme le roi)
19. À la place d'un ange (Feat Monock/La Méthode)
20. Toi et moi (Feat Mickey-lansky)

Avec le coeur[link]

Avec le coeur is an album of R & B, Hip Hop Soul and French, written and performed by French-Algerian singer Kenza Farah. The album contains 22 tracks and guest appearances with the Psy 4 De La Rime, Nina Sky, Roldan group Orishas and Busy Signal. It was released November 17, 2008 in France. This album is the first double CD of French R & B out. It will be certified platinum disc.

CD1

1. Avec le cœur
2. Au cœur de la rue
3. Mi corazon
4. Peuple du monde entier
5. Je représente
6. Désillusion du ghetto
7. On tient le coup feat. Psy 4 De La Rime
8. Let me be with you
9. La nuit feat. Busy Signal
10. Ce que je suis
11. Que serais-je ?

CD2

1. Kenza sur le beat
2. J'essaie encore
3. J'aurais voulu te dire
4. Chant libre
5. Ne nous jugez pas feat. Roldan (Orishas)
6. Commandement du ciment
7. Toute seule
8. Tout ça ne compte pas
9. Celle qu'il te faut feat. Nina Sky
10. La vérité
11. Pardonnez moi

Trésor[link]

Trésor is an album of R & B, Hip Hop Soul and French, written and performed by French-Algerian singer Kenza Farah. The album contains 18 tracks (including two bonus and a bonus virgin mega) and guest appearances with Segnor Alonzo, Lea Castel, Melissa M, Younes, Kayline (Karismatik) and Nabila (Karismatik). It was released November 15, 2010 in France.

1. Trésor
2. Militante
3. On m'a dit
4. On vient de là feat. Kayline
5. Je serais prète feat. Nabila
6. Me reconstruire
7. Je n'ai pas le choix
8. Opérationnel
9. Crack Musik feat. Alonzo
10. Coeur Prisonnier
11. Ainsi va la vie feat. Younes
12. Karismastyle
13. Vagabonde
14. Trop de mots feat. Léa Castel et Melissa M
15. Sans jamais se plaindre
16. Militante
17. La où tu vas
18. Street Verité

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official Site
• Kenza Farah's blog

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Muhammad VIII
King of Tunisia
Reign	15 May 1943 - 25 July 1957
Full name	Muhammad al-Amin
Name in Arabic	الأمين باي بن محمد الحبيب
Born	(1881-09-04)September 4, 1881
Died	September 30, 1962(1962-09-30) (aged 81)
Place of death	Tunis, Tunis Governorate Tunisia
Predecessor	Muhammad VII
Successor	Husain Bey as Pretender 30 September 1962
Dynasty	Husainid Dynasty
Father	Muhammad VI al-Habib
Religious beliefs	Islam

Muhammad VIII al-Amin (4 September 1881 – 30 September 1962) (Arabic: الأمين باي بن محمد الحبيب‎, al-ʾAmīn Bāy bin Muḥammad al-Ḥabīb) was the last bey of Tunisia (15 May 1943 and 20 March 1956). He was the first head of state (as king or bey) of independent Tunisia from 1956 until he was deposed in 1957. He was the son of Muhammad VI al-Habib, bey of Tunis.

Muhammad became bey after the Free French Forces deposed his cousin Muhammad VII al-Munsif on the accusation that he was a Vichy collaborator. On 20 March 1956 he proclaimed the independence of Tunisia and became King of Tunisia with the style of His Majesty. A monarchy did not meet the expectations of future president Habib Bourguiba, who replaced the Royal Guard at Carthage Palace with his own loyal soldiers. By his command all the telephone lines to the palace were cut and the king put under house arrest 15 July 1957, and on 25 July the Tunisian Constituent Assembly deposed the king.

Muhammad was moved to a government-watched residence at La Manouba, but was permitted to return to Tunis after his wife died. He never abdicated his throne rights. He died in Tunis and was buried at the Tomb of King Muhammad al-Amin. Muhammad was succeeded as head of the Husainid Dynasty and heir to the throne and titular king by Husain Bey.

Bibliography[link]

• Martin Meredith. The State of Africa. — Free Press (London), 2005. — ISBN 978-0-7432-3222-7

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