Canadian Armed Forces Forces armées canadiennes
Badge of Her Majesty's Canadian Forces[1]
Current form	1968
Service branches	Royal Canadian Navy Canadian Army Royal Canadian Air Force
Headquarters	NDHQ, Ottawa
Leadership
Commander-in-Chief	Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada, represented by Governor General David Lloyd Johnston
Minister of National Defence	Peter MacKay
Chief of the Defence Staff[2]	General Walter Natynczyk
Manpower
Military age	17–60 years old[N 1]
Conscription	No
Available for military service	8,072,010 males, age 17–60[4], 7,813,462 females, age 17–60[4]
Fit for military service	6,646,281 males, age 17–60[4], 6,417,924 females, age 17–60[4]
Active personnel	68,250 (31 March 11)[3] (ranked 56th)
Reserve personnel	26,873 (paid primary) 4,635 (Rangers) 15,573 (supplementary) (31 March 11)[3]
Deployed personnel	950+
Expenditures
Budget	C$21.8 billion,[5] (2010–2011) (ranked 14th)
Percent of GDP	1.14% (111th in world)
Industry
Domestic suppliers	L-3 Communications MAS CAE Meggitt Training Systems Canada General Dynamics Irving Shipbuilding Inc. General Dynamics Land Systems Canada Raytheon Canada Limited Seaspan Marine Corporation Thales Canada[6] The Boeing Company[7]
Related articles
History	Military history of Canada
Ranks	Canadian Forces ranks and insignia

The Canadian Forces (CF) (French: les Forces canadiennes; FC), officially the Canadian Armed Forces (French: Forces armées canadiennes),^[8] are the unified armed forces of Canada, as constituted by the National Defence Act, which states: "The Canadian Forces are the armed forces of Her Majesty raised by Canada and consist of one Service called the Canadian Armed Forces."^[8] This single institution consists of the sea, land, and air environmental commands called the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN), Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), which together are overseen by the Armed Forces Council, chaired by the Chief of the Defence Staff. At the pinnacle of the command structure is the Commander-in-Chief, who is the reigning Canadian monarch, Elizabeth II,^[9] represented by the governor general.^[10]

Defence policy[link]

Flag of the Canadian Forces

Canadian defence policy[link]

Since the Second World War, Canadian defence policy has consistently stressed three overarching objectives:

• The defence of Canada itself;
• The defence of North America in cooperation with US forces;
• Contributing to broader international security.

During the Cold War, a principal focus of Canadian defence policy was contributing to the security of Europe in the face of the Soviet military threat. Toward that end, Canadian ground and air forces were based in Europe from the early 1950s until the early 1990s.

However, since the end of the Cold War, as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) has moved much of its defence focus "out of area", the Canadian military has also become more deeply engaged in international security operations in various other parts of the world – most notably in Afghanistan since 2002.

Canadian defence policy today is based on the Canada First Defence Strategy,^[11] introduced in 2006. Based on that strategy, the Canadian military is oriented and being equipped to carry out six core missions within Canada, in North America and globally. Specifically, the Forces are tasked with having the capacity to:

• Conduct daily domestic and continental operations, including in the Arctic and through NORAD (the North American Aerospace Defense Command);
• Support a major international event in Canada, such as the 2010 Winter Olympics;
• Respond to a major terrorist attack;
• Support civilian authorities during a crisis in Canada such as a natural disaster;
• Lead and/or conduct a major international operation for an extended period; and
• Deploy forces in response to crises elsewhere in the world for shorter periods.^[12]

Consistent with the missions and priorities outlined above, the Canadian Forces also contribute to the conduct of Canadian defence diplomacy through a range of activities, including the deployment of Canadian Defence Attachés,^[13] participation in bilateral and multilateral military forums (e.g. the System of Cooperation Among the American Air Forces), ship and aircraft visits, military training and cooperation,^[14] and other such outreach and relationship-building efforts.

History[link]

Origins and establishment[link]

Prior to Confederation in 1867, residents of the colonies in what is now Canada served as regular members of French and British forces and in local militia groups. The latter aided in the defence of their respective territories against attacks by other European powers, Aboriginal peoples, and later American forces during the American Revolution and War of 1812, as well as in the Fenian raids, Red River Rebellion, and North-West Rebellion. Consequently, the lineages of some Canadian army units stretch back to the early 19th century, when militia units were formed to assist in the defence of British North America against invasion by the United States.

Canadian troops of the Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders welcomed by liberated crowds in Leeuwarden, Netherlands, 16 April 1945.

The responsibility for military command remained with the British Crown-in-Council, with a commander-in-chief for North America stationed at Halifax until the final withdrawal of British Army and Royal Navy units from that city in 1906. Thereafter, the Royal Canadian Navy was formed, and, with the advent of military aviation, the Royal Canadian Air Force. These forces were organised under the Department of Militia and Defence, and split into the Permanent and Non-Permanent Active Militias — frequently shortened to simply The Militia. By 1923, the department was merged into the Department of National Defence, but land forces in Canada were not referred to as the Canadian Army until November 1940.

2nd Canadian Division soldiers advance behind a tank during the battle of Vimy Ridge.

The first overseas deployment of Canadian military forces occurred during the Second Boer War, when several units were raised to serve under British command. Similarly, when the United Kingdom entered into conflict with Germany in the First World War, Canadian troops were called to participate in European theatres. The Canadian Crown-in-Council then decided to send its forces into the Second World War, as well as the Korean War.

Since 1947, Canadian military units have participated in more than 200 operations worldwide, and completed 72 international operations. Canadian soldiers, sailors, and aviators came to be considered world-class professionals through conspicuous service during these conflicts and the country's integral participation in NATO during the Cold War, First Gulf War, Kosovo War, and in United Nations Peacekeeping operations, such as the Suez Crisis, Golan Heights, Cyprus, Croatia, Bosnia, Afghanistan, and Libya. Canada maintained an aircraft carrier from 1957 to 1970 during the Cold War, which never saw combat but participated in patrols during the Cuban Missile Crisis

Battles which are particularly notable to the Canadian military include the Battle of Vimy Ridge, the Dieppe Raid, the Battle of Ortona, the Battle of Passchendaele, the Normandy Landings, the Battle for Caen, the Battle of the Scheldt, the Battle of Britain, the Battle of the Atlantic, the strategic bombing of German cities, and more recently the Battle of Medak Pocket, in Croatia.

At the end of the Second World War, Canada possessed the third-largest navy and fourth-largest air force in the world, as well as the largest volunteer army ever fielded. Conscription for overseas service was introduced only near the end of the war, and only 2,400 conscripts actually made it into battle.

Unification and beyond[link]

The current iteration of the Canadian Forces dates from 1 February 1968,^[15] when the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force were merged into a unified structure and superseded by elemental commands. Its roots, however, lie in colonial militia groups that served alongside garrisons of the French and British armies and navies; a structure that remained in place until the early 20th century. Thereafter, a distinctly Canadian army and navy was established, followed by an air force, that, because of the constitutional arrangements at the time, remained effectively under the control of the British government until Canada gained legislative independence from the United Kingdom in 1931, partly due to the performance and sacrifice of the Canadian Corps in the First World War.^[16][17]

Land Forces during this period also deployed in support of peacekeeping operations within United Nations sanctioned conflicts. The nature of the Canadian Forces has continued to evolve. They have been deployed in Afghanistan until 2011, under the NATO-led United Nations International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), at the request of the Government of Afghanistan.

At sunset a convoy of Canadian Light Armoured Vehicles over-watches the area near Khadan Village, Afghanistan.

The forces are today funded by approximately $21.8 billion annually^[5] ranked 13th, and are presently ranked 74th in size compared to the world's other armed forces by number of total personnel, and 58th in terms of active personnel, standing at a strength of roughly 67,000, plus 24,000 reservists and 19,000 supplementary reserves, bringing the reserve force to approximately 43,000.^[18] The number of primary reserves is expected to go up to 30,000 by 2012, and the number of active to at least 70,000. If this happens the total strength would be around 120,000.^[19] These individuals serve on numerous CF bases located in all regions of the country, and are governed by the Queen's Regulations and Orders and the National Defence Act.

The Conservative Cabinet appointed in 2006 made efforts through the Canada First Defence Strategy to purchase new equipment and training, as well as the re-establishment of an airborne land force, now called the Canadian Special Operations Regiment. More funds were also put towards recruitment, which had been dwindling throughout the 1980s and '90s, possibly because the Canadian populace had come to perceive the CF as peacekeepers rather than as soldiers, as shown in a 2008 survey conducted for the Department of National Defence. The poll found that nearly two thirds of Canadians agreed with the country's participation in the invasion of Afghanistan, and that the military should be stronger, but also that the purpose of the forces should be different, such as more focused on responding to natural disasters.^[20] The current CDS, Walter Natynczyk, said later that year that while recruiting has become more successful, the CF was facing a problem with its rate of loss of existing members, which increased between 2006 and 2008 from 6% to 9.2% annually.^[21]

Canadian Forces personnel carry the coffin of a fallen comrade onto an aircraft at Kandahar Air Field, 1 February 2009

Since 2006, the Government has initiated a major re-equipment effort to rebuild the Forces after the serious defence cuts of the 1990s. This program has already involved the acquisition of specific equipment (main battle tanks, artillery, unmanned air vehicles and other systems) to support the mission in Afghanistan. It has also encompassed initiatives to renew certain so-called "core capabilities" (such as the air force's medium range transport aircraft fleet – the C-130 Hercules – and the army's truck and armoured vehicle fleets). In addition, new capabilities (such as C-17 Globemaster III strategic transport aircraft and CH-47 Chinook heavy-lift helicopters) have also been acquired for the Forces. The program of capability renewal is ongoing and over the next twenty years aims to:

• Increase the number of military personnel to 70,000 Regular Forces and 30,000 primary Reserve Forces;
• Replace the Royal Canadian Navy's current auxiliary oiler ships with 2–3 new vessels under the Joint Support Ship Project;
• Build 15 warships to replace existing destroyers and frigates under the Single Class Surface Combatant Project;
• Acquire new Arctic patrol vessels under the Arctic Patrol Ship Project;
• Replace the current maritime patrol aircraft with 10 to 12 new patrol aircraft;
• Acquire 65 F-35 Lightning II Joint Strike Fighters beginning in 2016–17 to replace the current fleet of CF-18 fighters;^[22]
• Strengthen readiness and operational capabilities; and,
• Improve and modernize defence infrastructure.^[12]

CH-47 Chinook   F-35 Lightning II   RCAF CC-177 Globemaster on approach to CFB Trenton

Current structure[link]

Memorial Stained Glass, Yeo Hall, Royal Military College of Canada (1964) with badges of the Royal Canadian Navy; Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force

The Canadian constitution determines that the commander-in-chief of the Canadian Forces is the country's sovereign,^[9] who, since 1904, has allowed his or her viceroy, the governor general, to exercise the duties ascribed to the post of Commander-in-Chief and to hold the associated title since 1905.^[10] All troop deployment and disposition orders, including declarations of war, fall within the royal prerogative and are issued as Orders in Council, which must be signed by either the monarch or governor general. Under the Westminster system's parliamentary customs and practices, however, the monarch and viceroy must generally follow the advice of his or her ministers in Cabinet, including the prime minister and Minister of National Defence.

The forces' 100,000 personnel are divided into a hierarchy of numerous ranks of commissioned and non-commissioned officers, and other non-commissioned positions. The governor general appoints, on the advice of the prime minister, a Chief of the Defence Staff (CDS) as the highest ranking commissioned officer in the forces and who, as head of the Armed Forces Council, is in command of the Canadian Forces. The Armed Forces Council generally operates from National Defence Headquarters (NDHQ) in Ottawa, Ontario. On the Armed Forces Council sit the heads of the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force, who collectively oversee the operational commands of the Canadian Forces – the Canadian Joint Operations Command and the Canadian Special Operations Forces Command. The sovereign and most other members of the Canadian Royal Family also act as colonels-in-chief, honorary air commodores, air commodores-in-chief, admirals, and captains-general of Canadian Forces regiments, though these positions are ceremonial.

Canada's forces operate out of 27 branch-specific Canadian Forces bases (CFB) across the country, as well as six shared bases, including the NDHQ; this number has been gradually reduced since the 1970s with bases either being closed or merged in the interest of efficiency. Officer cadets are educated and trained at two CF collegiate institutions, the Royal Military College of Canada and the Royal Military College Saint-Jean. Naval cadets undergo basic training and ship handling training at the Naval Officers Training Centre at CFB Esquimalt near Victoria, B.C. Officers may also be commissioned on enrolment with a degree from a civilian university. In some cases, officers may also be commissioned from the senior non-commissioned ranks. Basic military training for non-commissioned members is provided at a variety of locations.

Royal Canadian Navy[link]

HMCS Winnipeg

The Royal Canadian Navy (RCN), headed by the Chief of the Maritime Staff, includes 33 warships and submarines deployed in two fleets: the Maritime Forces Pacific (MARPAC) at Her Majesty's Canadian Dockyard Esquimalt on the west coast, and the Maritime Forces Atlantic (MARLANT) at Her Majesty's Canadian Dockyard in Halifax on the east coast, as well as one formation: the Naval Reserve Headquarters (NAVRESHQ) at Quebec City, Quebec. The fleet is augmented by various aircraft and supply vessels.

The RCN participates in NATO exercises, and ships are deployed all over the world in support of the Canadian military as well as in conjunction with multinational deployments, including the 2001–2003 Operation Apollo.

Canadian Army[link]

Soldiers from the Canadian Grenadier Guards in the Kandahar Province of Afghanistan.

The Canadian Army (CA) (in French: Armée Canadienne), previously known as the Land Force Command,^[23] is headed by the Commander Canadian Army and is administered through four geographically determined formations, or areas: the Land Force Atlantic Area (LFAA), headquartered at CFB Halifax in Halifax, Nova Scotia; the Land Force Quebec Area (LFQA), headquartered in Montreal, Quebec; the Land Force Central Area (LFCA), located at Denison Armoury in Toronto, Ontario; and the Land Force Western Area (LFWA), headquartered in Edmonton, Alberta.

Currently, the Regular Force component of the Army consists of three field-ready brigade groups: 1 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group, at CFB Edmonton and CFB Shilo; 2 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group, at CFB Petawawa and CFB Gagetown; and 5 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group, at CFB Valcartier and Quebec City. Each contains one regiment each of artillery, armour, and combat engineers, three battalions of infantry (all scaled in the British fashion), one for logistics, a squadron for headquarters/signals, and several minor organizations. A tactical helicopter squadron and a field ambulance are co-located with each brigade, but do not form part of the brigade's command structure.

Each land force area has, in addition to the Regular Force troops, reserve forces organized into a total of 10 reserve brigade groups. LFAA and LFQA each have two reserve brigade groups, while LFCA and LFWA have three apiece. Major training establishments and non-brigaded troops exist at CFB Gagetown, ASU Saint-Jean (now attached to CFB Montreal), and CFB Wainwright, which is home to the Canadian Manoeuvre Training Centre and provides state-of-the-art force-on-force training in preparation for overseas deployments.

Royal Canadian Air Force[link]

CF-18 Hornet launches LGB

The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) is headed by the commander, based in Ottawa. The commander of 1 Canadian Air Division and Canadian NORAD Region, based in Winnipeg, is responsible for the operational command and control of Air Force activities throughout Canada and worldwide. 1 Canadian Air Division operations are carried out through eleven wings located across Canada. The commander of 2 Canadian Air Division is responsible for training and support functions. 2 Canadian Air Division operations are carried out at two wings. Wings represent the grouping of various squadrons, both operational and support, under a single tactical commander reporting to the operational commander and vary in size from several hundred personnel to several thousand.

Major air bases are located in British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and Labrador, while administrative and command-control facilities are located in Winnipeg and North Bay. A Canadian component of the NATO Airborne Early Warning Force is also based at NATO Air Base Geilenkirchen near Geilenkirchen, Germany.

The RCAF and Joint Task Force (North) (JTFN) also maintain at various points throughout Canada's northern region a chain of forward operating locations, each capable of supporting fighter operations. Elements of CF-18 squadrons periodically deploy to these airports for short training exercises or Arctic sovereignty patrols.

Canadian Joint Operations Command[link]

The Canadian Joint Operations Command (French: Commandement des opérations interarmées du Canada) is an operational element created in May 2012 with the merger of Canada Command, the Canadian Expeditionary Force Command and the Canadian Operational Support Command. The new command, created as a response to the cost-cutting measures in the 2012 federal budget, combines the resources, roles and responsibilities of the three former command under a single headquarters.

Canada Command[link]

The Canada Command (CANCOM) was an operational element created on 31 January 2006, to improve response time to domestic terrorism and natural disasters, and was commanded by a commissioned officer who reports directly to the CDS. CANCOMwas responsible for the management of RCN, Army, and RCAF assets assigned to it to ensure national security, both in emergency and routine situations, and was analogous to and worked closely with the United States Northern Command, as well as the United States Department of Homeland Security. The command directed operations through six regional joint task forces, with Joint Task Force North responsible for activities previously carried out by Canadian Forces North Area.

Expeditionary Force Command[link]

Canadian Expeditionary Force Command (French: Commandement de la Force expéditionnaire du Canada) was an operational element of the Canadian Forces for operations outside of Canada. Under the CF structure, Canadian Expeditionary Forces Command (CEFCOM) was the unified command responsible for all Canadian Forces (CF) international operations, with the exception of operations conducted solely by Canadian Special Operations Forces Command elements.^[24]

Operational Support Command[link]

The Canadian Operational Support Command was responsible for handling many of the support elements of the Canadian Forces such as the military police, health services and logistics.

Special Operations Forces Command[link]

The Canadian Special Operations Forces Command (CANSOFCOM) is a formation capable of operating independently, but is primarily focused on generating special operations forces (SOF) elements to support CANCOM and CEFCOM, and includes Joint Task Force 2 (JTF2) based at Dwyer Hill Training Centre, the Canadian Special Operations Regiment (CSOR) and the 427 Special Operations Aviation Squadron (SOAS) at CFB Petawawa, as well as the Canadian Joint Incident Response Unit (CJIRU) at CFB Trenton (and CFB Kingston).

Information Management Group[link]

Among other things, the Information Management Group is responsible for the conduct of electronic warfare and the protection of the Forces' communications and computer networks. Within the group, this operational role is fulfilled by the Canadian Forces Information Operations Group, headquartered at CFS Leitrim in Ottawa, which operates the following units: the Canadian Forces Information Operations Group Headquarters (CFIOGHQ), the Canadian Forces Electronic Warfare Centre (CFEWC), the Canadian Forces Network Operation Centre (CFNOC), the Canadian Forces Signals Intelligence Operations Centre (CFSOC), the Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Leitrim, and the 764 Communications Squadron. In June 2011 the Canadian Forces Chief of Force Development announced the establishment of a new organization, the Directorate of Cybernetics, headed by a Brigadier General, the Director General Cyber (DG Cyber). Within that directorate the newly established CF Cyber Task Force, has been tasked to design and build cyber warfare capabilities for the Canadian Forces ^[25][26]

Canadian Forces Health Services Group[link]

The Health Services Group is a joint formation that includes over 120 general or specialized units and detachments providing health services to the Canadian Forces. With few exceptions, all elements are under command of the Surgeon General for domestic support and force generation, or temporarily assigned under command of a deployed Joint Task Force through Canadian Operational Support Command.^[27][28]

Canadian Forces Reserve Force[link]

Reserve infantrymen train in urban operations, c. 2004. Reserve training focuses on real world situations and the needs of the Regular Force, who rely on the reserves for augmentation on operational deployments.

The Canadian Forces have a total reserve force of approximately 50,000 primary and supplementary that can be called upon in times of national emergency or threat. For the components and sub-components of the Canadian Forces Reserve Force, the order of precedence follows:

• (1) Primary Reserve,
• (2) Supplementary Reserve
  • (a) Supplementary Ready Reserve, and
  • (b) Supplementary Holding Reserve,
• (3) Cadet Organizations Administration and Training Service, and
• (4) Canadian Rangers.^[29]

Primary Reserve[link]

Approximately 26,000 citizen soldiers, sailors, and airmen and women,^[18] trained to the level of and interchangeable with their Regular Force counterparts, and posted to CF operations or duties on a casual or ongoing basis, make up the Canadian Forces Primary Reserve. This group is represented, though not commanded, at NDHQ by the Chief of Reserves and Cadets, who is usually a major general or rear admiral, and is divided into four components that are each operationally and administratively responsible to its corresponding environmental command in the Regular Force – the Naval Reserve (NAVRES), Land Force Reserve (LFR), and Air Reserve (AIRRES) – in addition to one force that does not fall under an environmental command, the Health Services Reserve under the Canadian Forces Health Services Group.

Cadet Organizations Administration and Training Service[link]

The Cadet Organizations Administration and Training Service (COATS)^[30] consists of officers and non-commissioned members who conduct training, safety, supervision and administration of nearly 60,000 cadets aged 12 to 18 years in the Canadian Cadet Movement. The majority of members in COATS are officers of the Cadet Instructors Cadre branch of the CF. Members of the Reserve Force Sub-Component COATS who are not employed part time (Class A) or full time (Class B) may be held on the COATS "Inactive List" in anticipation of employment in the same manner as other reservists are held as members of the Supplementary Reserve.

Canadian Rangers[link]

The Canadian Rangers, who provide surveillance and patrol services in Canada's arctic and other remote areas, are an essential reserve force component used for Canada's exercise of sovereignty over its northern territory.

Uniforms[link]

A sergeant of The British Columbia Regiment (Duke of Connaught's Own) wearing the ceremonial dress of the regiment.

Although the Canadian Forces are a single service, there are three similar but distinctive environmental uniforms (DEUs): navy blue (which is actually black) for the navy, rifle green for the army, and light blue for the air force. CF members in operational occupations generally wear the DEU to which their occupation "belongs." CF members in non-operational occupations (the "purple" trades) are allocated a uniform according to the "distribution" of their branch within the CF, association of the branch with one of the former services, and the individual's initial preference (once a DEU is assigned, it is difficult to change, without remustering). Therefore, on any given day, in any given CF unit, all three coloured uniforms may be seen.

The uniforms of the CF are sub-divided into five orders of dress:^[31]

• Ceremonial dress, including regimental full dress, patrol dress, naval "high-collar" whites, and service dress uniforms with ceremonial accoutrements such as swords, white web belts, gloves, etc.;
• Mess dress, which ranges from full mess kit with mess jacket, cummerbund, or waistcoat, etc., to service dress with bow tie;
• Service dress, also called a walking-out or duty uniform, is the military equivalent of the business suit, with an optional white summer uniform for naval CF members;
• Operational dress, an originally specialized uniform for wear in an operational environment, now for everyday wear on base or in garrison; and
• Occupational dress, which is specialized uniform articles for particular occupations (e.g., medical / dental).

Only service dress is suitable for CF members to wear on any occasion, barring "dirty work" or combat. With gloves, swords, and medals (No. 1 or 1A), it is suitable for ceremonial occasions and "dressed down" (No. 3 or lower), it is suitable for daily wear. Generally, after the elimination of base dress (although still defined for the Air Force uniform), operational dress is now the daily uniform worn by most members of the CF, unless service dress is prescribed (such as at the NDHQ, on parades, at public events, etc.). Approved parkas are authorized for winter wear in cold climates and a light casual jacket is also authorized for cooler days. The navy, most army, and some other units have, for very specific occasions, a ceremonial/regimental full dress, such as the naval "high-collar" white uniform, kilted Highland, Scottish, and Irish regiments, and the scarlet uniforms of the Royal Military Colleges.^[32]

Authorized headdress for the Canadian Forces are the: beret, wedge cap, ballcap, Yukon cap, and tuque (toque). Each is coloured according to the distinctive uniform worn: navy (white or navy blue), army (rifle green or "regimental" colour), air force (light blue). Adherents of the Sikh faith may wear uniform turbans (dastar) (or patka, when operational) and Muslim women may wear uniform tucked hijabs under their authorized headdress. Jews may wear yarmulke under their authorized headdress and when bareheaded. The beret is probably the most widely worn headgear and is worn with almost all orders of dress (with the exception of the more formal orders of Navy and Air Force dress), and the colour of which is determined by the wearer's environment, branch, or mission. Naval personnel, however, seldom wear berets, preferring either service cap or authorized ballcaps (shipboard operational dress), which only the Navy wear. Air Force personnel, particularly officers, prefer the wedge cap to any other form of headdress. There is no naval variant of the wedge cap. The Yukon cap and tuque are worn only with winter dress, although clearance and combat divers may wear tuques year-round as a watch cap. Soldiers in Highland, Scottish, and Irish regiments generally wear alternative headdress, including the glengarry, balmoral, tam o'shanter, and caubeen instead of the beret. The officer cadets of both Royal Military Colleges wear gold-braided "pillbox" (cavalry) caps with their ceremonial dress and have a unique fur "Astrakhan" for winter wear. The Canadian Army wears the CG634 helmet.

Military expenditures[link]

The Constitution of Canada gives the federal government exclusive responsibility for national defence, and expenditures are thus outlined in the federal budget. For the 2008–2009 fiscal year, the amount allocated for defence spending was CAD$18.9 billion.^[33] This regular funding was augmented in 2005 with an additional CAD$12.5 billion over five years, as well as a commitment to increasing regular force troop levels by 5,000 persons, and the primary reserve by 3,000 over the same period.^[34] In 2006, a further CAD$5.3 billion over five years was provided to allow for 13,000 more regular force members, and 10,000 more primary reserve personnel, as well as CAD$17.1 billion for the purchase of new trucks for the Canadian Army, transport aircraft and helicopters for the Royal Canadian Air Force, and joint support ships for the Royal Canadian Navy.^[35]

See also[link]

	Canadian Armed Forces portal
	War portal

	Book: Canada
Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.

• Authorized marches of the Canadian Forces
• Canada First Defence Strategy
• Canadian Cadet Movement
• Canadian Forces order of precedence
• Canadian Forces Radio and Television
• Code of Service Discipline
• Future Canadian Forces projects
• List of Canadian military operations
• List of conflicts in Canada
• List of infantry weapons and equipment of the Canadian military
• Defence diplomacy
• North Warning System
• Communications Security Establishment Canada
• Upholder/Victoria class submarine

Notes[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Canadian Forces

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Military of Canada

• Official website of the Royal Canadian Navy
• Official website of the Canadian Army
• Official website of the Royal Canadian Air Force
• Combat Camera – Official CF photo website (Note: image licencing is not compatible with Wikipedia licences)

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Canadians

1st row: Shanawdithit, Aatsista-Mahkan, Louis Riel, Sir John A. Macdonald, Lester B. Pearson 2nd row: Celine Dion, Thomas D'Arcy McGee, John Diefenbaker, Linda Evangelista, Patrick Chan 3rd row: Russell Peters, Cassie Steele, Michaëlle Jean, David Suzuki, Tommy Douglas
Total population
Canada 34,839,000 (Est.[Note 1])
Regions with significant populations
United States 1,003,850 [1] Hong Kong 200,000 [1] United Kingdom 72,518 [1] Taiwan 52,500 [1] Lebanon 45,000 [1] People's Republic of China 20,000 [1] Australia 27,289 [1] Italy 23,487 [1] France 18,913 [1] Greece 12,477 [1] Egypt 10,000 [1] South Korea 8,763 [1] Mexico 7,943 [2] New Zealand 7,770 [1] Switzerland 7,519 [1] Philippines 7,500 [1] Portugal 7,326 [1] Japan 7,067 [1] Netherlands 8,427 [1] Belgium 4,145 [1] Norway 2,290 [1] Ireland 4,081 [1] Spain 3,810 [1] Denmark 2,752 [1] Sweden 2,742 [3]
Languages
Official languages are English (Canadian English) and French (Canadian French). Numerous indigenous American languages are also recognized.
Religion
Multiple denominations

Canadians (singular Canadian) are the people who are identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be genetic, residential, legal, historical, cultural or ethnic. For most Canadians, several (frequently all) of those types of connections exist and are the source(s) of them being considered Canadians.

Aside from the Aboriginal peoples, who according to the 2006 Canadian Census numbered 1,172,790, 3.8% of the country's total population,^[4] the majority of the population is made up of Old World immigrants and their descendants. After the initial period of French and then British colonization, different waves (or peaks) of immigration and settlement of non-aboriginal peoples took place over the course of nearly two centuries and continues today. Elements of Aboriginal, French, British and more recent immigrant customs, languages and religions have combined to form the culture of Canada and thus a Canadian identity. Canada has also been strongly influenced by that of its linguistic, geographic and economic neighbour, the United States.

Canadian independence grew gradually over the course of many years since the formation of the Canadian Confederation in 1867. World War I and World War II in particular gave rise to a desire amongst Canadians to have their country recognized as a fully-fledged sovereign state with a distinct citizenship. Legislative independence was established with the passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931, the Canadian Citizenship Act of 1946 took effect on January 1, 1947, and full sovereignty was achieved with the patriation of the constitution in 1982. Canada's nationality law closely mirrored that of the United Kingdom. Legislation since the mid 20th century represents Canadians' commitment to multilateralism and socioeconomic development.

Population[link]

Canadians make up 0.5% of the world's total population,^2010[5] having relied upon immigration for population growth and social development.^[6] Approximately 41% of current Canadians are first or second generation immigrants,^[7] meaning one out of every five Canadians currently living in Canada was not born in the country.^[8] Statistics Canada projects that, by 2031, nearly one-half of Canadians above the age of 15 will be foreign-born or have one foreign-born parent.^[9]

Immigration[link]

The French originally settled New France in present-day Quebec and Ontario, during the early part of the 17th century.^[10] Approximately 100 Irish-born families would settle the Saint Lawrence Valley by 1700, assimilating into the Canadien population and culture.^[11][12] The French also settled the Acadian peninsula alongside a smaller number of other European merchants, who collectively became the Acadians.^[13] During the 18th and 19th century; immigration westward (to the area known as Rupert's Land) was carried out by French settlers (Coureur des bois) working for the North West Company, and by British (English and Scottish) settlers representing the Hudson's Bay Company.^[14] This led to the creation of the Métis, an ethnic group of mixed European and First Nations parentage.^[15]

The British conquest of New France was proceeded by small number of Germans and Swedes who settled alongside the Scottish in Port Royal, Nova Scotia, while some Irish immigrated to the Colony of Newfoundland.^[16] In the wake of the 1775 invasion of Canada by the newly-formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, approximately 60,000 United Empire Loyalist fled to British North America, a large portion of whom migrated to New Brunswick.^[17] After the War of 1812, British (included British army regulars), Scottish and Irish immigration was encouraged throughout Rupert's Land, Upper Canada and Lower Canada.^[18]

Between 1815 and 1850 some 800,000 immigrants came to the colonies of British North America, mainly from the British Isles as part of the great migration of Canada.^[19] These included some Gaelic-speaking Highland Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances to Nova Scotia.^[20] The Irish Potato Famine of the 1840s significantly increased the pace of Irish immigration to Prince Edward Island and the Province of Canada, with over 35,000 distressed individuals landing in Toronto in 1847 and 1848.^[21][22] Beginning in late 1850s, Chinese immigrants into the Colony of Vancouver Island and Colony of British Columbia peaked with the onset of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush.^[23] The Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 eventually placed a head tax on all Chinese immigrants, in hopes of discouraging Chinese immigration after completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway.^[24]

The population of Canada has consistently risen, doubling approximately every 40 years, since the establishment of the Canadian Confederation in 1867.^[25] From the mid to late 19th century Canada had a policy of assisting immigrants from Europe, including an estimated 100,000 unwanted "Home Children" from Britain.^[26] Block settlement communities were established throughout western Canada between the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Some were planned and other were spontaneously created by the settlers themselves.^[27] Canada was now receiving a large amount of European immigrants predominately Italians, Germans, Scandinavians, Dutch and Ukrainians.^[28]

100,000 +

50,000 - 99,999

20,000 - 49,999

10,000 - 19,999

Legislative restrictions on immigration (such as the Continuous journey regulation and Chinese Immigration Act) that had favoured British and other European immigrants were amended in the 1960s, opening the doors to immigrants from all parts of the world.^[29] While the 1950s had still seen high levels of immigration by Europeans, by the 1970s immigrants increasingly were Chinese, Indian, Vietnamese, Jamaican and Haitian.^[30] During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Canada received many American Vietnam War draft dissenters.^[31] Throughout the late 1980s and 1990s Canada's growing Pacific trade brought with it a large influx of South Asians, that tended to settle in British Columbia.^[32]

In 2009, Canada received 252,179 "permanent residents" - the top ten source countries were China (29,049), the Philippines (27,277), India (26,122), the United States (9,723), the United Kingdom (9,566), France (7,300), Pakistan (6,214), Iran (6,065), South Korea (5,864), and Morocco (5,222).^[33] These countries were followed closely by Algeria (4,785), United Arab Emirates (4,640), and Iraq (4,567) with Sri Lanka, Colombia, and Germany each contributing over 4,000 individuals.^[33] Immigrants of all backgrounds tend to settle in the major urban centres.^[34][35]

The majority of illegal immigrants come from the southern provinces of the People's Republic of China, with Asia as a whole, Eastern Europe, Caribbean, Africa and the Middle East all contributing to the illegal population.^[36] Estimates of illegal immigrants range between 35,000 and 120,000.^[37] A 2008 report by the Auditor General of Canada Sheila Fraser, stated that Canada has lost track of approximately 41,000 illegal immigrants whose visas have expired.^[38]

Citizenship[link]

Members of the first official Canadian Citizenship ceremony held at the Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa,
3 January 1947

Canadian citizenship is typically obtained by birth in Canada, birth abroad when at least one parent is a Canadian citizen and was born in Canada, or by adoption abroad by at least one Canadian citizen.^[39] It can also be granted to a permanent resident who lives in Canada for three out of four years and meets specific requirements.^[39] Canada established its own nationality law in 1946 with the enactment of the Canadian Citizenship Act, which took effect on January 1, 1947.^[40] The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, was passed by the Parliament of Canada in 2001 as Bill C-11, which replaced the Immigration Act of 1976 as the primary federal legislation regulating immigration.^[41] Prior to the conferring of legal status on Canadian citizenship, Canada's naturalization laws consisted of a multitude of Acts beginning with the Immigration Act of 1910.^[42]

According to Citizenship and Immigration Canada there are three main classifications for immigrants: Family class (closely related persons of Canadian residents), Economic class (admitted on the basis of a point system that account for age, health and labour-market skills required for cost effectively inducting the immigrants into Canada's labour market) and Refugee class (those seeking protection by applying to remain in the country by way of the Canadian immigration and refugee law).^[43] In 2008, there were 65,567 immigrants in the family class, 21,860 refugees, and 149,072 economic immigrants amongst the 247,243 total immigrants to the country.^[7] Canada resettles over one in 10 of the world’s refugees^[44] and has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world.^[45]

The majority of Canadian citizens live in Canada; however, there are approximately 2,800,000 Canadians abroad as of November 1, 2009.^[46] This represents about 7.5% of the total Canadian population. Of those abroad the United States, Hong Kong, the United Kingdom, Taiwan, China, and Lebanon have the largest Canadian diaspora. Canadians in United States are the greatest single expatriate community at over 1 million in 2009, representing 35.8% of all Canadians abroad.^[47] Under current Canadian law, Canada does not restrict dual citizenship but Passport Canada encourages its citizens to travel abroad on their Canadian passport, so they can access Canadian consular services.^[48]

Ethnic ancestry[link]

Canada has thirty four ethnic groups with at least one hundred thousand members each, of which eleven have over 1,000,000 people and numerous others are represented in smaller amounts.^{[Note 2]} According to the 2006 census, the largest self-reported ethnic origin is Canadian/Canadien (32%),^{[Note 3]} followed by English (21%), French (15.8%), Scottish (15.1%), Irish (13.9%), German (10.2%), Italian (4.6%), Chinese (4.3%), North American Indian (4.0%),^{[Note 4]} Ukrainian (3.9%), and Dutch (Netherlands) (3.3%).^[49] In the 2006 census, over five million Canadians identified themselves as a member of a visible minority. Together, they make up 16.2% of the total population: most numerous among these are South Asian (4.0%), Black (2.5%), and Filipino (1.1%).^[49] Aboriginal peoples are not considered a visible minority under the Employment Equity Act,^[50] and is the definition that Statistics Canada also uses.

Map of the dominant self-identified ethnic origins of ancestors per census division of 2006.^{[Note 2]}

Canadian[Note 3]   English   French   Scottish   German

Italian   North American Indian[Note 4]   Ukrainian   East Indian   Inuit

For a complete list see: Canadian ethnic groups

Culture[link]

A 1911 political cartoon on Canada's bicultural identity showing a flag combining symbols of Britain, France and Canada; titled "The next favor. 'A flag to suit the minority.'"

Canada's culture, like that of most any country in the world, is a product of its language(s), religion(s), political and legal system(s). Being a settler nation, Canada has been shaped by waves of migration that have combined to form a unique blend of art, cuisine, literature, humour and music.^[51] Today, Canada has a diverse makeup of nationalities and constitutional protection for policies that promote multiculturalism rather than cultural assimilation or a single national myth.^[52] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many French-speaking commentators speak of a Quebec culture as distinguished from English Canadian culture.^[53] However as a whole Canada is a cultural mosaic a collection of several regional, aboriginal, and ethnic subcultures.^[54][55] Canadian society is often depicted as being "very progressive, diverse, and multicultural".^[56]

Canadian government policies such as official bilingualism, publicly-funded health care, higher and more progressive taxation, outlawing capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, an emphasis on multiculturalism, imposing strict gun control, leniency in regard to drug use, and, most recently, legalizing same-sex marriage are social indicators of how Canada's political and cultural evolution differ from that of the United States.^[57] American media and entertainment are popular, if not dominant, in English Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the United States and worldwide.^[58] The Government of Canada has also influenced culture with programs, laws and institutions. It has created Crown corporations to promote Canadian culture through media and has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content.^[59]

Monument to Multiculturalism by Francesco Pirelli in Toronto; four identical sculptures are located in Buffalo City, Changchun, Sarajevo, and Sydney

Canadian culture has historically been influenced by Aboriginal, French and British cultures and traditions. Most of Canada's territory was inhabited and developed later than other European colonies in the Americas, with the result that themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders were important in the early development of the Canadian identity.^[60] First Nations played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting exploration of the continent during the North American fur trade.^[61] The British conquest of New France in the mid 1700s brought a large Francophone population under British Imperial rule, creating a need for compromise and accommodation.^[62] The new British rulers left alone much of the religious, political, and social culture of the French-speaking habitants, guaranteeing the right of the Canadiens to practise the Catholic faith and to the use of French civil law (now Quebec law) through the Quebec Act of 1774.^[63]

The Constitution Act of 1867 was designed to meet the growing calls of Canadians for autonomy from British rule, while avoiding the overly-strong decentralization that contributed to the Civil War in the United States.^[64] The compromises made by the Fathers of Confederation set Canadians on a path to bilingualism, and this in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity that later led to both multiculturalism and the recognition of Aboriginal contributions to Canadian society.^[65][66]

The Canadian Forces and overall civilian participation in the First World War and Second World War helped to foster Canadian nationalism,^[67][68][69] however in 1917 and 1944 conscription crisis's caused a considerable rift along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones.^[70] As a result of the First and Second World Wars, the Government of Canada became more assertive and less deferential to British authority.^[71] With the gradual loosening of political ties to the United Kingdom and the modernization of Canadian immigration policies, in the 20th century immigrants with African, Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.^[72] The multiple origins immigration pattern continues today with the arrival of large numbers of immigrants from non British or French backgrounds.^[73]

Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the government during the premiership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau in the 1970s and 1980s.^[74] The Canadian government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration.^[75] Multiculturalism is administered by the Department of Canadian Heritage and reflected in the law through the Canadian Multiculturalism Act^[76] and section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.^[77] In parts of Canada, especially the major urban areas, multiculturalism itself is the cultural norm and diversity is a force that unites the community.^[78][79]

Religion[link]

Canada as a nation is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of groups, beliefs and customs.^[80] The preamble to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms references "God", and the monarch carries the title of "Defender of the Faith".^[81] However Canada has no official religion and support for religious pluralism (Freedom of religion in Canada) is an important part of Canada's political culture.^[82][83] With Christianity on the decline, having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life;^[84] it has been recently suggested that Canada has come to enter a post-Christian period in a secular state, where the practice of religion has "moved to the margins of public life", with irreligion in Canada on the rise.^[85]

The 2001 Canadian census reported that 77.1% of Canadians identify as being Christians; of this, Catholics make up the largest group (43.6%).^[87][88] The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada (9.5%), followed by the Anglicans (6.8%), Baptists (2.4%), Lutherans (2%), and other Christians (4.4%).^[88] About 16.5% of Canadians declare no religious affiliation, including agnostics, atheists, humanists, and other groups. The remaining 6.3% are affiliated with non-Christian religions, the largest of which is Islam (2.0%), followed by Judaism (1.1%).^[87][88]