The Wayback Machine - http://web.archive.org./web/20120822155138/http://wn.com:80/cuba
Wednesday, 22 August 2012
Dictionary
Gibson Brothers Cuba original Promo video 1979 rare !
Cuba
Diana Nyad Halts Swim From Cuba to Florida After Storm and Jellyfish Stings
Diana Nyad attempts Cuba to Florida Swim Record
People & Power - Cuba: The times are changing
Robert Abigail & Dj Rebel Feat. The Gibson Brothers - Cuba (Official Music Video) (HD) (HQ)
Vlog: Cuba Vacation
Part 1: Study trip CUBA 2011: art, culture, drumming
Routine repression in Cuba
[Full documentary] CUBA: Defending Socialism, Resisting Imperialism [2010]
Cuba shuts down
Cuba: Open for American tourists

Cuba

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Cuba Filmography


Cuba Filmography


Cuba Filmography




Amigo, não insista,
desista
Eu não vou mudar.
O meu destino é certo
Prá Cuba, quero viajar! (2x)
Eu disse, outro lugar
Não tem Fidel,
Não tem aquele céu...
Não tem Guevara
Que é a minha cara.
Tudo foi pro beleléu...
Não tem Havana, sandália Havaiana,
Não tem calça Lee.
Parece Copacabana
Só que cada um por si!
Quer ir pra Aruba?
Não! Quero ir pra Cuba
Quer ir pra Miami, irmão?
Não! Quero ir pra Cuba.
Quer ir pro Japão, Japão?
Não! Quero ir pra Cuba.
E que tal, que tal Paris?
Não!
Quero ir pra Cuba.
Quero jantar no Bodeguita,
Fumar charuto cubano,
Pegar sol em Varadero,
Cantar com o Moncada
Que são meus hermanos
Gargalhar bem alto
Pois meu lar é a revolução.
Enquanto houver um cubano
no mundo, Cuba será nação! (2x)
Quer ir pra Aruba?
Não! Quero ir pra Cuba
Quer ir pra Miami, irmão?
Não! Quero ir pra Cuba.
Quer ir pro Japão, então?
Não! Quero ir pra Cuba
E que tal, que tal, que tal Paris?
Não! Quero ir pra Cuba!

RELEASE


ALBUMS





Make changes yourself !



Cuba/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 16 Mar 2010
  • Duration: 2:50
  • Updated: 17 Aug 2012
Author: THEWORLDOFTRAVEL
The Republic of Cuba is an island country in the Caribbean. It consists of the island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city. Cuba is home to over 11 million people and is the most populous insular nation in the Caribbean. Its people, culture, and customs draw from diverse sources, including the aboriginal Taíno and Ciboney peoples; the period of Spanish colonialism; the introduction of African slaves; and its proximity to the United States. ( source Wikipedia )
http://web.archive.org./web/20120822155138/http://wn.com/Cuba/video details
Diana Nyad Halts Swim From Cuba to Florida After Storm and Jellyfish Stings/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 21 Aug 2012
  • Duration: 0:45
  • Updated: 21 Aug 2012
Author: slatester
Diana Nyad is a winner even if she did have to quit. The 62-year-old endurance swimmer has called off her fourth attempt to traverse the 103-mile distance from Cuba to Florida after stings from a jellyfish and a dangerous storm put her off-course. 60 hours in and halfway to her goal, Nyad exited the water with a swollen face from the stings, exhausted but in good spirits. Nyad had hoped to inspire others to greatness, regardless of their age. "When I walk up on that shore in Florida," she said, "I want millions of those AARP sisters and brothers to look at me and say, 'It's not too late, I can still live my dreams.' " We suggest she tackle base-jumping next—you might hit some stormy weather in the air, but at least there aren't any jellyfish!
http://web.archive.org./web/20120822155138/http://wn.com/Diana Nyad Halts Swim From Cuba to Florida After Storm and Jellyfish Stings/video details
Diana Nyad attempts Cuba to Florida Swim Record/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 19 Aug 2012
  • Duration: 0:29
  • Updated: 21 Aug 2012
Author: zeljkoanicic
19 August 2012 A 62-year-old American woman is making her fourth attempt to become the first person to swim from Cuba to the US without the protection of a shark cage. Diana Nyad has already been stung several times by jellyfish but is continuing her 166km (103 mile) journey, team members said. She left the Cuban capital, Havana, on Saturday afternoon and is aiming to reach Florida on Tuesday. She is relying on an electronic shield as a shark deterrent
http://web.archive.org./web/20120822155138/http://wn.com/Diana Nyad attempts Cuba to Florida Swim Record/video details
People & Power - Cuba: The times are changing/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 01 Sep 2011
  • Duration: 24:54
  • Updated: 20 Aug 2012
Author: AlJazeeraEnglish
Cuba has taken a dramatic step away from its socialist policies of the past, but how has this impacted ordinary Cubans?
http://web.archive.org./web/20120822155138/http://wn.com/People & Power - Cuba: The times are changing/video details
Robert Abigail & Dj Rebel Feat. The Gibson Brothers - Cuba (Official Music Video) (HD) (HQ)/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 30 May 2011
  • Duration: 4:17
  • Updated: 20 Aug 2012
Author: john159753159
Buy the 2011 summerhit now @ iTunes: itunes.apple.com (P) + (C) 2011 BIP RECORDS BELGIUM Director and DOP: Nicolas Caeyers Camera: Wesley Versteeg Editing: Nicolas Caeyers, Fien Wolfs & Pjotr Wolfs Production by: Invisible Pictures
http://web.archive.org./web/20120822155138/http://wn.com/Robert Abigail & Dj Rebel Feat. The Gibson Brothers - Cuba (Official Music Video) (HD) (HQ)/video details
Vlog: Cuba Vacation/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 19 Aug 2012
  • Duration: 7:40
  • Updated: 21 Aug 2012
Author: beautycakez
WARNING: THIS VLOG MAY MAKE YOU DIZZY x___x You guys asked for this vlog, so here it is! Thumbs up for vlogs (: Here are some random clips from my vacation to Cuba, with my two best friends, Genn and Leely. Apologizes for the lack of structure in this vlog ..we just took a bunch of random clips we all got and put them together. Hope you enjoy! If you are interested in the outfits in this video: www.youtube.com Follow us on Instagram! @hellosylvia @gennnhuynh @leelytan ❥ - - - NAILS Mine: Shellac in Tropix Genn: Essie's Cute As A Button Leely: China Glaze's Re-Fresh Mint All from PhoenixBeautyLounge.com USE COUPON CODE 'BEAUTYCAKEZVIP' FOR 15% OFF ONLINE OR 10% OFF IN-STORE. I do not earn any commission from this coupon code. It's solely for you guys! There are other nail polish promotions in store and online if you check! (: ❥ - - - CONNECT WITH ME ♡ Twitter: ‪www.twitter.com ♡ Facebook: ‪www.facebook.com ♡ Tumblr: ‪www.hello-sylvia.tumblr.com ♡ Questions? ‪asksylvia.tumblr.com ♡ Shop in my closet! sylvias-closet.tumblr.com ♡ Instagram hellosylvia ❥ - - - DISCLAIMER This video is not sponsored. I am not getting paid to make this video. All my opinions are 110% honest!
http://web.archive.org./web/20120822155138/http://wn.com/Vlog: Cuba Vacation/video details
Part 1: Study trip CUBA 2011: art, culture, drumming/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 10 Aug 2011
  • Duration: 10:31
  • Updated: 20 Aug 2012
Author: conduitforchange
Photo documentary of Annelies Gentile and Greg Whitt's research trip in Havana and Matanzas Cuba 2011. Our focus was on art and creativity as it relates to social change and sustainability, and folkloric music and drumming. All photos by Annelies Gentile
http://web.archive.org./web/20120822155138/http://wn.com/Part 1: Study trip CUBA 2011: art, culture, drumming/video details
Routine repression in Cuba/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 22 Mar 2012
  • Duration: 3:16
  • Updated: 18 Aug 2012
Author: AmnestyInternational
Harassment and detention of political dissidents, human rights activists, journalists and bloggers across Cuba has risen sharply over the past 24 months. This short news video features Javier Zuniga, Amnesty International Cuba Expert. He reveals new tactics by the Cuban authorities to punish individuals seen as opposed to the regime.
http://web.archive.org./web/20120822155138/http://wn.com/Routine repression in Cuba/video details
[Full documentary] CUBA: Defending Socialism, Resisting Imperialism [2010]/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 11 Aug 2012
  • Duration: 46:07
  • Updated: 20 Aug 2012
Author: CubaVive
See: www.ratb.org.uk Full-length documentary produced by RATB in 2010 explaining the role of socialist Cuba in the world and the modern challenges it faces in its development amidst world capitalist crisis. PRESS: "An insightful and provocative study of major changes taking place in Cuba today. The Cuban economist interviewed explains things extremely well. Necessary viewing for all seeking to understand contemporary Cuba." John Kirk - professor of Latin American Studies at Dalhousie University, Canada. He has published several books about Cuban international relations, history and culture. His most recent publication, co-authored with Professor Michael Erisman, 'Cuba's Medical Internationalism: Origins, Evolution and Goals', was published in 2009 by Palgrave Macmillan. "A great little film with a lot of food for thought and a good corrective to all the anti-Cuban stuff in the media, the interviews are fascinating and say a lot about the difficulties the country continues to face... very interesting in terms of Cuban ideas of grassroots democracy and the problems of running an economy with a blockade." Derek Wall - former Principal Speaker of the Green Party (another-green-world.blogspot.com 'This film was summed up by the quote " I thought when i went to Cuba I could say if it was socialist or capitalist; having been I now say its a society trying to build socialism". A very realistic appraisal of Cuba which has not airbrushed out the difficulties there.' Steve Hedley <b>...</b>
http://web.archive.org./web/20120822155138/http://wn.com/[Full documentary] CUBA: Defending Socialism, Resisting Imperialism [2010]/video details
Cuba shuts down
  • Order:
  • Published: 13 Aug 2012
  • Duration: 2:39
  • Updated: 13 Aug 2012
Author: CNN
An opera singer's nightclub is raided and shut down in Cuba. CNN's Patrick Oppmann reports. For more CNN videos, check out our YouTube channel at www.youtube.com Or visit our site at www.cnn.com
http://web.archive.org./web/20120822155138/http://wn.com/Cuba shuts down "Street Opera"/video details
Cuba: Open for American tourists/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 11 Oct 2011
  • Duration: 5:03
  • Updated: 10 Aug 2012
Author: CBSNewsOnline
Cuba is becoming the latest tourist attraction for Americans as travel restrictions between the two countries loosen for the first time in 7 years. CBS News travel editor Peter Greenberg explores this "new" destination and discusses the changes in travel policy.
http://web.archive.org./web/20120822155138/http://wn.com/Cuba: Open for American tourists/video details
Inside Castro's Cuba/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 25 Jun 2012
  • Duration: 5:49
  • Updated: 08 Aug 2012
Author: ndtv
NDTV spent four days in Havana to get a sense of what the quality of life is for ordinary Cubans, 50 years after the revolution. Fidel Castro has handed over the reins to his younger brother Raul, and the last few years have seen change, slowly but surely.
http://web.archive.org./web/20120822155138/http://wn.com/Inside Castro's Cuba/video details
Lookbook: Cuba Vacation (ft. Genn & Leely!)/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 13 Aug 2012
  • Duration: 6:47
  • Updated: 21 Aug 2012
Author: beautycakez
Hi guys! Here are some OOTDs (outfit of the days) that Genn, Leely and I wore while on our vacation in Varadero, Cuba! We didn't film one everyday or anything, because honestly, we just forgot ...but here are the ones we did film! I hope you guys enjoy them (: Apologizes for the bad film/edit quality. If you are interested in more outfits/vacation pictures, be sure to follow us on Instagram! @hellosylvia @gennnhuynh @leelytan ❥ - - - LINKS Floral Shorts from YesStyle.com www.yesstyle.com Floral Blouse (shown in the beginning and ending picture) from YesStyle.com www.yesstyle.com ❥ - - - NAILS Mine: Shellac in Tropix Genn: Essie's Cute As A Button Leely: China Glaze's Re-Fresh Mint All from PhoenixBeautyLounge.com USE COUPON CODE 'BEAUTYCAKEZVIP' FOR 15% OFF ONLINE OR 10% OFF IN-STORE. I do not earn any commission from this coupon code. It's solely for you guys! There are other nail polish promotions in store and online if you check! (: ❥ - - - MUSIC If You Stay - Joseph Vincent Wade In Your Water - Common Kings Velet Arms by Jay Loftus ❥ - - - CONNECT WITH ME ♡ Twitter: ‪www.twitter.com ♡ Facebook: ‪www.facebook.com ♡ Tumblr: ‪www.hello-sylvia.tumblr.com ♡ Questions? ‪asksylvia.tumblr.com ♡ Shop in my closet! sylvias-closet.tumblr.com ♡ Instagram hellosylvia ❥ - - - DISCLAIMER This video is not sponsored. I am not getting paid to make this video. All my opinions are 110% honest!
http://web.archive.org./web/20120822155138/http://wn.com/Lookbook: Cuba Vacation (ft. Genn & Leely!)/video details
  • Gibson Brothers Cuba original Promo video 1979 rare !...3:12
  • Cuba...2:50
  • Diana Nyad Halts Swim From Cuba to Florida After Storm and Jellyfish Stings...0:45
  • Diana Nyad attempts Cuba to Florida Swim Record...0:29
  • People & Power - Cuba: The times are changing...24:54
  • Robert Abigail & Dj Rebel Feat. The Gibson Brothers - Cuba (Official Music Video) (HD) (HQ)...4:17
  • Vlog: Cuba Vacation...7:40
  • Part 1: Study trip CUBA 2011: art, culture, drumming...10:31
  • Routine repression in Cuba...3:16
  • [Full documentary] CUBA: Defending Socialism, Resisting Imperialism [2010]...46:07
  • Cuba shuts down "Street Opera"...2:39
  • Cuba: Open for American tourists...5:03
  • Inside Castro's Cuba...5:49
  • Lookbook: Cuba Vacation (ft. Genn & Leely!)...6:47
another hot video rare disco: PRomO video Cuba original version!
3:12
Gib­son Broth­ers Cuba orig­i­nal Promo video 1979 rare !
an­oth­er hot video rare disco: PRomO video Cuba orig­i­nal ver­sion!...
pub­lished: 10 Jun 2008
Au­thor: fru­go­la92
2:50
Cuba
The Re­pub­lic of Cuba is an is­land coun­try in the Caribbean. It con­sists of the is­land of C...
pub­lished: 16 Mar 2010
0:45
Diana Nyad Halts Swim From Cuba to Flori­da After Storm and Jel­ly­fish Stings
Diana Nyad is a win­ner even if she did have to quit. The 62-year-old en­durance swim­mer has...
pub­lished: 21 Aug 2012
Au­thor: slat­ester
0:29
Diana Nyad at­tempts Cuba to Flori­da Swim Record
19 Au­gust 2012 A 62-year-old Amer­i­can woman is mak­ing her fourth at­tempt to be­come the fir...
pub­lished: 19 Aug 2012
Au­thor: zeljkoani­cic
24:54
Peo­ple & Power - Cuba: The times are chang­ing
Cuba has taken a dra­mat­ic step away from its so­cial­ist poli­cies of the past, but how has t...
pub­lished: 01 Sep 2011
4:17
Robert Abi­gail & Dj Rebel Feat. The Gib­son Broth­ers - Cuba (Of­fi­cial Music Video) (HD) (HQ)
Buy the 2011 sum­mer­hit now @ iTunes: itunes.​apple.​com (P) + (C) 2011 BIP RECORDS BEL­GIUM D...
pub­lished: 30 May 2011
Au­thor: john159753159
7:40
Vlog: Cuba Va­ca­tion
WARN­ING: THIS VLOG MAY MAKE YOU DIZZY x___x You guys asked for this vlog, so here it is! T...
pub­lished: 19 Aug 2012
Au­thor: beau­ty­cakez
10:31
Part 1: Study trip CUBA 2011: art, cul­ture, drum­ming
Photo doc­u­men­tary of An­nelies Gen­tile and Greg Whitt's re­search trip in Ha­vana and Mat...
pub­lished: 10 Aug 2011
3:16
Rou­tine re­pres­sion in Cuba
Ha­rass­ment and de­ten­tion of po­lit­i­cal dis­si­dents, human rights ac­tivists, jour­nal­ists and ...
pub­lished: 22 Mar 2012
46:07
[Full doc­u­men­tary] CUBA: De­fend­ing So­cial­ism, Re­sist­ing Im­pe­ri­al­ism [2010]
See: www.​ratb.​org.​uk Full-length doc­u­men­tary pro­duced by RATB in 2010 ex­plain­ing the role ...
pub­lished: 11 Aug 2012
Au­thor: Cuba­Vive
2:39
Cuba shuts down "Street Opera"
An opera singer's night­club is raid­ed and shut down in Cuba. CNN's Patrick Opp­mann...
pub­lished: 13 Aug 2012
Au­thor: CNN
5:03
Cuba: Open for Amer­i­can tourists
Cuba is be­com­ing the lat­est tourist at­trac­tion for Amer­i­cans as trav­el re­stric­tions be­twee...
pub­lished: 11 Oct 2011
5:49
In­side Cas­tro's Cuba
NDTV spent four days in Ha­vana to get a sense of what the qual­i­ty of life is for or­di­nary ...
pub­lished: 25 Jun 2012
Au­thor: ndtv
6:47
Look­book: Cuba Va­ca­tion (ft. Genn & Leely!)
Hi guys! Here are some OOTDs (out­fit of the days) that Genn, Leely and I wore while on our...
pub­lished: 13 Aug 2012
Au­thor: beau­ty­cakez
Vimeo results:
1:59
X-Men: First Class Title Se­quence
In­spired by clas­sic Six­ties movie ti­tles and prompt­ed by John Stru­an of Super Punch fame, ...
pub­lished: 04 Apr 2011
Au­thor: Joe D!
5:28
IN­CU­BA­TION
15 days in the Cuba Na­tion. Re­al­iza­tion: Guil­laume Le Berre - www.​5mars.​com Soun­track: Pi...
pub­lished: 06 Mar 2012
Au­thor: 5mars
2:20
Snow On Cuba Mall
A once in a life­time ex­pe­ri­ence filmed & edit­ed by Ro Tier­ney on Au­gust 15th 2011 Music:...
pub­lished: 15 Aug 2011
Au­thor: Ro Tier­ney
4:30
Masr
This is a short piece I've done with some shots of peo­ple and places I met in Egypt while ...
pub­lished: 25 Apr 2010
Youtube results:
42:01
An­tho­ny Bour­dain cuba
Cuba...
pub­lished: 25 Jun 2012
Au­thor: Bright Star
2:33
Cuba deals with cholera epi­dem­ic
CNN's Patrick Opp­mann re­ports from a Cuban hos­pi­tal that is ground zero for the coun­tr...
pub­lished: 13 Jul 2012
Au­thor: CNN
18:36
Na­tion­al Ge­o­graph­ic Live! - Juan José Valdés: Map­ping Cuba
Juan José Valdés, a child refugee from Cuba, re­lates how he be­came the carto...
pub­lished: 04 Jun 2012
3:04
Big pig busi­ness in Cuba
En­trepreneurs cap­i­tal­ize on ris­ing free trade in Cuba. CNN's Patrick Opp­mann re­ports....
pub­lished: 06 Apr 2012
Au­thor: CNN




  • Cuba's Robeisy Ramirez Carrazana reacts after being declared the winner over Mongolia's Tugstsogt Nyambayar in their flyweight 52-kg gold medal boxing match at the 2012 Summer Olympics
    AP / Ivan Sekretarev
  • US Fleet at anchor, 1927. By the war's end, the U.S. government had obtained control of all of Cuba from Spain. A perpetual lease for the area around Guantánamo Bay was offered February 23, 1903, from Tomás Estrada Palma, who became the first President of Cuba.
    Creative Commons / Hohum
  • Swedish citizen Jens Aron Modig speakes during a press conference in Havana, Cuba, Monday, July 30, 2012.
    AP / Franklin Reyes
  • Cuba's President Raul Castro speaks during celebrations marking Cuba’s Revolution Day in Guantanamo, Cuba, Thursday, July 26, 2012.
    AP / Ramon Espinosa
  • File - Six Cubans, part of a group who were returned to Cuba in January, walk towards the U.S. mission for a meeting in Havana, Monday, Dec. 18, 2006.
    AP / Javier Galeano
  • The Green Hotel, the city of Shafter began as a loading dock along the Santa Fe Railroad right-of-way. The community was named for General William Rufus Shafter who commanded US Forces in Cuba during the Spanish-American War
    Creative Commons / Bobak Ha'Eri
  • Juan Antonio Quintanilla, Permanent Representative of Cuba to the United Nations Office at Geneva addresses during the 20th session of the Human Rights Council. 6 July 2012. Photo by Jean-Marc Ferré
    UN / Jean-Marc Ferré
  • Col Theodore Roosevelt stands triumphant on San Juan Hill, Cuba after his
    Creative Commons / SimonATL
  • Detail of bronze Iguana water nozzle, part of the fountain at the Monumento a Cuba, in Parque del Buen Retiro-Buen Retiro Park, Madrid, Spain.
    Public Domain / Daderot
  • File - A member of the Navy Expeditionary Guard Battalion patrols a corridor in the Camp Delta section of the Joint Detention Group facility in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.
    US Navy / PO3 William Weinert
  • File - A U.S. Navy ship's serviceman, a Joint Detention Group barber attached to the Navy Expeditionary Guard Battalion, speaks to a detainee about trimming his beard at Camp VI, Naval Station Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, Feb. 10, 2011.
    US Navy / MCS1 David P. Coleman
  • A US Navy sailor during a live-fire exercise at the Mobile Inshore Underwater Warfare Site (MIUW) at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba.
    Creative Commons / John F. Williams
  • Little Havana's famous Domino Park on Calle Ocho. Little Havana (Spanish: La Pequeña Habana) is a neighborhood of Miami, Florida, United States. Home to many Cuban immigrant residents, Little Havana is named after Havana, the capital and largest city in Cuba
    Creative Commons / Infrogmation
  • Memorial with embossment of the island of Cuba. Cuban Memorial Plaza off of Calle Ocho, Little Havana, Miami, FL.
    Creative Commons / Marc Averette.
  • Faithful gather at Revolution Square during a mass celebrated by pope Benedict XVI in Santiago de Cuba, Cuba, Monday, March 26, 2012.
    AP / Gregorio Borgia
  • Images of Cuba's leader Fidel Castro, left, and Pope Benedict XVI in a library in Havana, Cuba, Friday March 23, 2012.
    AP / Ramon Espinosa
  • Pope Benedict XVI waves as he boards a plane on his way to a six-day visit to Mexico and Cuba, at Rome's Fiumicino international airport, Friday, March 23, 2012.
    AP / Andrew Medichini
  • Members of dissident group Ladies in White pray in Santa Rita church before holding their weekly march in Havana, Cuba, Sunday March 18, 2012.
    AP / Franklin Reyes
  • Rodolfo Reyes Rodriguez, Permanent Representative of Cuba of the United Nations Office at Geneva during the Voting of resolution L.1/ Rev.1, The escaling grave human rights violations in the Syrian Arab Republic during the 19th session of the Human Rights Council. 1 March 2012. Photo by Jean-Marc Ferré
    UN / Jean-Marc Ferré
  • ALTERNATIVE CROP OF XLAT152 - In this photo released by Cubadebate and taken by Estudios Revolucion, Venezuela's President Hugo Chavez walks in the hospital in Havana, Cuba, Friday March 2, 2012.
    AP / Estudios Revolucion
  • Venezuela's President Hugo Chavez holds up flowers thrown by supporters during his caravan from Miraflores presidential palace to the airport in Caracas, Venezuela, Friday Feb. 24, 2012. Chavez bid an emotional goodbye to soldiers and supporters and waved to crowded streets in Caracas on his way to Cuba for urgent surgery to remove a tumor he says is probably malignant.
    AP / Fernando Llano
  • In this file photo made June 27, 2006, reviewed by a U.S. Department of Defense official, U.S. military guards walk within Camp Delta military-run prison, at the Guantanamo Bay U.S. Naval Base, Cuba.
    AP / Brennan Linsley
  • Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad speaks to a gathering at the University of Havana, in Havana, Cuba, Wednesday Jan. 11, 2012.
    AP / Franklin Reyes
  • Iran's President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad waves from his airplane before departing to Ecuador at the Jose Marti international airport in Havana, Cuba, Thursday, Jan. 12, 2012.
    AP / Javier Galeano
  • In this photo released on Feb. 4, 2012 by the state media website Cubadebate, Cuba's leader Fidel Castro holds two copies of his book 'Guerrillero del Tiempo,' or 'Time Warrior' during its presentation in Havana, Cuba, Friday, Feb. 3, 2012.
    AP / Cubadebate, Roberto Chile
  • In this photo released on Feb. 4, 2012 by the state media website Cubadebate, Cuba's leader Fidel Castro speaks during the presentation of his book 'Guerrillero del Tiempo,' or 'Time Warrior' in Havana, Cuba, Friday, Feb. 3, 2012
    AP / Cubadebate, Roberto Chile
  • In this photo released on Thursday Jan. 12, 2012 by Cuba's presidency via Cubadebate, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, left, meets Cuban leader Fidel Castro in Havana Wednesday Jan. 11, 2012.
    AP / Cubadebate, Cuba Presidency
  • File - A Humvee from the Puerto Rico Army National Guard's, 480th Military Police Company, patrols the perimeter of the detention facility at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, Cuba
    US Army / Staff Sgt. Jim Wagner
  • Cuatro Vientos (replica), this aircraft flew in 1933 from Spain to Cuba.
    Creative Commons / Pla
  • NAVAL STATION GUANTANAMO BAY, Cuba -- The United States Coast Guard Maritime Safety and Security Team San Diego and the Marine Corps Security Forces Company simulate the egress of injured personnel onto a Coast Guard fast boat during a casualty evacuation exercise. Both MSST San Diego and MCSFCO provide 24-hour security to both the Joint Task Force and Naval Station. U.S. Navy photo by Petty Officer 2nd Class Kilho Park. (1488562) ( MSST San Diego / MCSFCO CASEVAC exercise )
    US Coastguard / Petty Officer 2nd Class Kilho Park.


Photo: AP / Jose Luis Magana
Film director Tony Scott smoks a cigar during a photo session during the press conference Monday Aug.t 9, 2004, in Mexico City, promoting the film 'Man on Fire', which iwas filmed in Mexico City, with Denzel Washington, Marc Anthony, Dakota Fenning and Christopher Waken.The film will be showed on August 13.
The Examiner
20 Aug 2012
Related topics tony scott dead Advertisement Director-producer Tony Scott, 68, reportedly jumped off the Vincent Thomas Bridge spanning San Pedro and Terminal Island, Sunday, according to the...



Photo: AP / Patrick Semansky
President Barack Obama addresses supporters at a fundraising reception in Baltimore, Tuesday, June 12, 2012.
Al Jazeera
21 Aug 2012
Barack Obama has warned that US forces could move against Syrian leader Bashar al-Assad if he deploys chemical weapons against rebels trying to overthrow him. The US president's comments came as a...



Photo: AP / Ronen Zvulun
Israel's Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu attends the weekly cabinet meeting in Jerusalem, Sunday, Nov. 21, 2010.
WorldNews.com
22 Aug 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling In the midst of the scramble for Palestine, while the UN Special Committee on Palestine was still debating over trusteeship and trying to establish a...



Photo: AP / Aristotle Saris
A large picture of Ayatollah Khomeini hangs from a tank gun barrel in front of Niavaran Palace, Feb. 13, 1979 in Tehran.
WorldNews.com
22 Aug 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling In classical Islamic thought and theology, the idea of revolution has a negative connotation. For centuries, thinking about or suggesting the overthrow...



Photo: NOAA / Mike Dunn, NC State Museum of Natural Sciences
File - A bearded seal (Erignathus barbatus) on the ice in the Arctic Ocean, September 2006.
Independent online (SA)
21 Aug 2012
Washington - Sea ice in the Arctic Ocean is likely to shrink to a record small size sometime next week, and then keep on melting, a scientist at the US National Climate Data Centre said on Monday....





Photo: Public Domain / Túrelio
Julian Assange full
Al Jazeera
21 Aug 2012
Hundreds of Ecuadoreans have marched in support of their government's decision to grant WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange political asylum, a move which has prompted a diplomatic tangle with the United...



Photo: AP / Sang Tan
Surrounded by British police officers WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange, center, makes a statement to the media and supporters at a window of Ecuadorian Embassy in central London, Sunday, Aug. 19, 2012.
The Guardian
20 Aug 2012
Unasur group, which includes Argentina and Venezuela, attacks alleged plan to enter building and arrest WikiLeaks leader Julian Assange gives a speech from the balcony of Ecuador's embassy, as police...



Photo: AP / Susan Walsh
Budget Director-designate Peter Orszag, center, listens as he is introduced by Rep. Paul Ryan, R-Wis., right, and Rep. John Spratt, D-S.C., left, on Capitol Hill in Washington, Wednesday, Jan. 14, 2009, prior to testifying before the Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee hearing on his nomination.
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MSNBC Diana Nyad can deal with the vicious thunderstorms, lurking sharks, high winds and tricky currents, but it's tiny jellyfish that have her questioning whether to attempt a fifth try at a historic swim. Stories from PEOPLE Recommends: Top 5 Celebs to Follow on Facebook Jacqueline Laurita: My Son Has...(size: 6.4Kb)
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BBC News The American endurance swimmer Diana Nyad has abandoned her latest attempt to swim from Cuba to Florida. The 62-year-old wanted to become the...(size: 1.0Kb)
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Newstrack India Tweet London, August 22 (ANI): A 62-year-old US woman has had to abandom her latest attempt to become the first person to swim from Cuba to the US without a shark cage. Her face swollen by jellyfish stings, Diana Nyad was pulled from the water early on Tuesday, her team said....(size: 3.1Kb)
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Republic of Cuba
República de Cuba (Spanish)
Five horizontal stripes: three blue and two white. A red equilateral triangle at the left of the flag, partly covering the stripes, with a white five pointed star in the centre of the triangle. A shield in front of a fasces crowned by the Phrygian Cap, all supported by an oak branch and a laurel wreath
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: Patria o Muerte (Spanish)
"Homeland or Death"
[1]
Anthem: La Bayamesa  ("The Bayamo Song")[2]
United States Navy Band - La Bayamesa.ogg

Political map of the Caribbean region with Cuba in red. An inset shows a world map with the main map's edges outlined.
Capital
(and largest city)
Havana
23°8′N 82°23′W / 23.133°N 82.383°W / 23.133; -82.383
Official language(s) Spanish
Ethnic groups  65.1% White, 10.1% African, 24.8% Mulatto and Mestizo[3]
Demonym Cuban
Government Unitary republic, Socialist state
 -  President & Premier Raúl Castro
 -  First Vice President J. R. M. Ventura
 -  First Secretary of Communist Party Raúl Castro
 -  President of the National Assembly Ricardo Alarcón
Legislature National Assembly
Independence from Spain/U.S. 
 -  Declared October 10, 1868
from Spain 
 -  Republic declared May 20, 1902
from the United States 
 -  Cuban Revolution January 1, 1959 
Area
 -  Total 109,884 km2 (105th)
42,426 sq mi 
 -  Water (%) negligible[4]
Population
 -  2010 census 11,241,161[5] 
 -  Density 102.3/km2 (106th)
265.0/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2010 estimate
 -  Total $114.1 billion[6] (63rd)
 -  Per capita $9,900 (86th)
GDP (nominal) 2010 estimate
 -  Total $57.49 billion[3] (68th)
 -  Per capita $5,100[3][4][7] (90th)
HDI (2011) increase 0.776[8] (high) (51st)
Currency Cuban peso(CUP)
Cuban convertible peso[9] (CUC)
Time zone CST (UTC−5)
 -  Summer (DST) CDT (UTC−4)
Drives on the right
ISO 3166 code CU
Internet TLD .cu
Calling code +53

Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, (Listeni/ˈkjuːbə/; Spanish: República de Cuba, pronounced: [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈkuβa] ( listen)) is an island country in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city.[10][11] To the north of Cuba lies the United States (140 km or 90 mi away) and the Bahamas, Mexico is to the west, the Cayman Islands and Jamaica are to the south, and Haiti and the Dominican Republic are to the southeast.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed on and claimed the island now occupied by Cuba, for the Kingdom of Spain. Cuba remained a territory of Spain until the Spanish–American War ended in 1898, and gained formal independence from the U.S. in 1902. A fragile democracy, increasingly dominated by radical politics eventually evolved, solidified by the Cuban Constitution of 1940, but was definitely quashed in 1952 by former president Fulgencio Batista, and an authoritarian regime was set up, intensifying and catalyzing already rampant corruption, political repression and crippling economic regulations.[12][13][14] Batista was ousted in January 1959 by the July 26 movement, and a new administration under Fidel Castro established, which had by 1965 evolved into a single-party state under the revived Communist Party of Cuba, which holds power to date.

Cuba is home to over 11 million people and is the most populous island nation in the Caribbean, as well as the largest by area. Its people, culture, and customs draw from diverse sources, such as the aboriginal Taíno and Ciboney peoples, the period of Spanish colonialism, the introduction of African slaves and its proximity to the United States.

Cuba has a 99.8% literacy rate,[3][15] an infant death rate lower than some developed countries,[16] and an average life expectancy of 77.64.[3] In 2006, Cuba was the only nation in the world which met the WWF's definition of sustainable development; having an ecological footprint of less than 1.8 hectares per capita and a Human Development Index of over 0.8 for 2007.[17]

Contents

Etymology[link]

The name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant (cubao),[18] or great place (coabana).[19] Authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the ancient town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal.[20][21]

History[link]

Pre-Columbian era[link]

Sketch of a Taíno woman, also known as the Arawak by the Spanish

Cuba was inhabited by Native American people known as the Taíno, also called Arawak by the Spanish, and Guanajatabey and Ciboney people before the arrival of the Spanish. The ancestors of these Native Americans migrated from the mainland of North, Central and South America several centuries earlier.[22] The native Taínos called the island Caobana.[23] The Taíno were farmers and the Ciboney were farmers, fishers and hunter-gatherers.

Spanish colonization[link]

After first landing on an island then called Guanahani on October 12, 1492,[24] Christopher Columbus landed on Cuba's northeastern coast near what is now Baracoa on October 27[24] or 28.[25][26] He claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain[27] and named Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias.[28] In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa; other towns soon followed including the future capital of San Cristobal de la Habana which was founded in 1515. The native Taínos were working under the encomienda system,[29] which resembled a feudal system in Medieval Europe.[30] Within a century the indigenous people were virtually wiped out due to multiple factors, including Eurasian infectious diseases aggravated in large part by a lack of natural resistance as well as privation stemming from repressive colonial subjugation.[31] In 1529, a measles outbreak in Cuba killed two-thirds of the natives who had previously survived smallpox.[32][33]

Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, conquistador of Cuba

Cuba remained a Spanish possession for almost 400 years (1511–1898), with an economy based on plantation agriculture, mining, and the export of sugar, coffee, and tobacco to Europe and later to North America. The work was done primarily by African slaves brought to the island.

The small land-owning elite of Spanish settlers held social and economic powers supported by a population of Spaniards born on the island (Criollos), other Europeans, and African-descended slaves. The population in 1817 was 630,980, of which 291,021 were white, 115,691 free black, and 224,268 black slaves.[34]

Independence wars[link]

In the 1820s, when the rest of Spain's empire in Latin America rebelled and formed independent states, Cuba remained loyal. Although there was agitation for independence, the Spanish Crown gave Cuba the motto La Siempre Fidelísima Isla ("The Always Most Faithful Island"). This loyalty was due partly to Cuban settlers' dependence on Spain for trade, their desire for protection from pirates and against a slave rebellion, and partly because they feared the rising power of the United States more than they disliked Spanish rule.[citation needed]

Ten Years' War[link]

Carlos Manuel de Céspedes is known as Father of the Homeland in Cuba, having declared the nation's independence from Spain in 1868.

Independence from Spain was the motive for a rebellion in 1868 led by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes. De Céspedes, a sugar planter, freed his slaves to fight with him for a free Cuba. On 27 December 1868, he issued a decree condemning slavery in theory but accepting it in practice and declaring free any slaves whose masters present them for military service.[35] The 1868 rebellion resulted in a prolonged conflict known as the Ten Years' War. The United States declined to recognize the new Cuban government, although many European and Latin American nations did so.[36] In 1878, the Pact of Zanjón ended the conflict, with Spain promising greater autonomy to Cuba. In 1879–1880, Cuban patriot Calixto García attempted to start another war known as the Little War but received little support.[37]

Period between wars[link]

In Cuba, a sophisticated and prosperous sugar industry had employed chattel slavery until the final third of the 19th century. Cuba produced 720,250 metric tons of sugar in 1868, more than forty percent of cane sugar reaching the world market that year. Slavery had been maintained in Cuba, however, while abolition was underway elsewhere. Abolition in Cuba began the final third of the 19th century, and was completed in the 1880s.[38][39]

War of 1895[link]

An exiled dissident named José Martí founded the Cuban Revolutionary Party in New York in 1892. The aim of the party was to achieve Cuban independence from Spain.[40] In January 1895 Martí traveled to Montecristi and Santo Domingo to join the efforts of Máximo Gómez.[40] Martí recorded his political views in the Manifesto of Montecristi.[41] Fighting against the Spanish army began in Cuba on 24 February 1895, but Martí was unable to reach Cuba until 11 April 1895.[40] Martí was killed in the battle of Dos Rios on 19 May 1895.[40] His death immortalized him as Cuba's national hero.[41]

Around 200,000 Spanish troops outnumbered the much smaller rebel army which relied mostly on guerrilla and sabotage tactics. The Spaniards began a campaign of suppression. General Valeriano Weyler, military governor of Cuba, herded the rural population into what he called reconcentrados, described by international observers as "fortified towns". These are often considered the prototype for 20th-century concentration camps.[42] Between 200,000 and 400,000 Cuban civilians died from starvation and disease in the camps, numbers verified by the Red Cross and United States Senator and former Secretary of War Redfield Proctor. American and European protests against Spanish conduct on the island followed.[43]

Spanish–American War[link]

USS Maine[link]

The U.S. battleship Maine arrived in Havana on 25 January 1898 to offer protection to the 8,000 American residents on the island, but the Spanish saw this as intimidation. On the evening of 15 February 1898, the Maine blew up in the harbor, killing 252 crew. Another eight crew members died of their wounds in hospital over the next few days.[44] A Naval Board of Inquiry headed by Captain William T. Sampson was appointed to investigate the cause of the explosion on the Maine. Having examined the wreck and taken testimony from eyewitnesses and experts, the board reported on 21 March 1898 that the Maine had been destroyed by "a double magazine set off from the exterior of the ship, which could only have been produced by a mine."[44]

The facts remain disputed today, although an investigation by Admiral Hyman G. Rickover published in 1976 established that the blast was most likely a large internal explosion. Rickover believes the explosion was caused by a spontaneous combustion in inadequately ventilated bituminous coal which ignited gunpowder in an adjacent magazine.[45][46] The original 1898 board was unable to fix the responsibility for the disaster, but a furious American populace, fueled by an active press— notably the newspapers of William Randolph Hearst— concluded that the Spanish were to blame and demanded action.[44] The U.S. Congress passed a resolution calling for intervention, and President William McKinley complied.[47] Spain and the United States declared war on each other in late April.

Early 20th century[link]

After the Spanish-American War, Spain and the United States signed the Treaty of Paris (1898), by which Spain ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the United States for the sum of $20 million.[48] Under the same treaty, Spain relinquished all claim of sovereignty over Cuba. Theodore Roosevelt, who had fought in the Spanish-American War and had some sympathies with the independence movement, succeeded McKinley as U.S. President in 1901 and abandoned the treaty. Cuba gained formal independence from the U.S. on May 20, 1902, as the Republic of Cuba. Under Cuba's new constitution, the U.S. retained the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and to supervise its finances and foreign relations. Under the Platt Amendment, the U.S. leased the Guantánamo Bay naval base from Cuba.

Following disputed elections in 1906, the first president, Tomás Estrada Palma, faced an armed revolt by independence war veterans who defeated the meager government forces.[49] The U.S. intervened by occupying Cuba and named Charles Edward Magoon as Governor for three years. Cuban historians have attributed Magoon's governorship as having introduced political and social corruption.[50] In 1908, self-government was restored when José Miguel Gómez was elected President, but the U.S. continued intervening in Cuban affairs. In 1912, the Partido Independiente de Color attempted to establish a separate black republic in Oriente Province,[51] but was suppressed by General Monteagudo with considerable bloodshed.

García Lorca Theater in Havana

During World War I, Cuba exported considerable quantities of sugar to Britain. Cuba was able to avoid U-boat attacks by the subterfuge of shipping the sugar to Sweden. The Menocal government declared war on Germany very soon after the United States.

A constitutional government was maintained until 1930 when Gerardo Machado y Morales suspended the constitution. During Machado's tenure, a nationalistic economic program was pursued with several major national development projects which included the Carretera Central and El Capitolio. Machado's hold on power was weakened following a decline in demand for exported agricultural produce due to the Great Depression, attacks by independence war veterans, and attacks by covert terrorist organizations, principally the ABC.[citation needed]

During a general strike in which the Communist Party sided with Machado,[52] the senior elements of the Cuban army forced Machado into exile. The Party then installed Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada, son of Cuba's founding father (Carlos Manuel de Céspedes), as President. During 4–5 September 1933, a second coup overthrew Céspedes which led to the formation of the first Ramón Grau government. Notable events in this violent period include the separate sieges of Hotel Nacional de Cuba and Atares Castle. This government lasted 100 days but engineered radical socialist changes in Cuban society, including the abolishment of the Platt Amendment and instating of womens' suffrage in Cuba. In 1934, Grau was ousted in favor of Carlos Mendieta, the first in a series of puppet presidents subordinate to the army and its young chief of staff, Fulgencio Batista.

Fulgencio Batista was democratically elected President in the elections of 1940, so far the only non-white Cuban endorsed for the nation's highest office.[53][54][13] His government carried out major social reforms. Several members of the Communist Party held office under his administration[55] and established numerous economic regulations and pro-union policies, as well as the Cuban Constitution of 1940, which engineered radical progressive ideas, including the right to labour and health care.[56] Batista's administration formally took Cuba to the Allies of World War II camp in World War II. Cuba declared war on Japan on December 9, 1941, then on Germany and Italy on December 11, 1941. Cuban armed forces were not greatly involved in combat during World War II, although president Batista suggested a joint U.S.-Latin American assault on Francoist Spain in order to overthrow its authoritarian regime.[57]

Many so-called yank tanks remain in use from pre-revolutionary days. The balcony above belongs to a casa particular.

Ramón Grau, who lost in 1940 to Batista, finally returned in the 1944 elections by defeating Batista's preferred successor, Carlos Saladrigas Zayas. In 1948, his Revolutionary Authentic Party won again when Carlos Prío Socarrás won, the last person elected to the presidency by free and fair elections. The two terms of the Auténtico Party saw an influx of investment fueled a boom which raised living standards for all segments of society and created a prosperous middle class in most urban areas.[58]

The 1952 election was a three-way race. Roberto Agramonte of the Ortodoxos party led in all the polls, followed by Dr. Aurelio Hevia of the Auténtico party, and Fulgencio Batista, seeking a return to office, as a distant third. Both Agramonte and Hevia had decided to name Col. Ramón Barquín to head the Cuban armed forces after the elections. Barquín, then a diplomat in Washington, DC, was a top officer. He was respected by the professional army and had promised to eliminate corruption in the ranks. Batista feared that Barquín would oust him and his followers. When it became apparent that Batista had little chance of winning, he staged a coup on 10 March 1952. Batista held on to power with the backing of a nationalist section of the army as a "provisional president" for the next two years.

In March 1952 Justo Carrillo informed Barquín in Washington that the inner circles knew that Batista had plotted the coup. They immediately began to conspire to oust Batista and restore democracy and civilian government in what was later dubbed La Conspiracion de los Puros de 1956 (Agrupacion Montecristi). In 1954, Batista agreed to elections. The Partido Auténtico put forward ex-President Grau as their candidate, but he withdrew amid allegations that Batista was rigging the elections in advance.

At the beginning of 1959 United States companies owned about 40 percent of the Cuban sugar lands – almost all the cattle ranches – 90 percent of the mines and mineral concessions – 80 percent of the utilities – practically all the oil industry – and supplied two-thirds of Cuba's imports.

In April 1956 Batista ordered Barquín to become General and chief of the army, but Barquín decided to move forward with his coup to secure total power. On 4 April 1956, a coup by hundreds of career officers led by Barquín was frustrated by Rios Morejon. The coup broke the back of the Cuban armed forces. The officers were sentenced to the maximum terms allowed by Cuban Martial Law. Barquín was sentenced to solitary confinement for eight years. La Conspiración de los Puros resulted in the imprisonment of the commanders of the armed forces and the closing of the military academies.

Cuba had Latin America's highest per capita consumption rates of meat, vegetables, cereals, automobiles, telephones and radios, though about one third of the population was considered poor and enjoyed relatively little of this consumption.[60] In 1958, Cuba was a relatively well-advanced country by Latin American standards, and in some cases by world standards.[61] Cuba attracted more immigrants, primarily from Europe, as a percentage of population than the U.S. The United Nations noted Cuba for its large middle class.[citation needed] On the other hand, Cuba was affected by perhaps the largest labor union privileges in Latin America, including bans on dismissals and mechanization. They were obtained in large measure "at the cost of the unemployed and the peasants", leading to disparities.[62]

Between 1933 and 1958, Cuba extended economic regulations enormously, causing economic problems.[13][63] Unemployment became a problem as graduates entering the workforce could not find jobs.[13] The middle class, which was comparable to the United States, became increasingly dissatisfied with unemployment and political persecution. The labor unions supported Batista until the very end.[53][13]

Revolution[link]

Che Guevara and Fidel Castro, photographed by Alberto Korda in 1961.

On 2 December 1956 a party of 82 people on the yacht Granma landed in Cuba. The party, led by Fidel Castro, had the intention of establishing an armed resistance movement in the Sierra Maestra. While facing armed resistance from Castro's rebel fighters in the mountains, Fulgencio Batista's regime was weakened and crippled by a United States arms embargo imposed on 14 March 1958. By late 1958, the rebels broke out of the Sierra Maestra and launched a general popular insurrection. After the fighters captured Santa Clara, Batista fled from Havana on 1 January 1959 to exile in Portugal. Barquín negotiated the symbolic change of command between Camilo Cienfuegos, Che Guevara, Raúl Castro, and his brother Fidel Castro after the Supreme Court decided that the Revolution was the source of law and its representatives should assume command.

Fidel Castro's forces entered the capital on 8 January 1959. Shortly afterward, a liberal lawyer, Dr Manuel Urrutia Lleó became president. He was backed by Castro's 26th of July Movement because they believed his appointment would be welcomed by the United States.[citation needed] Disagreements within the government culminated in Urrutia's resignation in July 1959. He was replaced by Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado, who served as president until 1976. Castro became prime minister in February 1959, succeeding José Miró in head of the state.

In its first year, the new revolutionary government expropriated private property with little or no compensation, nationalized public utilities, tightened controls on the private sector, and closed down the mafia-controlled gambling industry. The CIA conspired with the Chicago mafia in 1960 and 1961 to assassinate Fidel Castro, according to documents declassified in 2007.[64][65]

Some of these measures were undertaken by Fidel Castro's government in the name of the program outlined in the Manifesto of the Sierra Maestra.[66] The government nationalized private property totaling about USD $25 billion,[67] of which American property made up around USD $1 billion.[67][68]

By the end of 1960, the coletilla made its appearance, and most newspapers in Cuba had been expropriated, taken over by the unions, or had been abandoned.[60][69] All radio and television stations were in state control.[60] Moderate teachers and professors were purged.[60] In any year, about 20,000 dissenters were imprisoned.[60] Some homosexuals, religious practitioners, and others were sent to labor camps where they were subject to political "re-education".[70] One estimate is that 15,000 to 17,000 people were executed,[71] although the U.S. State Department estimates that 3,200 people were executed from 1959 to 1962.[72]

The Communist Party strengthened its one-party rule, with Castro as ultimate leader.[60] Fidel's brother, Raúl Castro, became the army chief.[60] Loyalty to Castro became the primary criterion for all appointments.[73] In September 1960, the revolutionary government created a system known as Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (CDR), which provided neighborhood spying.[60]

In the 1961 New Year's Day parade, the administration exhibited Soviet tanks and other weapons.[73] Eventually, Cuba built up the second largest armed forces in Latin America, second only to Brazil.[74] Cuba became a privileged client-state of the Soviet Union.[75]

By 1961, hundreds of thousands of Cubans had left for the United States.[76] The 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion (La Batalla de Girón) was an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the Cuban government by a U.S.-trained force of Cuban exiles with U.S. military support. The plan was launched in April 1961, less than three months after John F. Kennedy became the U.S. President. The Cuban armed forces, trained and equipped by Eastern Bloc nations, defeated the exiles in three days. Cuban-American relations were exacerbated the following year by the Cuban Missile Crisis, when the Kennedy administration demanded the immediate withdrawal of Soviet nuclear missiles placed in Cuba placed in response to U.S. nuclear missiles in Turkey and the Middle East. The Soviets and Americans soon came to an agreement. The Soviets would remove Soviet missiles from Cuba and the Americans would remove missiles from Turkey and the Middle East. Kennedy also agreed not to invade Cuba in the future. Cuban exiles captured during the Bay of Pigs Invasion were exchanged for a shipment of supplies from America.[53]

Fidel Castro and members of the East German Politburo in 1972

In January 1962, Cuba was suspended from the Organization of American States (OAS), and later the same year the OAS started to impose sanctions against Cuba of similar nature to the US sanctions.[77]

By 1963, Cuba was moving towards a full-fledged Communist system modeled on the USSR.[78] The U.S. imposed a complete diplomatic and commercial embargo on Cuba and began Operation Mongoose, a program of covert CIA operations.

In 1965, Castro merged his revolutionary organizations with the Communist Party, of which he became First Secretary; Blas Roca was named Second Secretary. Roca was succeeded by Raúl Castro, who, as Defense Minister and Fidel's closest confidant, became and remained the second most powerful figure in Cuba until his brother's retirement. Raúl's position was strengthened by the departure of Che Guevara to launch unsuccessful insurrections in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and then Bolivia, where he was killed in 1967.

During the 1970s, Fidel Castro dispatched tens of thousands of troops in support of Soviet-supported wars in Africa, particularly the MPLA in Angola and Mengistu Haile Mariam in Ethiopia.[79]

The standard of living in 1970s was "extremely spartan" and discontent was rife.[80] Fidel Castro admitted the failures of economic policies in a 1970 speech.[80] By the mid-1970s, Castro started economic reforms.

In 1975 the OAS lifted its sanctions against Cuba, with the approval of 16 member states, including the U.S. The U.S., however, maintained its own sanctions.[77]

Recent affairs[link]

As of 2002, some 1.2 million persons of Cuban background (about 10% of the current population of Cuba) reside in the U.S.[81][82] Many of them left the island for the United States, often by sea in small boats and fragile rafts. On 6 April 1980, 10,000 Cubans stormed the Peruvian embassy in Havana seeking political asylum. The following day, the Cuban government granted permission for the emigration of Cubans seeking refuge in the Peruvian embassy.[citation needed] On 16 April, 500 Cubans left the Peruvian Embassy for Costa Rica. On 21 April, many of those Cubans started arriving in Miami via private boats and were halted by[clarification needed] the U.S. State Department, but the emigration continued, because Castro allowed anyone who desired to leave the country to do so through the port of Mariel. Over 125,000 Cubans emigrated to the U.S. before the flow of vessels ended on 15 June.[citation needed]

Raúl Castro and President Medvedev of Russia

Castro's rule was severely tested in the aftermath of the Soviet collapse (known in Cuba as the Special Period), with effects such as food shortages.[83][84] The government did not accept American donations of food, medicines, and cash until 1993.[83] On 5 August 1994, state security dispersed protesters in a spontaneous protest in Havana.[85]

Cuba has found a new source of aid and support in the People's Republic of China, and new allies in Hugo Chávez, President of Venezuela and Evo Morales, President of Bolivia, both major oil and gas exporters. In 2003, the government arrested and imprisoned a large number of civil activists, a period known as the "Black Spring".[86][87]

On July 31, 2006, Fidel Castro temporarily delegated his major duties to his brother, First Vice President, Raúl Castro, while Fidel recovered from surgery for an "acute intestinal crisis with sustained bleeding".[citation needed] On 2 December 2006, Fidel was too ill to attend the 50th anniversary commemoration of the Granma boat landing, fuelling speculation that he had stomach cancer,[88] although there was evidence his illness was a digestive problem and not terminal.[89]

In January 2007, footage was released of Fidel Castro meeting Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez, in which Castro "appeared frail but stronger than three months ago".[90] In February 2008, Fidel Castro announced his resignation as President of Cuba,[91] and on 24 February Raúl was elected as the new President.[92] In his acceptance speech, Raúl promised that some of the restrictions that limit Cubans' daily lives would be removed.[93] In March 2009, Raúl Castro removed some of Fidel Castro's officials.[94]

On 3 June 2009, the OAS adopted a resolution to end the 47-year ban on Cuban membership of the group.[95] The meetings were contentious, with the U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton walking out at one point. However, in the end, the U.S. delegation agreed with the other members and approved the resolution. The resolution stated, however, that full membership would be delayed until Cuba was “in conformity with the practices, purposes, and principles of the OAS.”[77] Cuban leaders have repeatedly announced they are not interested in rejoining the OAS, and Fidel Castro restated this after the OAS resolution had been announced.[96]

Human rights[link]

The Cuban government has been accused of numerous human rights abuses including torture, arbitrary imprisonment, unfair trials, and extrajudicial executions (also known as "El Paredón").[97][98] The Human Rights Watch alleges the government "represses nearly all forms of political dissent" and that "Cubans are systematically denied basic rights to free expression, association, assembly, privacy, movement, and due process of law".[99]

Cuba had the second-highest number of imprisoned journalists of any nation in 2008 (the People's Republic of China had the highest) according to various sources, including the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), an international NGO, and Human Rights Watch.[100][101] As a result of ownership restrictions, computer ownership rates are among the world's lowest.[102] The right to use the Internet is granted only to selected locations and they may be monitored.[102][103] Connecting to the Internet illegally can lead to a five-year prison sentence.[citation needed]

Cuban dissidents who commit crimes face arrest and imprisonment. In the 1990s, Human Rights Watch reported that Cuba's extensive prison system, one of the largest in Latin America, consists of some 40 maximum-security prisons, 30 minimum-security prisons, and over 200 work camps.[104] According to Human Rights Watch, political prisoners, along with the rest of Cuba's prison population, are confined to jails with substandard and unhealthy conditions.[104]

Citizens cannot leave or return to Cuba without first obtaining official permission in addition to their passport and the visa requirements of their destination.[99]

Economy[link]

Tobacco plantation, Pinar del Río

The Cuban state adheres to socialist principles in organizing its largely state-controlled planned economy. Most of the means of production are owned and run by the government and most of the labor force is employed by the state. Recent years have seen a trend toward more private sector employment. By 2006, public sector employment was 78% and private sector 22%, compared to 91.8% to 8.2% in 1981.[105] Capital investment is restricted and requires approval by the government. The Cuban government sets most prices and rations goods. Any firm wishing to hire a Cuban must pay the Cuban government, which in turn will pay the employee in Cuban pesos.[106] Cubans cannot change jobs without government permission.[13] The average wage at the end of 2005 was 334 regular pesos per month ($16.70 per month) and the average pension was $9 per month.[107]

Cuba relied heavily on trade with the Soviet Union. From the late 1980s, Soviet subsidies for Cuban goods started to dry up. Before the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cuba depended on Moscow for substantial aid and sheltered markets for its exports. The removal of these subsidies (for example the oil [108][109] ) sent the Cuban economy into a rapid depression known in Cuba as the Special Period. In 1992 the United States tightened the trade embargo, hoping to see democratisation of the sort that took place in Eastern Europe.

Like some other Communist and post-Communist states following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cuba took limited free market-oriented measures to alleviate severe shortages of food, consumer goods, and services. These steps included allowing some self-employment in certain retail and light manufacturing sectors, the legalization of the use of the US dollar in business, and the encouragement of tourism. Cuba has developed a unique urban farm system (the organopónicos) to compensate for the end of food imports from the Soviet Union. In recent years, Cuba has rolled back some of the market oriented measures undertaken in the 1990s. In 2004 Cuban officials publicly backed the Euro as a "global counter-balance to the US dollar", and eliminated U.S. currency from circulation in its stores and businesses.[citation needed]

Varadero beach gets 1 million foreign visitors per year

Tourism was initially restricted to enclave resorts where tourists would be segregated from Cuban society, referred to as "enclave tourism" and "tourism apartheid".[110] Contacts between foreign visitors and ordinary Cubans were de facto illegal until 1997.[111] In 1996 tourism surpassed the sugar industry as the largest source of hard currency for Cuba. Cuba has tripled its market share of Caribbean tourism in the last decade; as a result of significant investment in tourism infrastructure, this growth rate is predicted to continue.[112] 1.9 million tourists visited Cuba in 2003, predominantly from Canada and the European Union, generating revenue of $2.1 billion.[113] The rapid growth of tourism during the Special Period had widespread social and economic repercussions in Cuba, and led to speculation about the emergence of a two-tier economy.[114] The Medical tourism sector caters to thousands of European, Latin American, Canadian, and American consumers every year.

The communist agricultural production system was ridiculed by Raúl Castro in 2008.[115] Cuba now imports up to 80% of food used for rations.[115] Before 1959, Cuba boasted as many cattle as people.

For some time, Cuba has been experiencing a housing shortage because of the state's failure to keep pace with increasing demand.[116] The government instituted food rationing policies in 1962, which were exacerbated following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the tightening of the U.S. embargo. Studies have shown that, as late as 2001, the average Cuban's standard of living was lower than before the downturn of the post-Soviet period. Paramount issues have been state salaries failing to meet personal needs under the state rationing system, chronically plagued with shortages. The variety and quantity of available rationed goods declined.

Under Venezuela's Mission Barrio Adentro, Hugo Chávez has supplied Cuba with up to 80,000 barrels (13,000 m3) of oil per day in exchange for 30,000 doctors and teachers.

In 2005 Cuba had exports of $2.4 billion, ranking 114 of 226 world countries, and imports of $6.9 billion, ranking 87 of 226 countries.[117] Its major export partners are China 27.5%, Canada 26.9%, Netherlands 11.1%, Spain 4.7% (2007).[6] Cuba's major exports are sugar, nickel, tobacco, fish, medical products, citrus, and coffee;[6] imports include food, fuel, clothing, and machinery. Cuba presently holds debt in an amount estimated to be $13 billion,[118] approximately 38% of GDP.[119] According to the Heritage Foundation, Cuba is dependent on credit accounts that rotate from country to country.[120] Cuba's prior 35% supply of the world's export market for sugar has declined to 10% due to a variety of factors, including a global sugar commodity price drop that made Cuba less competitive on world markets.[121] At one time, Cuba was the world's most important sugar producer and exporter. As a result of diversification, underinvestment, and natural disasters, Cuba's sugar production has seen a drastic decline. In 2002 more than half of Cuba's sugar mills were shut down. Cuba holds 6.4% of the global market for nickel,[122] which constitutes about 25% of total Cuban exports.[123] A 2005 US Geological Survey report estimates that the North Cuba Basin could contain 4.6 billion barrels of oil and 9.8 trillion cubic feet of natural gas.[124]

In 2010, Cubans were allowed to build their own houses. According to Raul Castro, they will be able to improve their houses with this new permission, but the government will not endorse these new houses or improvements.[125]

On August 2, 2011, The New York Times reported Cuba as reaffirming their intent to legalize "buying and selling" of private property before the year ends. According to experts, the private sale of property could "transform Cuba more than any of the economic reforms announced by President Raúl Castro’s government".[126] It will cut more than one million state jobs including party bureaucrats which resist the changes.[127]

Government and politics[link]

Revolution Square: José Martí Monument designed by Enrique Luis Varela, sculpted by Juan José Sicre, and finished in 1958.[128]

The Constitution of 1976, which defined Cuba as a socialist republic, was replaced by the Constitution of 1992, which is guided by the ideas of José Martí, Marx, Engels and Lenin.[129] The constitution describes the Communist Party of Cuba as the "leading force of society and of the state".[129] The First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba is concurrently President of the Council of State (President of Cuba) and President of the Council of Ministers (sometimes referred to as Premier of Cuba).[130] Members of both councils are elected by the National Assembly of People's Power.[129] The President of Cuba, who is also elected by the Assembly, serves for five years and there is no limit to the number of terms of office.[129]

The Supreme Court of Cuba serves as the nation's highest judicial branch of government. It is also the court of last resort for all appeals against the decisions of provincial courts.

Cuba's national legislature, the National Assembly of People's Power (Asamblea Nacional de Poder Popular), is the supreme organ of power; 609 members serve five-year terms.[129] The assembly meets twice a year; between sessions legislative power is held by the 31 member Council of Ministers. Candidates for the Assembly are approved by public referendum. All Cuban citizens over 16 who have not been convicted of a criminal offense can vote. Article 131 of the Constitution states that voting shall be "through free, equal and secret vote".[129] Article 136 states: "In order for deputies or delegates to be considered elected they must get more than half the number of valid votes cast in the electoral districts".[129] Votes are cast by secret ballot and counted in public view. Nominees are chosen at local gatherings from multiple candidates before gaining approval from election committees. In the subsequent election, there is only one candidate for each seat, who must gain a majority to be elected.[citation needed]

No political party is permitted to nominate candidates or campaign on the island, including the Communist Party. The Communist Party of Cuba has held six party congress meetings since 1975. In 2011, the party stated that there were 800,000 members, and representatives generally constitute at least half of the Councils of state and the National Assembly. The remaining positions are filled by candidates nominally without party affiliation. Other political parties campaign and raise finances internationally, while activity within Cuba by opposition groups is minimal.

The country is subdivided into 15 provinces and one special municipality (Isla de la Juventud). These were formerly part of six larger historical provinces: Pinar del Río, Habana, Matanzas, Las Villas, Camagüey and Oriente. The present subdivisions closely resemble those of the Spanish military provinces during the Cuban Wars of Independence, when the most troublesome areas were subdivided. The provinces are divided into municipalities.

  1. Pinar del Río
  2. Artemisa
  3. Havana
  4. Mayabeque
  5. Matanzas
  6. Cienfuegos
  7. Villa Clara
  8. Sancti Spíritus
  1. Ciego de Ávila
  2. Camagüey
  3. Las Tunas
  4. Granma
  5. Holguín
  6. Santiago de Cuba
  7. Guantánamo
  8. Isla de la Juventud
CubaSubdivisions.png

Military[link]

Cuba devoted 9–13% of its GDP to military expenditures.[131] Under the leadership of Fidel Castro, Cuba built up one of the largest armed forces in Latin America; second only to that of Brazil.[74] From 1975 until the late 1980s, Soviet military assistance enabled Cuba to upgrade its military capabilities. Since the loss of Soviet subsidies, Cuba has scaled down the numbers of military personnel, from 235,000 in 1994 to about 60,000 in 2003.[132]

Foreign relations[link]

From its inception, the Cuban Revolution defined itself as internationalist, joining Comecon in 1972. Cuba was a major contributor to anti-imperialist wars in Africa, Central America and Asia. In Africa, the largest war was in Angola, where Cuba sent tens of thousands of troops. Cuba was a friend of the Ethiopian leader Mengistu Haile Mariam.[133] In Africa, Cuba supported 17 leftist governments. In some countries it suffered setbacks, such as in eastern Zaire, but in others Cuba had significant success. Major engagements took place in Algeria, Zaire, Yemen,[134] Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique.

The Cuban government's military involvement in Latin America—mostly with the aim of overthrowing U.S. backed right wing regimes, many of them dictatorial—has been extensive. One of the earliest interventions was the Marxist militia led by Che Guevara in Bolivia in 1967, though a modicum of funds and troops were sent. Lesser known actions include the 1959 missions to the Dominican Republic[135] and Panama.[citation needed] In the former, the Cuban government provided military assistance to a group of Dominican exiles with the intention of overthrowing the tyrannical dictator Rafael Trujillo. Although the expedition failed and most of its members were murdered by the government, today they are recognized as martyrs and a prominent monument was erected in their memory in Santo Domingo by the Dominican government. The Museo Memorial de la Resistencia Dominicana ("Memorial Museum of the Dominican Resistance,") where the heroes of 1959 feature prominently, is being built by the Dominican Government.[136] The socialist government in Nicaragua was openly supported by Cuba and can be considered its greatest success in Latin America.[citation needed] Cuba is a founding member of the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas. More than 30,000 Cuban doctors currently work abroad, in countries such as Venezuela and Zimbabwe.[137] The membership of Cuba in the United Nations Human Rights Council has received criticism.[138]

The European Union in 2003 accused the Cuban government of "continuing flagrant violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms".[139] In 2008, the EU and Cuba agreed to resume full relations and cooperation activities.[140] The United States continues an embargo against Cuba "so long as it continues to refuse to move toward democratization and greater respect for human rights".[141] United States President Barack Obama stated on April 17, 2009, in Trinidad and Tobago that "the United States seeks a new beginning with Cuba",[142] and reversed the Bush Administration's prohibition on travel and remittances by Cuban-Americans from the United States to Cuba.[143]

Geography[link]

Cuba is an archipelago of islands located in the northern Caribbean Sea at the confluence with the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. It lies between latitudes 19° and 24°N, and longitudes 74° and 85°W. The United States lies 90 miles across the Straits of Florida to the north and northwest (to the closest tip of Key West, Florida), the Bahamas to the north, Haiti to the east, Jamaica and the Cayman Islands to the south, and Mexico to the west. Cuba is the principal island, surrounded by four smaller groups of islands: the Colorados Archipelago on the northwestern coast, the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago on the north-central Atlantic coast, the Jardines de la Reina on the south-central coast and the Canarreos Archipelago on the southwestern coast.

The main island is 1,199 km (745 mi) long, constituting most of the nation's land area (105,006 km2 (40,543 sq mi)) and is the largest island in the Caribbean and 16th-largest island in the world by land area. The main island consists mostly of flat to rolling plains apart from the Sierra Maestra mountains in the southeast, whose highest point is Pico Turquino (1,975 m (6,480 ft)). The second-largest island is Isla de la Juventud (Isle of Youth) in the Canarreos archipelago, with an area of 3,056 km2 (1,180 sq mi). Cuba has a total land area of 110,860 km2 (42,803 sq mi).

Climate[link]

Beach on Cayo Largo del Sur in the Canarreos archipelago

The local climate is tropical, moderated by northeasterly trade winds that blow year-round. In general (with local variations), there is a drier season from November to April, and a rainier season from May to October. The average temperature is 21 °C (69.8 °F) in January and 27 °C (80.6 °F) in July. The warm temperatures of the Caribbean Sea and the fact that Cuba sits across the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico combine to make the country prone to frequent hurricanes. These are most common in September and October.

Resources[link]

The most important mineral resource is nickel, of which Cuba has the world's second largest reserves (after Russia).[144] Sherritt International of Canada operates a large nickel mining facility in Moa. Cuba is the world's fifth-largest producer of refined cobalt, a byproduct of nickel mining operations.[144] Recent oil exploration has revealed that the North Cuba Basin could produce approximately 4.6 billion barrels (730,000,000 m3) to 9.3 billion barrels (1.48×109 m3) of oil. In 2006, Cuba started to test-drill these locations for possible exploitation.[145]

Demographics[link]

Official 1899–2002 Cuba Census[146][147][148]
Race % 1899 1907 1919 1931 1943 1953 1981 2002
White 66.9 69.7 72.2 72.1 74.3 72.8 66.0 65.05
Black 14.9 13.4 11.2 11.0 9.7 12.4 12.0 10.08
Mulatto 17.2 16.3 16.0 16.2 15.6 14.5 21.9 24.86
Asian 1.0 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.1  ?

Largest cities[link]

Immigration to Cuba[link]

Between 1882 and 1898, a total of 508,455 people left Spain, and more than 750,000 Spanish immigrants left for Cuba between 1899 and 1923, with many returning to Spain.[149]

Current demographics[link]

According to the census of 2010, the population was 11,241,161, including 5,628,996 men and 5,612,165 women.[5] The population of Cuba has very complex origins and intermarriage between diverse groups is general. There is disagreement about racial statistics. The Institute for Cuban and Cuban-American Studies at the University of Miami says that 62% is black,[150] whereas statistics from the Cuban census state that 65.05% of the population was white in 2002. The Minority Rights Group International says that "An objective assessment of the situation of Afro-Cubans remains problematic due to scant records and a paucity of systematic studies both pre- and post-revolution. Estimates of the percentage of people of African descent in the Cuban population vary enormously, ranging from 33.9 per cent to 62 per cent".[151]

Immigration and emigration have played a prominent part in the demographic profile of Cuba during the 20th century. During the 18th, 19th, and the early part of the 20th century large waves of Canarian, Catalan, Andalusian, Galician, and other Spanish people immigrated to Cuba. Between 1900 and 1930 close to a million Spaniards arrived from Spain. Other foreign immigrants include: French,[152] Portuguese, Italian, Russian, Dutch, Greek, British, Irish, and other ethnic groups, including a small number of descendants of U.S. citizens who arrived in Cuba in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Cuba has a sizable number of Asian people who comprise 1% of the population. They are primarily of Chinese descent (see Chinese Cubans), followed by Filipino, Koreans and Vietnamese people. They are descendants of farm laborers brought to the island by Spanish and American contractors during the 19th and early 20th century.[citation needed] Afro-Cubans are descended primarily from the Kongo people.[citation needed], as well as several thousand North African refugees, most notably the Sahrawi Arabs of Western Sahara under Moroccan occupation since 1976.[153]

Young boys in school uniform with soccer ball, Pinar del Río, December 2006

Cuba's birth rate (9.88 births per thousand population in 2006)[154] is one of the lowest in the Western Hemisphere. Its overall population increased continuously from around 7 million in 1961 to over 11 million now, but the increase has stopped in the last few decades, and a decrease began in 2006, with a fertility rate of 1.43 children per woman.[155] This drop in fertility is among the largest in the Western Hemisphere.[156] Cuba has unrestricted access to legal abortion and an abortion rate of 58.6 per 1000 pregnancies in 1996, compared to an average of 35 in the Caribbean, 27 in Latin America overall, and 48 in Europe. Contraceptive use is estimated at 79% (in the upper third of countries in the Western Hemisphere).[157]

Cuba is officially a secular state. After having long maintained that churches were fronts for subversive political activity, the government reversed course in 1992, amending the constitution to characterize the state as secular instead of atheist.[citation needed] It has many faiths representing the widely varying culture. Roman Catholicism was the largest religion; it was brought to the island by the Spanish and remains the dominant faith,[120] with 11 dioceses, 56 orders of nuns, and 24 orders of priests. In January 1998, Pope John Paul II paid a historic visit to the island, invited by the Cuban government and Catholic Church. The religious landscape of Cuba is also strongly marked by syncretisms of various kinds. Catholicism is often practiced in tandem with Santería, a mixture of Catholicism and other, mainly African, faiths that include a number of cults. La Virgen de la Caridad del Cobre (the Virgin of Cobre) is the Catholic patroness of Cuba, and a symbol of Cuban culture. In Santería, she has been syncretized with the goddess Oshun.

Official Cuban migration to the U.S.[147][148]
Year of
Immigration
White Black Other Asian Number
1959–64 93.3 1.2 5.3 0.2 144,732
1965–74 87.7 2.0 9.1 0.2 247,726
1975–79 82.6 4.0 13.3 0.1 29,508
1980 80.9 5.3 13.7 0.1 94,095
1981–89 85.7 3.1 10.9 0.3 77,835
1990–93 84.7 3.2 11.9 0.2 60,244
1994–2000 85.8 3.7 10.4 0.7 174,437
Total 87.2 2.9 10.7 0.2 828,577

Three hundred thousand Cubans belong to the island's 54 Protestant denominations. Pentecostalism has grown rapidly in recent years, and the Assemblies of God alone claims a membership of over 100,000 people. Cuba has small communities of Jews, Muslims and members of the Bahá'í Faith.[158] Most Jewish Cubans are descendants of Polish and Russian Ashkenazi Jews who fled pogroms at the beginning of the 20th century. There is a sizeable number of Sephardic Jews in Cuba who trace their origin to Turkey. Most of these Sephardic Jews live in the provinces, although they maintain a synagogue in Havana.

Cuban migration[link]

In the last half-century, several hundred thousand Cubans of all social classes have emigrated to the United States,[159] Spain, the United Kingdom, Canada, Mexico, and other countries. On 9 September 1994, the U.S. and Cuban governments agreed that the U.S. would grant at least 20,000 visas annually in exchange for Cuba's pledge to prevent further unlawful departures on boats.[160]

Languages[link]

The official language of Cuba is Spanish and the vast majority of Cubans speak it. Spanish as spoken in Cuba is known as Cuban Spanish and is a form of Caribbean Spanish. Lucumi, a dialect of the West African language Yoruba, is also used as a liturgical language by practitioners of Santería,[161] and so only as a second language.[162] Haitian Creole is the second largest language in Cuba, and is spoken by Haitian immigrants and their descendants.[163] Other languages spoken by immigrants include Catalan and Corsican.[164]

Education[link]

University of Havana, founded in 1728

The University of Havana was founded in 1728 and there are a number of other well-established colleges and universities. In 1957, just before Castro came to power, the literacy rate was fourth in the region at almost 80% according to the United Nations, higher than in Spain.[61][165] Castro created an entirely state-operated system and banned private institutions. School attendance is compulsory from ages six to the end of basic secondary education (normally at age 15), and all students, regardless of age or gender, wear school uniforms with the color denoting grade level. Primary education lasts for six years, secondary education is divided into basic and pre-university education.[166]

Higher education is provided by universities, higher institutes, higher pedagogical institutes, and higher polytechnic institutes. The Cuban Ministry of Higher Education operates a scheme of distance education which provides regular afternoon and evening courses in rural areas for agricultural workers. Education has a strong political and ideological emphasis, and students progressing to higher education are expected to have a commitment to the goals of Cuba.[166] Cuba has provided state subsidized education to a limited number of foreign nationals at the Latin American School of Medicine.[167][168] Internet access is limited.[169] The sale of computer equipment is strictly regulated. Internet access is controlled, and e-mail is closely monitored.[102]

The Higher Institute of Technologies and Applied Sciences is a Cuban educational institution that prepares students in the fields of nuclear and environmental sciences. It is the only institution in Cuba that provides the opportunities of studies in these topics and one of the few in Latin America. Its headquarters is in Havana, inside the territory of the “Quinta de los Molinos”.

Health[link]

Historically, Cuba has ranked high in numbers of medical personnel and has made significant contributions to world health since the 19th century.[61] Today, Cuba has universal health care and although shortages of medical supplies persist, there is no shortage of medical personnel.[170] Primary care is available throughout the island and infant and maternal mortality rates compare favorably with those in developed nations.[170]

Post-Revolution Cuba initially experienced an overall worsening in terms of disease and infant mortality rates in the 1960s when half its 6,000 doctors left the country.[171] Recovery occurred by the 1980s.[53] The Communist government asserted that universal health care was to become a priority of state planning and progress was made in rural areas.[172] Like the rest of the Cuban economy, Cuban medical care suffered from severe material shortages following the end of Soviet subsidies in 1991, followed by a tightening of the U.S. embargo in 1992.[173]

Challenges include low pay of doctors (only $15 a month[174]), poor facilities, poor provision of equipment, and frequent absence of essential drugs.[175] Cuba has the highest doctor-to-population ratio in the world and has sent thousands of doctors to more than 40 countries around the world.[176]

According to the UN, the life expectancy in Cuba is 78.3 years (76.2 for males and 80.4 for females). This ranks Cuba 37th in the world and 3rd in the Americas, behind only Canada and Chile, and just ahead of the United States. Infant mortality in Cuba declined from 32 infant deaths per 1,000 live births in 1957, to 10 in 1990–95.[177] Infant mortality in 2000–2005 was 6.1 per 1,000 live births (compared to 6.8 in the United States).

The quality of public healthcare offered to citizens is regarded as the "greatest triumph" of Cuba's socialist system.[178]

Culture[link]

Cuban culture is influenced by its melting pot of cultures, primarily those of Spain and Africa. Sport is Cuba's national passion. Due to historical associations with the United States, many Cubans participate in sports which are popular in North America, rather than sports traditionally promoted in other Spanish-speaking nations. Baseball is by far the most popular; other sports and pastimes include basketball, volleyball, cricket, and athletics. Cuba is a dominant force in amateur boxing, consistently achieving high medal tallies in major international competitions.

Music[link]

A local musical house, Casa de la Trova in Santiago de Cuba

Cuban music is very rich and is the most commonly known expression of culture. The central form of this music is Son, which has been the basis of many other musical styles like salsa, rumba and mambo and an upbeat derivation of the rumba, the cha-cha-cha. Rumba music originated in early Afro-Cuban culture. The Tres was also invented in Cuba, but other traditional Cuban instruments are of African origin, Taíno origin, or both, such as the maracas, güiro, marimba and various wooden drums including the mayohuacan. Popular Cuban music of all styles has been enjoyed and praised widely across the world. Cuban classical music, which includes music with strong African and European influences, and features symphonic works as well as music for soloists, has received international acclaim thanks to composers like Ernesto Lecuona. Havana was the heart of the rap scene in Cuba when it began in the 1990s. During that time, reggaetón was growing in popularity. Dance in Cuba has taken a major boost over the 1990s.

Cuisine[link]

A traditional meal of ropa vieja (shredded flank steak in a tomato sauce base), black beans, yellow rice, plantains and fried yuca with beer

Cuban cuisine is a fusion of Spanish and Caribbean cuisines. Cuban recipes share spices and techniques with Spanish cooking, with some Caribbean influence in spice and flavor. Food rationing, which has been the norm in Cuba for the last four decades, restricts the common availability of these dishes.[179] The traditional Cuban meal is not served in courses; all food items are served at the same time. The typical meal could consist of plantains, black beans and rice, ropa vieja (shredded beef), Cuban bread, pork with onions, and tropical fruits. Black beans and rice, referred to as Platillo Moros y Cristianos (or moros for short), and plantains are staples of the Cuban diet. Many of the meat dishes are cooked slowly with light sauces. Garlic, cumin, oregano, and bay leaves are the dominant spices.

Literature[link]

Cuban literature began to find its voice in the early 19th century. Dominant themes of independence and freedom were exemplified by José Martí, who led the Modernist movement in Cuban literature. Writers such as Nicolás Guillén and Jose Z. Tallet focused on literature as social protest. The poetry and novels of Dulce María Loynaz and José Lezama Lima have been influential. Romanticist Miguel Barnet, who wrote Everyone Dreamed of Cuba, reflects a more melancholy Cuba.[180] Writers such as Reinaldo Arenas, Guillermo Cabrera Infante, and more recently Daína Chaviano, Pedro Juan Gutiérrez, Zoé Valdés, Guillermo Rosales and Leonardo Padura have earned international recognition in the post-revolutionary era, though many of these writers have felt compelled to continue their work in exile due to ideological control of media by the Cuban authorities.

See also[link]

References[link]

  1. ^ "Cuban Peso Bills". Central Bank of Cuba. http://www.bc.gov.cu/English/cuban_bills.asp. Retrieved 2009-09-07. 
  2. ^ "National symbols". Government of Cuba. http://mipais.cuba.cu/cat_en.php?idcat=91&idpadre=83&nivel=2. Retrieved 2009-09-07. 
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  4. ^ a b Anuario Estadístico de Cuba 2010, Oficina Nacional de Estadísticas, República de Cuba. Accessed on September 30, 2011.
  5. ^ a b "ANUARIO DEMOGRAFICO DE CUBA 2010". Oficina Nacional de Estadisticas (ONE). one.cu. http://www.one.cu/publicaciones/cepde/anuario_2010/anuario_demografico_2010.pdf. 
  6. ^ a b c "Cuba". The World Factbook. CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cu.html. Retrieved 2009-04-06. 
  7. ^ Value was rounded down to the nearest hundred.
  8. ^ http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Tables.pdf
  9. ^ From 1993 to 2004 the United States dollar was used alongside the peso until the dollar was replaced by the convertible peso
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  11. ^ Thomas, Hugh (1997). The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-83565-7. 
  12. ^ "Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy at Democratic Dinner, Cincinnati, Ohio". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum – Jfklibrary.org. 1960-10-06. http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/JFK+Pre-Pres/1960/002PREPRES12SPEECHES_60OCT06b.htm. Retrieved 2010-11-07. 
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  15. ^ "unstats | Millennium Indicators". Mdgs.un.org. 2010-06-23. http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/SeriesDetail.aspx?srid=656&crid=192. Retrieved 2010-11-07. 
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  17. ^ untitled
  18. ^ Alfred Carrada, The Dictionary of the Taino Language (plate 8)[unreliable source?]
  19. ^ Dictionary – Taino indigenous peoples of the Caribbean Dictionary --[unreliable source?]
  20. ^ Augusto Mascarenhas Barreto: O Português. Cristóvão Colombo Agente Secreto do Rei Dom João II. Ed. Referendo, Lissabon 1988. English: The Portuguese Columbus: secret agent of King John II, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-56315-8
  21. ^ da Silva, Manuel L. and Silvia Jorge da Silva. (2008). Christopher Columbus was Portuguese, Express Printing, Fall River, MA. 396pp. ISBN 978-1-60702-824-6.
  22. ^ Ramón Dacal Moure, Manuel Rivero de la Calle (1996). Art and archaeology of pre-Columbian Cuba. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-8229-3955-X. http://books.google.com/?id=PEE9oipDYksC&pg=PA22. 
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  24. ^ a b Ted Henken (2008). Cuba: a global studies handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-85109-984-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=Mv7anQoCbzgC.  (gives the landing date in Cuba as October 27)
  25. ^ Cuba Oficina Del Censo (2009). Cuba: Population, History and Resources 1907. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-110-28818-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=E0iIQ1nxJB4C.  (gives the landing date in Cuba as October 28)
  26. ^ These are Julian calendar dates.
  27. ^ Gott, Richard (2004). Cuba: a new history. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. p. 13. ISBN 0-300-10411-1. 
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  166. ^ a b "The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas. Human Development Network Education. World Bank" (PDF). http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/278200-1099079877269/547664-1099080026826/The_Cuban_education_system_lessonsEn00.pdf. Retrieved 2010-11-07. 
  167. ^ "Students graduate from Cuban school – Americas – MSNBC.com". MSNBC. 2007-07-25. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19942866/. Retrieved 2010-11-07. 
  168. ^ "Cuba-trained US doctors graduate". BBC News. 25 July 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6914265.stm. Retrieved 2009-09-07. 
  169. ^ Resolución 120 del 2007 del Ministro del MIC la cual está vigente desde el ·0 de Septiembre de 2007
  170. ^ a b Whiteford, Linda M.; Branch, Laurence G. (2008). Primary Health Care in Cuba: The Other Revolution. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 2. ISBN 0-7425-5994-7. http://books.google.com/?id=lJe7uc7X3pYC&pg=PA2. Retrieved 2009-09-14. 
  171. ^ Cuba: A Different America, By Wilber A. Chaffee, Gary Prevost, Rowland and Littlefield, 1992, p. 106
  172. ^ Lundy, Karen Saucier. Community Health Nursing: Caring for the Public's Health. Jones and Bartlett: 2005, p. 377.
  173. ^ Whiteford, Linda M.; Manderson, Lenore, eds. (2000). Global Health Policy, Local Realities: The Fallacy of the Level Playing Field. Boulder, Col.: Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 69. ISBN 1-55587-874-1. http://books.google.com/?id=gYc_LgzsRDMC&pg=PA69. Retrieved 2009-09-14. 
  174. ^ Jacob Laksin. "Castro's Doctors Plot". http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=C2F78A4B-8F88-4E8C-97CE-16C9CFE35473. [unreliable source?]
  175. ^ Cuban Health Care Systems and its implications for the NHS Plan. Select Committee on Health.
  176. ^ Mignonne Breier; Angelique Wildschut; Education, Science and Skills Development Research Programme (2007). Doctors in a Divided Society: The Profession and Education of Medical Practitioners in South Africa. HSRC Press. pp. 16, 81. ISBN 978-0-7969-2153-6. http://books.google.com/?id=WtuiTYThR7sC&pg=PP1. 
  177. ^ World population Prospects: The 2006 Revision: Highlights, United Nations.
  178. ^ Foreign Affairs, July/August 2010.
  179. ^ José Alvarez (2001). "Rationed Products and Something Else: Food Availability and Distribution in 2000 Cuba". Cuba in Transition. University of Texas at Austin. pp. 305–322. http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/asce/pdfs/volume11/alvarez.pdf. Retrieved 2009-09-06. [dead link]
  180. ^ Costa Rica – Journey into the Tropical Garden of Eden[dead link], Tobias Hauser.[unreliable source?]

External links[link]

Coordinates: 22°00′N 79°30′W / 22°N 79.5°W / 22; -79.5

http://wn.com/Cuba

Related pages:

http://de.wn.com/Kuba

http://es.wn.com/Cuba

http://ru.wn.com/Куба

http://it.wn.com/Cuba

http://fr.wn.com/Cuba




This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.


Diana Nyad
Born (1949-08-22) August 22, 1949 (age 62)
New York City, New York
Alma mater Lake Forest College (1973)
Occupation Author, journalist, swimmer
Known for championship swimming
Website
diananyad.com

Diana Nyad (born August 22, 1949 in New York City, New York) is an American author, journalist, and long-distance swimmer noted for her world-record endurance championships.[1]

Over two days in 1979, Nyad swam from Bimini to Florida, setting a distance record for non-stop swimming without a wetsuit that still stands today. She broke numerous world records, including the 45-year-old mark for circling Manhattan Island (7 hrs, 57 min) in 1975. She was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in 1986. Nyad was honored with her induction in the International Swimming Hall of Fame in 2003.[2]

She provides a weekly five-minute radio piece on sports for KCRW called The Score (heard during KCRW's broadcast of NPR's "All Things Considered"), as well as for the Marketplace radio program. She formerly hosted the public radio program "The Savvy Traveler."[3]

Nyad graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Lake Forest College in 1973.

She told a reporter that today, in contrast to her youth, her drive is no longer propelled by attempts to work through the anger manifest from sexual abuse she suffered as a teenager.[4]

On July 8, 2011, the U.S. gay sports website CompeteNetwork reported on her plans for the 2011 Cuba-to-Florida swim, writing that "(the) amazing Diana Nyad is a living legend in the swim world, and a role model for the GLBT community..."[5] Nyad is openly lesbian.[6]

In September 2011, Nyad announced that she would attempt the Cuba-to-Florida swim once again in 2012.[7]

Contents

Swimming accomplishments[link]

Nyad was born in New York City in August 1949 to stockbroker William Sneed and his wife Lucy Curtis. Her father died when she was three and her mother soon remarried Aristotle Nyad, a Greek land developer, who adopted Diana.[8]

The family then moved to Fort Lauderdale, Florida, where she grew up and began swimming seriously in grade seven. She was enrolled at the elite Pine Crest School in the mid-1960s, swimming under the tutelage of Olympian (and Hall of Fame) coach Jack Nelson. Before graduating she won three Florida state high school championships in the Backstroke (at 100 and 200 yards).[9] She dreamed of swimming in the 1968 Summer Olympics, but in 1966 she spent three months in bed with endocarditis, an infection of the heart, and when she began swimming again she had lost her speed.

After graduating from Pine Crest School in 1967 she entered Emory University, but was thrown out of school for jumping out a fourth-floor dormitory window wearing a parachute.[10] She then enrolled at Lake Forest College in Illinois, where she played tennis for the Foresters and resumed swimming, concentrating on distance events.[11] She soon came to the attention of Buck Dawson, director of the International Swimming Hall of Fame in Florida, who introduced her to marathon swimming. She began training at his Camp Ak-O-Mak in Ontario, Canada and set a women's world record of 4 hours and 22 minutes in her first race, a 10-mile swim in Lake Ontario in July 1970 (finishing 10th overall). After graduating from Lake Forest College with degrees in English and French, Nyad returned to south Florida to continue training with Dawson.

Diana Nyad was inducted into the United States' National Women’s Sports Hall of Fame in 1986, and in 2003 was honored with her induction into the International Swimming Hall of Fame. According to her "Speaker Bio" posted for the Gold Star Speakers Bureau in 2006, she is also a Hall of Famer at both her college, Lake Forest College in Illinois (where she graduated Phi Beta Kappa), and at her (private) high school, Pine Crest School in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida).[12]

Diana is not only a world-class distance swimmer but also an accomplished athlete who once ranked 30th amongst U.S. women squash players (date not given).[13]

Distance swims[link]

  • 1974: In June 1974, Nyad set a women's record of 8 hours, 11 minutes in the 22-mile Bay of Naples race.
  • 1975: At age 26, Nyad made national headlines by swimming 28 miles around the island of Manhattan (New York City) in just under 8 hours (7 hours 57 minutes.) An account of her swim, published the next day, stated Nyad was "5 feet six inches tall" and weighed 128 pounds.[14]
  • 1978: At age 28 she first attempted to swim from Havana, Cuba to Key West. Diving into the ocean at 2PM on Sunday August 13 from Ortegosa Beach (50 miles west of Havana), she swam inside a 20 X 40 foot steel shark cage for nearly 42 hours, before team doctors removed her during the 7 o'clock hour on the morning of Tuesday August 15 due to strong Westerly winds and 8-foot swells that were slamming her against the cage and pushing her off-course towards Texas. She had covered about 76 miles, but not in a straight line.
  • 1979: In what was to be her last "competitive" swim on her 30th birthday (August 21–22, 1979), she set a world record for distance swimming (both men and women) over open water by swimming 102 miles from North Bimini Island, Bahamas, to Juno Beach, Florida (without the use of protective shark cage). Thanks to favorable winds and a following sea she averaged 3.7 miles per hour and completed the swim in 27 and one-half hours.[15]

Several experts who attended the 2011 Global Open Water Swimming Conference in New York City on June 17–19, 2011 expressed their strong belief that Nyad had both the physical ability and, more importantly, the positive mental stamina to be able to complete the Cuba-to-Florida swim: sports physiology studies have shown that in "extreme" marathon-type activities mental determination is a more important factor than the physical energy of youth.[16] Research published by the Mayo Clinic in 2008 indicates there are beneficial effects of endurance training on age-related cellular dysfunction.

Cuba-to-Florida swim[link]

By early January 2010 Nyad determined to begin working out for a summer attempt to swim from Cuba-to-Florida. Taking up residence in the Caribbean island of St. Maarten, from January through June she began doing 8-, 10-, 12- and 14-hour swims every other week. Then she moved her training to Key west and, while waiting for favorable weather conditions she embarked on a 24-hour swim. On July 10 she chartered a 35-foot fishing vessel to take her 40 miles out to sea. At 8:19 AM she jumped overboard and began swimming back towards Key West, with the boat following her. At 8:19 AM the next day her handlers helped her back onboard, still about 10 miles from land: she said she felt "tired and dehydrated" but still "strong" and "easily able to swim another 20 hours without any problem."[17]

On July 10, 2010, at the age of 60, she began open water training for a 60-hour, 103-mile swim from Cuba to Florida, a task she had failed to finish thirty years previously. When asked her motivation, she replied, "Because I'd like to prove to the other 60-year-olds that it is never too late to start your dreams." She was scheduled to make the swim in August/September 2010, but bad weather forced her to cancel; she then planned to do the swim in July 2011.[18][19] In a October 15, 2010 interview with CNN, Nyad said she was trained and ready to swim by July 23, but a record stretch of high winds and dropping water temperatures prevented her from making the attempt.

While training in St. Maarten, she sat for an interview that was published March 25, 2011 by the island's online news agency, The Daily Herald, remarking that "It's a large operation, like an expedition. We've got about 25 people, navigators, managers, boat crew, weather routers, medical people, shark experts, you name it. That's the time also when the water starts to get to its hottest. I need the hottest possible ocean. As soon as we hit the right forecast, we'll be off to Havana. We won't know the exact starting point probably until the night before. And we don't know exactly where landfall will be...I'd love to wind up in Key West, but it will depend on trajectory of the Gulf Stream."[20]

When interviewed by the New York Times in Key West on July 18, Nyad estimated that cost of her "expedition" was about $500,000.[21]

Swim begins August 7, 2011[link]

Diana Nyad announced Sunday morning August 7, 2011, at a Havana news conference, that she planned to enter the water at Havana's Marina Hemingway to begin her attempt. She entered the water later that evening at 7:45PM (Eastern) and began stroking for Florida. A news team from CNN was onboard her support ship and provided live coverage of her swim. Nyad stopped her attempt early in the morning on August 9 - at 12:45AM, exactly 29 hours in the water - after encountering strong currents and winds that pushed her miles off course (to the east). Nyad also said she had been suffering shoulder pain since her third hour in the water, but what made her abandon the effort was a flare-up of her asthma, such that, throughout the final hour, she could only swim a few strokes before repeatedly having to roll on her back to catch her breath.[22] In a speech given by Diana at a TED talk she described how she had been stung by a box jellyfish on two different occasions during the swim. The first on her right forearm and the on the second incident around the neck, it was this second attack combined with the first attack which led to the deterioration of the capability of her respiratory system during the swim and the necessity to stop.[23]

Physical conditions[link]

Nyad moved her training site from the Caribbean island of St. Maarten to Key West, Florida, in June 2011. She was joined by key members of her support team on June 28, to wait for ideal weather conditions that typically occur only during the summer doldrums in July and August. For the marathon swim to be feasible, two main weather conditions needed to come together at the same time: a combination of low-to-light winds (to minimize sea chop), and water temperatures in the high 80s. These relatively "high" water temperatures produce a twin challenge: in the first half of her swim the warm water will dehydrate her body, while in the second half her body temperature will drop and she will face potential hypothermia. Nyad has bulked up her physique to about 150 pounds (15 pounds more than she weighed in 2010) to help counter the loss of body mass during her grueling swim.

To help fend off possible attacks by sharks, Nyad was escorted by a paddler in a kayak equipped with an electronic shark repellent, Protective Oceanic Device.[24]

To keep Nyad swimming in a straight line, her specially designed, slow-moving catamaran support boat deployed a 3-meter (18–20 feet) streamer: a long pole keeps the streamer several yards away from the boat, and the streamer is designed to remain about 5 feet underwater, so that Nyad can swim above it, much like following a lane line in a swimming pool. At night, the white streamer will be replaced by a string of red LED lights.[25] Writing in her blog in July 2011, Nyad stated that the development of the submerged guide streamer, in early summer 2011, may be the single greatest aid to her marathon swim. In all of her previous swims, she had trouble keeping the support boat in sight and was prone to veer off-course. Keeping a boat headed in a straight line, in the ocean, while moving at only 1 to 2 knots is very difficult, and her catamaran is equipped with thrusters and a special sea anchor (in case of following seas) to stabilize its course.

Support team[link]

Nyad assembled a team of 25 persons to support her during the swim. The people responsible for selecting the date to begin the swim were husband-and-wife scientists Dane and Jenifer Clark from Annapolis, Maryland. Dane is a meteorologist and Jenifer is a satellite oceanographer, and they are acknowledged as experts on Gulf Stream conditions. Her physician during training and accompanying her on the swim was Dr. Michael S. Broder. The Clarks analyzed satellite weather and ocean data to select the best three-day "window of opportunity" to find the right combination of favorable winds and the warmest water temperatures.[26] Nyad wrote in her blog that Gulf water temperatures had been rising steadily through early July 2011, but that as of July 11 had tapered off at 84 degrees, and she required a minimum of 86 degrees, with even warmer water inside the Gulf Stream current, to begin her swim.

End of swim[link]

Nyad had to give up her swim on August 9 due to ocean swells, shoulder pain, and asthma.[27]

Next attempt[link]

In September 2011 Nyad made another attempt at the Cuba-to-Florida swim, but had to stop before completing it because of box jellyfish and Portuguese man-of-war stings.[28] She declared she would attempt the swim again in 2012.[29][30]

Professional writing and speaking career[link]

Diana Nyad has written three books, Other Shores (Random House: September 1978) about her life and distance swimming, Basic Training for Women (Harmony Books: 1981), and in 1999 she wrote a biography of an NFL wide-receiver Boss of Me: The Keyshawn Johnson Story. She has also written for The New York Times, Newsweek magazine, and other publications. Diana and her best friend Bonnie Stoll (former #3 in the world on the Pro Racquetball Tour) have formed a company called BravaBody which is aimed at providing online exercise advice to women over 40, with the two world-class athletes giving direct inspiration and custom-made work-outs.[31] As of 2006, she also delivered motivational talks to groups through the Gold Star speakers agency, for a fee of between $10,000 to $15,000. As of 2006, she was a (long-time) weekly contributor to National Public Radio's afternoon news show All Things Considered (appearing on Thursdays), as well as the "business of sport" commentator for American Public Media's public radio program Marketplace business news. She was also a regular contributor to the CBS News television show Sunday Morning.

In her 1978 autobiography Nyad described marathon swimming as a battle for survival against a brutal foe - the sea - and the only victory possible is to "touch the other shore."

  • An analysis of Nyad's ability to disassociate her mind during her marathon swims can be found in the 2008 book Sporting Lives: Metaphor and Myth in American Sports Autobiographies by Jame W. Pipkin (Univ. of Missouri Press: 2008); Diana Nyad pp. 90–92.[32]

References[link]

  1. ^ "Diana Nyad". American Public Media. 2004. http://savvytraveler.publicradio.org/about/bios/nyad.shtml. Retrieved September 2, 2011. 
  2. ^ Lipsyte, Robert (September 12, 1999). "Reflections on a Secret Life in Professional Sports". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9905EFDF113DF931A2575AC0A96F958260. Retrieved September 2, 2011 
  3. ^ "Say hello to Savvy Traveler host Diana Nyad...". publicradio.org. http://savvytraveler.publicradio.org/about/bios/meetdiana.shtml. Retrieved May 27, 2011. 
  4. ^ Alvarez, Lizette (July 18, 2011). "Ready to Swim 103 Miles With the Sharks", New York Times, retrieved July 18, 2011
  5. ^ http://www.competenetwork.com/blogs/696-swim-legend-diana-nyad-to-swim-from-cuba-to-florida; posted Friday July 8, 2011 at 12:33; accessed July 18, 2011.
  6. ^ "Reflections on a Secret Life in Professional Sports". The New York Times. September 12, 1999. http://www.nytimes.com/1999/09/12/sports/reflections-on-a-secret-life-in-professional-sports.html?pagewanted=2&src=pm. 
  7. ^ "Nyad suffers stings on record swim". cnn.com (cnn.com). September 25, 2011. http://www.cnn.com/2011/09/24/world/americas/cuba-nyad-swim/index.html?sct=hp_t2_a3&eref=sihp. Retrieved September 24, 2011. 
  8. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=GpkN_MX0HMcC&pg=PA247&dq=Marathon+swim+Bimini+to+Florida+1979&hl=en&ei=DAclTsuqE4bc0QG48tS5Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Marathon%20swim%20Bimini%20to%20Florida%201979&f=false%7C Ahead of Their Time: A Biographical Dictionary of Risk-Taking women, edited by Joyce Duncan (Greenwood Publishing: 2002), Diana Sneed Nyad pp.245-47; accessed July 19, 2011.
  9. ^ http://www.browardpalmbeach.com/2007-06-14/news/jack-and-diana/2/%7C Broward-Palm Beach New Times, June 14, 2004, "Jack and Diana"; accessed July 19, 2011.
  10. ^ High school career and expulsion from Emory described in Nyad's 2002 induction as Al Schoenfield Media Award winner; http://www.ishof.org/Honorees/2002/02dnyad.html
  11. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=pJ7LmzGJhZYC&pg=PA61&lpg=PA61&dq=Pine+Crest+school+florida+diana+nyad&source=bl&ots=YBDAdiOpZz&sig=9NMJvZsLVU3tJn4KPWYk4KQnvFA&hl=en&ei=KBMmTvTeM6rc0QGw9tH5Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBQQ6AEwADge#v=onepage&q=Pine%20Crest%20school%20florida%20diana%20nyad&f=false%7C Sport Lauderdale: Big Names and Big Games, by Cynthia A. Thuma (The History Press: 2007); Diana Nyad, p.62
  12. ^ Source is HickokSports.com, "Sports Biographies/Swimming: Nyad, Diana"; accessed July 18, 2011.
  13. ^ Ahead of Their Time: A Biographical Dictionary of Risk-Taking Women, Diana Sneed Nyad pp. 245-47.
  14. ^ http://www.nycswim.org/Article/ArticleTemplate.aspx?Article_ID=778%7C ; "Woman Swimmers Circles Manhattan on Her Second Attempt"; published in NYC Swim on 7 OCT 75; accessed July 18, 2011.
  15. ^ The Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives: Sports Figures Vol.2, edited by Arnie Markoe (New York:2002)
  16. ^ Daily News of Open Water Swimming; Thursday July 14, 2011; "Can Diana Nyad Make from Cuba to Florida?"; accessed July 18, 2011.
  17. ^ http://www.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/10/15/diana.nyad.goal/index.html; CNN Health News, October 15, 2010; "Nyad delays attempt to break distance-swim record"; accessed July 18, 2011.
  18. ^ http://www.kcrw.com/etc/diananyad
  19. ^ Alvarez, Lizette (July 18, 2011). "Swimming With the Sharks, for 103 Miles". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/19/health/nutrition/19swim.htm. Retrieved July 18, 2011. 
  20. ^ http://www.thedailyherald.com/sports/local-sports/15034-marathon-swimmer-poised-for-cuba-florida-attempt.html%7C The Daily Herald, Sunday March 25, 2011, "Marathon swimmer poised for Cuba-Florida attempt"; accessed July 18, 2011.
  21. ^ http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/19/health/nutrition/19swim.html?_r=1&ref=health%7C The New York Times, Monday July 18, 2011; "Ready to Swim 103 Miles With the Sharks"; accessed July 19, 2011.
  22. ^ http://www.cnn.com/2011/HEALTH/08/07/nyad.swim.motivation/index.html?hpt=he_c1%7C CNN News & Health, "Nyad: Today's swim shows 60s not too late for goals"; accessed August 7, 2011
  23. ^ http://www.ted.com/talks/diana_nyad_extreme_swimming_with_the_world_s_most_dangerous_jellyfish.html
  24. ^ Source for Nyad's use of SharkShield deployed in escort kayak, is September 3, 2010 blog entry by Diana Nyad, "Steve Munatones will verify the swim"; http://diananyad.com/blog/page/5/; accessed July 18, 2011.
  25. ^ YAHOO! Sports, July 15, 2011, "World Record Holder Diana Nyad Set to Conquer Sharks, Distance and Time"; accessed July 18, 2011.
  26. ^ The Washington Post, Sports, May 25, 2011; "Diana Nyad, at age 61, prepares for second attempt to swim from Cuba to Key West", interview by Sally Jenkins; accessed July 18, 2011.
  27. ^ "Diana Nyad back in U.S. after abandoning Cuba to Florida swim". CNN. August 9, 2011. http://www.cnn.com/2011/HEALTH/08/09/nyad.103.mile.swim/index.html?hpt=hp_c1. 
  28. ^ "Jellyfish, currents cut short Cuba-to-Florida swim - CNN.com". CNN. September 26, 2011. http://www.cnn.com/2011/09/25/health/cuba-nyad-swim/index.html. 
  29. ^ http://www.brightonpittsfordpost.com/events/x131605520/Swimmer-Diana-Nyad-to-be-Lifespans-2012-Celebration-of-Aging
  30. ^ http://www.diananyad.com
  31. ^ http://www.goldstars.com/speakers/nyad_diana.html; Gold Stars Speakers Bureau, bio for Diana Nyad; accessed July 18, 2011.
  32. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=EG6a-WCLdTkC&pg=PA91&dq=Marathon+swim+Bimini+to+Florida+1979&hl=en&ei=1w0lTqisH6b40gGkvM3rCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Marathon%20swim%20Bimini%20to%20Florida%201979&f=false%7C accessed July 19, 2011.

External links[link]

http://wn.com/Diana_Nyad




This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana_Nyad

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.


The Times
240px
The 21 April 2011 front page of The Times
Type Daily newspaper
Format Compact
Owner News Corporation
Editor James Harding
Founded 1 January 1785 (&10000000000000227000000227 years, &10000000000000177000000177 days)
Political alignment Centre-right
Headquarters Wapping, London, England
Circulation 394,102 (March 2012)[1]
Sister newspapers The Sunday Times
ISSN 0140-0460
Official website www.thetimes.co.uk

The Times is a British daily national newspaper, first published in London in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register (it became The Times on 1 January 1788). The Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times (founded in 1821) are published by Times Newspapers, since 1981 a subsidiary of News International, itself wholly owned by the News Corporation group headed by Rupert Murdoch. The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have only had common ownership since 1967.

The Times is the first newspaper to have borne that name, lending it to numerous other papers around the world, including The Times of India (1838), The Straits Times (1845), The New York Times (1851), The Irish Times (1859), the Los Angeles Times (1881), The Seattle Times (1891), The Daily Times (Malawi) (1900), The Canberra Times (1926), and The Times (Malta) (1935). For distinguishing purposes it is therefore sometimes referred to, particularly in North America, as the "London Times" or "The Times of London".[2][3]

The Times is the originator of the ubiquitous Times Roman typeface, originally developed by Stanley Morison of The Times in collaboration with the Monotype Corporation for its legibility in low-tech printing. In November 2006 The Times began printing headlines in a new font, Times Modern. The Times was printed in broadsheet format for 219 years, but switched to compact size in 2004 in an attempt to appeal more to younger readers and commuters using public transport. The Sunday Times remains a broadsheet.

Though traditionally a moderate newspaper and sometimes a supporter of the Conservatives, it supported the Labour Party in the 2001 and 2005 general elections.[4] In 2004, according to MORI, the voting intentions of its readership were 40% for the Conservative Party, 29% for the Liberal Democrats, and 26% for Labour.[5] The Times had an average daily circulation of 394,102 in March 2012.[1] An American edition has been published since 6 June 2006.[2]

Contents

History[link]

Front page of The Times from December 4, 1788.

1785 to 1890[link]

The Times was founded by publisher John Walter on 1 January 1785 as The Daily Universal Register, with Walter in the role of editor. Walter changed the title after 940 editions on 1 January 1788 to The Times. In 1803, Walter handed ownership and editorship to his son of the same name. Walter senior had spent sixteen months in Newgate prison for libel printed in The Times, but his pioneering efforts to obtain Continental news, especially from France, helped build the paper's reputation among policy makers and financiers.

The Times used contributions from significant figures in the fields of politics, science, literature, and the arts to build its reputation. For much of its early life, the profits of The Times were very large and the competition minimal, so it could pay far better than its rivals for information or writers.

In 1809, John Stoddart was appointed general editor, replaced in 1817 by Thomas Barnes. Under Barnes and his successor in 1841, John Thadeus Delane, the influence of The Times rose to great heights, especially in politics and amongst the City of London. Peter Fraser and Edward Sterling were two noted journalists, and gained for The Times the pompous/satirical nickname 'The Thunderer' (from "We thundered out the other day an article on social and political reform.").The increased circulation and influence of the paper was based in part to its early adoption of the steam-driven rotary printing press. Distribution via steam trains to rapidly growing concentrations of urban populations helped ensure the profitability of the paper and its growing influence.[6]

The Times was the first newspaper to send war correspondents to cover particular conflicts. W. H. Russell, the paper's correspondent with the army in the Crimean War, was immensely influential[7] with his dispatches back to England.

File:Peace concluded.jpg
A wounded British officer reading The Times's report of the end of the Crimean war, in John Everett Millais' painting Peace Concluded.

In other events of the nineteenth century, The Times opposed the repeal of the Corn Laws[citation needed] until the number of demonstrations convinced the editorial board otherwise, and only reluctantly supported aid to victims of the Irish Potato Famine. It enthusiastically supported the Great Reform Bill of 1832, which reduced corruption and increased the electorate from 400 000 people to 800 000 people (still a small minority of the population). During the American Civil War, The Times represented the view of the wealthy classes, favouring the secessionists, but it was not a supporter of slavery.

The third John Walter, the founder's grandson, succeeded his father in 1847. The paper continued as more or less independent, but from the 1850s The Times was beginning to suffer from the rise in competition from the penny press, notably The Daily Telegraph and The Morning Post.

During the 19th century, it was not infrequent for the Foreign Office to approach The Times and ask for continental intelligence, which was often superior to that conveyed by official sources.[8]

1890 to 1981[link]

The Times faced financial extinction in 1890 under Arthur Fraser Walter, but it was rescued by an energetic editor, Charles Frederic Moberly Bell. During his tenure (1890–1911), The Times became associated with selling the Encyclopædia Britannica using aggressive American marketing methods introduced by Horace Everett Hooper and his advertising executive, Henry Haxton. Due to legal fights between the Britannica's two owners, Hooper and Walter Montgomery Jackson, The Times severed its connection in 1908 and was bought by pioneering newspaper magnate, Alfred Harmsworth, later Lord Northcliffe.

In editorials published on 29 and 31 July 1914, Wickham Steed, the Times's Chief Editor, argued that the British Empire should enter World War I.[9] On 8 May 1920, also under the editorship of Steed, The Times in an editorial endorsed the anti-Semitic forgery The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion as a genuine document, and called Jews the world's greatest danger. In the leader entitled "The Jewish Peril, a Disturbing Pamphlet: Call for Inquiry", Steed wrote about The Protocols of the Elders of Zion:

What are these 'Protocols'? Are they authentic? If so, what malevolent assembly concocted these plans and gloated over their exposition? Are they forgery? If so, whence comes the uncanny note of prophecy, prophecy in part fulfilled, in part so far gone in the way of fulfillment?".[10]

The following year, when Philip Graves, the Constantinople (modern Istanbul) correspondent of The Times, exposed The Protocols as a forgery, 'The Times retracted the editorial of the previous year.

In 1922, John Jacob Astor, son of the 1st Viscount Astor, bought The Times from the Northcliffe estate. The paper gained a measure of notoriety in the 1930s with its advocacy of German appeasement; then-editor Geoffrey Dawson was closely allied with those in the government who practised appeasement[citation needed], most notably Neville Chamberlain.

Kim Philby, a Soviet double agent, was a correspondent for the newspaper in Spain during the Spanish Civil War of the late 1930s. Philby was admired for his courage in obtaining high-quality reporting from the front lines of the bloody conflict. He later joined MI6 during World War II, was promoted into senior positions after the war ended, then eventually defected to the Soviet Union in 1963.[11]

Between 1941 and 1946, the left-wing British historian E.H. Carr was Assistant Editor. Carr was well known for the strongly pro-Soviet tone of his editorials.[12] In December 1944, when fighting broke out in Athens between the Greek Communist ELAS and the British Army, Carr in a Times editorial sided with the Communists, leading Winston Churchill to condemn him and that leader in a speech to the House of Commons.[13] As a result of Carr's editorial, The Times became popularly known during World War II as the threepenny Daily Worker (the price of the Daily Worker was one penny)[14]

On 3 May 1966 it started printing news on the front page for the first time - previously the front page featured small advertisements, usually of interest to the moneyed classes in British society.[citation needed] In 1967, members of the Astor family sold the paper to Canadian publishing magnate Roy Thomson, The Thomson Corporation merged it with The Sunday Times to form Times Newspapers Limited.

An industrial dispute prompted the management to shut the paper for nearly a year (1 December 1978 – 12 November 1979).

The Thomson Corporation management were struggling to run the business due to the 1979 Energy Crisis and union demands. Management were left with no choice but to save both titles by finding a buyer who was in a position to guarantee the survival of both titles, and also one who had the resources and was committed to funding the introduction of modern printing methods.

Several suitors appeared, including Robert Maxwell, Tiny Rowland and Lord Rothermere; however, only one buyer was in a position to meet the full Thomson remit, Australian media magnate Rupert Murdoch.

1981 to present: Murdoch-era[link]

In 1981, The Times and The Sunday Times were bought from Thomson by Rupert Murdoch's News International.[15] The acquisition followed three weeks of intensive bargaining with the unions by company negotiators, John Collier and Bill O'Neill.

After 14 years as editor, William Rees-Mogg resigned the post upon the completion of the change of ownership.[16] Murdoch began to make his mark on the paper by appointing Harold Evans as his replacement.[17] One of his most important changes was the introduction of new technology and efficiency measures. In March–May 1982, following agreement with print unions, the hot-metal Linotype printing process used to print The Times since the 19th century was phased out and replaced by computer input and photo-composition. This allowed print room staff at The Times and The Sunday Times to be reduced by half.[citation needed] However, direct input of text by journalists ("single stroke" input) was still not achieved, and this was to remain an interim measure until the Wapping dispute of 1986, when The Times moved from New Printing House Square in Gray's Inn Road (near Fleet Street) to new offices in Wapping.[18]

Robert Fisk,[19] seven times British International Journalist of the Year,[20] resigned as foreign correspondent in 1988 over what he saw as "political censorship" of his article on the shooting-down of Iran Air Flight 655 in July 1988. He wrote in detail about his reasons for resigning from the paper due to meddling with his stories, and the paper's pro-Israel stance.[21]

In June 1990, The Times ceased its policy of using courtesy titles ("Mr", "Mrs", or "Miss" prefixes) for living persons before full names on first reference, but it continues to use them before surnames on subsequent references. The more formal style is now confined to the "Court and Social" page, though "Ms" is now acceptable in that section, as well as before surnames in news sections.

In November 2003, News International began producing the newspaper in both broadsheet and tabloid sizes. On 13 September 2004, the weekday broadsheet was withdrawn from sale in Northern Ireland. Since 1 November 2004, the paper has been printed solely in tabloid format.

The Conservative Party announced plans to launch litigation against The Times over an incident in which the newspaper claimed that Conservative election strategist Lynton Crosby had admitted that his party would not win the 2005 General Election. The Times later published a clarification, and the litigation was dropped.

On 6 June 2005, The Times redesigned its Letters page, dropping the practice of printing correspondents' full postal addresses. Published letters were long regarded as one of the paper's key constituents. Author/solicitor David Green of Castle Morris Pembrokeshire has had more letters published on the main letters page than any other known contributor – 158 by 31 January 2008. According to its leading article, "From Our Own Correspondents", removal of full postal addresses was in order to fit more letters onto the page.

In a 2007 meeting with the House of Lords Select Committee on Communications, which was investigating media ownership and the news, Murdoch stated that the law and the independent board prevented him from exercising editorial control.[22]

In May 2008 printing of The Times switched from Wapping to new plants at Broxbourne on the outskirts of London, and Merseyside and Glasgow, enabling the paper to be produced with full colour on every page for the first time.

Some[who?] allege that The Times' partisan opinion pieces also damage its status as 'paper of record,' particularly when attacking interests that go against those of its parent company – News International. In 2010 it published an opinion piece attacking the BBC for being 'one of a group of' signatories to a letter criticising BSkyB share options in October 2010.[23]

In March 2012, it became the first British newspaper to formally endorse same-sex marriage.

Content[link]

Copies of The Times and supplements from December 2005

The Times features news for the first half of the paper with the leading articles on the second page, the Opinion/Comment section begins after the first news section with world news normally following this. The business pages begin on the centre spread, and are followed by The Register, containing obituaries, Court & Social section, and related material. The sport section is at the end of the main paper.

[edit] Times2

The Times's main supplement is the times2, featuring various lifestyle columns.[clarification needed] It was discontinued on 1 March 2010 but reintroduced on 11 October 2010 after negative feedback. Its regular features include a puzzles section called Mind Games. Its previous incarnation began on 5 September 2005, before which it was called T2 and previously Times 2. Regular features include columns by a different columnist each weekday. There was a column by Marcus du Sautoy each Wednesday, for example. The back pages are devoted to puzzles and contain sudoku, "Killer Sudoku", "KenKen", word polygon puzzles, and a crossword simpler and more concise than the main "Times Crossword".

The supplement contains arts and lifestyle features, TV and radio listings and reviews.

[edit] The Game

The Game is included in the newspaper on Mondays, and details all the weekend's football activity (Premier League and Football League Championship, League One and League Two.) The Scottish edition of The Game also includes results and analysis from Scottish Premier League games.

Saturday supplements[link]

The Saturday edition of The Times contains a variety of supplements. These supplements were relaunched in January 2009 as: Sport, Weekend (including travel and lifestyle features), Saturday Review (arts, books, and ideas), The Times Magazine (columns on various topics), and Playlist (an entertainment listings guide).

Saturday Review is the first regular supplement published in broadsheet format since the paper switched to a compact size in 2004.

At the beginning of summer 2011 Saturday Review switched to the tabloid format

The Times Magazine features columns touching on various subjects such as celebrities, fashion and beauty, food and drink, homes and gardens or simply writers' anecdotes. Notable contributors include Giles Coren, Food and Drink Writer of the Year in 2005.

Online presence[link]

The Times and The Sunday Times have had an online presence since March 1999, originally at the-times.co.uk and sunday-times.co.uk, and later at timesonline.co.uk.[24] There are now two websites: thetimes.co.uk is aimed at daily readers, and the thesundaytimes.co.uk site at providing weekly magazine-like content. There are also iPad and Android editions of both newspapers. Since July 2010, News International has required readers who do not subscribe to the print edition to pay £2 per week to read The Times and The Sunday Times online.[25]

Visits to the websites have decreased by 87% since the paywall was introduced, from 21 million unique users per month to 2.7 million.[26] In April 2009, the timesonline site had a readership of 750,000 readers per day.[27] As of October 2011, there were around 111,000 subscribers to the Times' digital products [28]

Ownership[link]

John Walter, the founder of The Times

The Times has had the following eight owners since its foundation in 1785:

Readership[link]

At the time of Harold Evans' appointment as editor in 1981, The Times had an average daily sale of 282,000 copies, in comparision to the 1.4 million daily sales of its traditional rival The Daily Telegraph.[29] By November 2005 The Times sold an average of 691,283 copies per day, the second-highest of any British "quality" newspaper (after The Daily Telegraph, which had a circulation of 903,405 copies in the period), and the highest in terms of full-rate sales.[30] By March 2012 The Times' average daily circulation had fallen to 394,102 copies, compared to The Daily Telegraph's 576,378, with the two retaining respectively the second-highest and highest circulations among British "quality" newspapers.[1] In contrast The Sun, the highest-selling "tabloid" daily newspaper in the United Kingdom, sold an average of 2,614,725 copies in March 2012, and the Daily Mail, the highest-selling "middle market" British daily newspaper, sold an average of 1,952,524 copies in the period.[1]

In a 2009 national readership survey The Times was found to have the highest number of ABC1 25–44 readers and the largest numbers of readers in London of any of the "quality" papers.[31]

Typeface[link]

An example of the Times New Roman font

In 1908 The Times started using the Monotype Modern typeface.[32]

The Times commissioned the serif typeface Times New Roman, created by Victor Lardent at the English branch of Monotype, in 1931.[33] It was commissioned after Stanley Morison had written an article criticizing The Times for being badly printed and typographically antiquated.[34] The font was supervised by Morison and drawn by Victor Lardent, an artist from the advertising department of The Times. Morison used an older font named Plantin as the basis for his design, but made revisions for legibility and economy of space. Times New Roman made its debut in the 3 October 1932 issue of The Times newspaper.[35] After one year, the design was released for commercial sale. The Times stayed with Times New Roman for 40 years, but new production techniques and the format change from broadsheet to tabloid in 2004 have caused the newspaper to switch font five times since 1972. However, all the new fonts have been variants of the original New Roman font:

  • Times Europa was designed by Walter Tracy in 1972 for The Times, as a sturdier alternative to the Times font family, designed for the demands of faster printing presses and cheaper paper. The typeface features more open counter spaces.
  • Times Roman replaced Times Europa on 30 August 1982.[36]
  • Times Millennium was made in 1991,[36] drawn by Gunnlaugur Briem on the instructions of Aurobind Patel, composing manager of News International.
  • Times Classic first appeared in 2001.[37] Designed as an economical face by the British type team of Dave Farey and Richard Dawson, it took advantage of the new PC-based publishing system at the newspaper, while obviating the production shortcomings of its predecessor Times Millennium. The new typeface included 120 letters per font. Initially the family comprised ten fonts, but a condensed version was added in 2004.
  • Times Modern was unveiled on 20 November 2006, as the successor of Times Classic.[36] Designed for improving legibility in smaller font sizes, it uses 45-degree angled bracket serifs. The font was published by Elsner + Flake as EF Times Modern; it was designed by Research Studios, led by Ben Preston (deputy editor of The Times) and designer Neville Brody.[38]

Political allegiance[link]

The Times had declared its support for Clement Attlee's Labour at the 1945 general election; the party went on to win the election by a landslide over Winston Churchill's Conservative government. However, the newspaper reverted to the Tories for the next election five years later. It supported the Conservatives for the subsequent three elections, followed by support for both the Conservatives and the Liberal Party for the next five elections, expressly supporting a Con-Lib coalition in 1974. The paper then backed the Conservatives solidly until 2001.

For the 2001 general election The Times declared its support for Tony Blair's Labour government, which was re-elected by a landslide. It supported Labour again in 2005, when Labour achieved a third successive win, though with a reduced majority.[39] For the 2010 general election, however, the newspaper declared its support for the Tories once again; the election ended in the Tories taking the most votes and seats but having to form a coalition with the Liberal Democrats in order to form a government as they had failed to gain an overall majority.[40]

Year Party Supported
1945 Labour
1950 Conservatives
1955 Conservatives, Liberal
1974 Conservatives-Liberal Coalition
1979 Conservatives
2001 Labour
2010 Conservatives

This makes it the most varied newspaper in terms of political support in British history.[41]

Sponsorships[link]

The Times, along with the British Film Institute, sponsors the "The Times" bfi London Film Festival.

The Times sponsors the Cheltenham Literature Festival and the Asia House Festival of Asian Literature at Asia House, London.

Notable people[link]

Editors[link]

Name[42] Tenure
John Walter 1785 to 1803
John Walter, 2nd 1803 to 1812
John Stoddart 1812 to 1816
Thomas Barnes 1817 to 1841
John Delane 1841 to 1877
Thomas Chenery 1877 to 1884
George Earle Buckle 1884 to 1912
George Geoffrey Dawson 1912 to 1919
Henry Wickham Steed 1919 to 1922
George Geoffrey Dawson 1923 to 1941
Robert McGowan Barrington-Ward 1941 to 1948
William Francis Casey 1948 to 1952
William Haley 1952 to 1966
William Rees-Mogg 1967 to 1981
Harold Evans 1981 to 1982
Charles Douglas-Home 1982 to 1985
Charles Wilson 1985 to 1990
Simon Jenkins 1990 to 1992
Peter Stothard 1992 to 2002
Robert Thomson 2002 to 2007
James Harding 2007 to present

Notable columnists and journalists[link]

Related publications[link]

[edit] Times Literary Supplement

The Times Literary Supplement (TLS) is a separately-paid-for weekly literature and society magazine.

[edit] The Times Science Review

Between 1951 and 1966 The Times published a separately-paid-for quarterly science review, The Times Science Review. Remarkably, in 1953 both the newspaper and its science supplement failed to report on the discovery of the structure of DNA in Cambridge, which was reported on by both the News Chronicle and The New York Times.

The Times started a new (but free) monthly science magazine, Eureka, in October 2009.

Times Atlases[link]

(Times Books Group Ltd)

In fiction[link]

See also[link]


[edit] References

  1. ^ a b c d "ABCs: National daily newspaper circulation March 2012". The Guardian (UK). 13 April 2012. http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/table/2012/apr/13/abcs-national-newspapers. Retrieved 26 April 2012. 
  2. ^ a b Pfanner, Eric (27 May 2006). "Times of London to Print Daily U.S. Edition". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/27/business/media/27paper.html. Retrieved 4 November 2008. 
  3. ^ Meyers, Jeffrey (26 May 2000). "Fighting, fornication and fiction". Times Higher Education (London). http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=156212&sectioncode=26. 
  4. ^ Hall, Ben; Burt, Tim; Symon, Fiona (3 May 2005). "Election 2005: What the papers said". Financial Times (London). Archived from the original on 5 June 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080605162948/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/417fa1a2-ab60-11d9-893c-00000e2511c8,dwp_uuid=fdb2b318-aa9e-11d9-98d7-00000e2511c8.html. 
  5. ^ "Voting intention by newspaper readership". Ipsos Mori. 9 March 2005. http://www.ipsos-mori.com/researchpublications/researcharchive/755/Voting-Intention-by-Newspaper-Readership.aspx. Retrieved 18 July 2009. 
  6. ^ Lomas, Claire. "The Steam Driven Rotary Press, The Times and the Empire"
  7. ^ Knightley, Philip. The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist, and Myth-maker from the Crimea to the Gulf War II
  8. ^ Weller, Toni (June 2010). "The Victorian information age: nineteenth century answers to today's information policy questions?". United Kingdom: History & Policy. http://www.historyandpolicy.org/papers/policy-paper-104.html. Retrieved 9 December 2010. 
  9. ^ Ferguson, Niall (1999). The Pity of War London: Basic Books. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-465-05711-5
  10. ^ Friedländer, Saul (1997). Nazi Germany and the Jews. New York: HarperCollins. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-06-019042-2
  11. ^ Cave Brown, Anthony (1995). Treason in the blood: H. St. John Philby, Kim Philby, and the spy case of the century. London: Robert Hale. ISBN 978-0-7090-5582-2. 
  12. ^ Beloff, Max. "The Dangers of Prophecy" pages 8–10 from History Today, Volume 42, Issue # 9, September 1992 page 9
  13. ^ Davies, Robert William. "Edward Hallett Carr, 1892–1982" pages 473–511 from Proceedings of the British Academy, Volume 69, 1983 page 489
  14. ^ Haslam, Jonathan. "We Need a Faith: E.H. Carr, 1892–1982" pages 36–39 from History Today, Volume 33, August 1983 page 37
  15. ^ Stewart, Graham (2005). The History of the Times: The Murdoch years, 1981-2002. HarperCollins. p. 45. ISBN 0-00-718438-7, 9780007184385. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eZZZAAAAMAAJ&q=The+History+of+the+Times:+The+Murdoch+years,+1981-2002&dq=The+History+of+the+Times:+The+Murdoch+years,+1981-2002&hl=en&sa=X&ei=T5emT-GKCNSD8gP34P2DBQ&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAA. 
  16. ^ Stewart, p 45
  17. ^ Stewart, p 51
  18. ^ Hamilton, Alan. "The Times bids farewell to old technology". The Times, 1 May 1982, p. 2, col. C.
  19. ^ Fisk, Robert (2005). The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East. London: Fourth Estate. pp. 329–334. ISBN 1-84115-007-X. 
  20. ^ "Viewpoint: UK war reporter Robert Fisk". BBC News. 3 December 2005. Archived from the original on 8 December 2005. http://web.archive.org/web/20051208212035/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4393358.stm. 
  21. ^ Robert Fisk, Why I had to leave The Times, The Independent, 11 July 2011.
  22. ^ "Minute of the meeting with Mr Rupert Murdoch, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, News Corporation". Inquiry into Media Ownership and the News. House of Commons Select Committee on Communications. 17 September 2007. p. 10. http://www.parliament.uk/documents/upload/us.doc. 
  23. ^ Robinson, James (13 October 2010). "The Times hits out at BBC over BSkyB takeover letter". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2010/oct/13/the-times-bbc-bskyb. 
  24. ^ "Timesonline.co.uk Site Info". Alexa. http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/timesonline.co.uk. Retrieved 22 July 2010. 
  25. ^ "Times and Sunday Times websites to charge from June". BBC News. 26 March 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/8588432.stm. 
  26. ^ "Times and Sunday Times readership falls after paywall". BBC News. 2 November 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-11671984. Retrieved 2 November 2010. 
  27. ^ Hindle, Debbie (6 April 2009). "Times Online travel editor insight". BGB. http://www.bgb.co.uk/times-online-travel-editor-insight/. Retrieved 22 July 2010. 
  28. ^ "Digital subscribers to The Times and The Sunday Times continue to grow". News International. 14 October 2011. http://www.newsint.co.uk/press_releases/digital_subs.html. 
  29. ^ Stewart, p 51
  30. ^ "National daily newspaper circulation November 2005". The Guardian. http://media.guardian.co.uk/presspublishing/tables/0,,1665378,00.html. Retrieved 13 February 2012. 
  31. ^ An analysis of The Times reader demographic (based on NMA figures, news agenda and advertising in the paper) can be seen in this study.
  32. ^ Morison (1953). A Tally of Types. Cambridge University Press. p. 15. 
  33. ^ Loxley, Simon (2006). Type: the secret history of letters. I. B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. pp. 130–131. ISBN 1-84511-028-5. 
  34. ^ Carter, H. G. (2004). 'Morison, Stanley Arthur (1889–1967)'. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. rev. David McKitterick. Oxford University Press,. 
  35. ^ TYPOlis: Times New Roman
  36. ^ a b c After 221 years, the world's leading newspaper shows off a fresh face(Subscription required)
  37. ^ Typography of News Bigger, faster, better
  38. ^ Neville Brody's Research Studios Creates New Font and Design Changes for The Times as Compact Format Continues to Attract Loyal Readership
  39. ^ "Which political parties do the newspapers support?". Supanet.com. http://www.supanet.com/business--money/which-political-parties-do-the-newspapers-support--25923p1.html. Retrieved 27 October 2010. 
  40. ^ Stoddard, Katy (4 May 2010). "Newspaper support in UK general elections". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2010/may/04/general-election-newspaper-support. Retrieved 27 October 2010. 
  41. ^ Stoddard, Katy (4 May 2010). "Newspaper support in UK general elections". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2010/may/04/general-election-newspaper-support. 
  42. ^ [1]

Further reading[link]

  • Evans‏, Harold (1983). Good Times, Bad Times. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-78295-9  - includes sections of black-and-white photographic plates, plus a few charts and diagrams in text pages.

External links[link]


http://wn.com/The_Times

Related pages:

http://it.wn.com/The Times

http://es.wn.com/The Times

http://ru.wn.com/The Times

http://fr.wn.com/The Times

http://de.wn.com/The Times




This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.


Gibson Guitar Corporation
Type Private
Industry Musical instruments
Founded 1902[1], Kalamazoo, Michigan
Founder(s) Orville Gibson
Headquarters Nashville, Tennessee, USA
Area served Global
Key people Orville Gibson, Ted McCarty, Les Paul, Seth Lover
Subsidiaries Aeolian, Baldwin, Chickering, Electar, Epiphone, Garrison, Gibson Amphitheatre, Hamilton, Kramer, Maestro, MaGIC, Slingerland, Steinberger, Tobias, Valley Arts Guitar, Wurlitzer
Website Gibson.com

The Gibson Guitar Corporation is a Nashville, Tennessee-based guitar and instrument manufacturer. It was founded in 1902 in Kalamazoo, Michigan by Orville Gibson as "The Gibson Mandolin-Guitar Mfg. Co., Ltd." and was a maker of mandolin instruments[1]. Gibson invented archtop guitars by using the same type of carved, arched tops found on violins. By the 1930s, the company was also making flattop acoustic guitars, as well as one of the first commercially available hollow-body electric guitars, used and popularized by Charlie Christian. It was bought by Chicago Musical Instruments in 1944, which was then acquired by the E.C.L. conglomerate that changed its name to Norlin Inc. This was seen as the beginning of an era of mismanagement.

Gibson sells guitars under a variety of brand names[2] and built one of the world's most iconic guitars, the Gibson Les Paul. Many Gibson instruments are among the most collectible guitars. Gibson was at the forefront of innovation in acoustic guitars, especially in the big band era of the 1930s; the Gibson Super 400 was widely imitated. In the early 1950s, Gibson introduced its first solid-body electric guitar and in 1952 began producing its most popular guitar to date—the Les Paul, designed by Ted McCarty and Les Paul. After being purchased by the Norlin corporation in the late 1960s Gibson's quality and fortunes took a steep decline until early 1986, when the company was acquired by its present owners. Gibson Guitar is a privately held corporation owned by its chief executive officer Henry Juszkiewicz and its president David H. Berryman.

Gibson has pursued legal action against manufacturers selling similar guitars and been active in environmental issues. In the late 2000s the company came under scrutiny for potential violations of the Lacey law. Authorities say wood was mislabeled to hide illegal ebony wood exports from India and that emails show an intent to illegally import rosewood and ebony wood from Madagascar. Gibson claims authorities are bullying him without filing charges. The issues has raised concerns among guitar owners on whether they could be punished for unknowingly owning guitars with illegally obtained wood, which led to some initiatives to protect individual consumers from the Lacey law.

Contents

History[link]

Gibson mandolin orchestra:

• 1920 F-4     • 1917 H-2
• 1924 K-4 mando-cello

• 1929 mando-bass
Orville Gibson
(pre 1910)

Orville Gibson (born 1856, Chateaugay, New York) started making mandolins in Kalamazoo, Michigan, United States. The mandolins were distinctive in that they featured a carved, arched solid wood top and back and bent wood sides. Prior to this, mandolins had a flat solid wood top and a bowl-like back similar to a lute. These bowl-back mandolins were very fragile and unstable. Disdainful of the shape, Orville Gibson characterized them as "potato bugs". Gibson's innovation made a distinctive, darker-sounding mandolin that was easier to manufacture in large numbers. Orville Gibson's mandolin design, with its single-pieced carved sides and a single-pieced neck, was patented in 1898; it would be the only innovation he patented. Orville Gibson died in 1918 of endocarditis (inflammation of the inside lining of the heart chambers and valves).[3]

Orville Gibson began to sell his unique instruments in 1894 out of a one-room workshop in Kalamazoo Michigan. In 1902 Gibson Mandolin-Guitar Mfg. Co, Ltd. was incorporated to market the instruments. Initially, the company produced only Orville Gibson's original designs. Aware of changing trends, the company hired designer Lloyd Loar in 1919 to create newer instruments.[4]

During the 1920s Gibson was responsible for many innovations in banjo, guitar and mandolin design. In 1922, the Gibson F5 mandolin model was introduced. That particular model later became known as the ultimate bluegrass mandolin. Gibson soon became the leading manufacturer of archtop guitars, particularly the L-5 model, also a Loar design. Loar left the company in 1924.[5]

In the 1930s, Gibson began exploring the concept of an electric guitar. In 1936 they introduced their first "Electric Spanish" model, the ES-150. Other companies were producing electric guitars but the Gibson is generally recognized as the first commercially successful electric guitar. Other instruments were also "electrified"; such as steel guitars, banjos and mandolins.

During World War II, instrument manufacturing basically stopped at Gibson due to shortages of wood and metal. Only a few instruments were made with whatever parts were at hand. Gibson did war production instead, making wood parts for various military needs. Such shortages continued for a few years after the war and the only notable change occurred in 1946 when the Gibson name on the instrument headstock changed from a cursive script to the block style used to this day. This is seen at the head of the information block at top.

In 1944 Gibson was purchased by Chicago Musical Instruments, which took over marketing and sales of Gibson products while allowing the Kalamazoo factory to operate largely independently.

The ES-175 was introduced in 1949. The model has seen some variations over the years but it is still in production.

Gibson and Ted McCarty[link]

In 1948, Gibson hired music industry veteran Ted McCarty, who was promoted to company president in 1950. During his tenure (1950–1966), Gibson greatly expanded and diversified its line of instruments. The first notable addition was the "Les Paul" guitar. McCarty was well aware of the strong sales of the Fender Telecaster. In 1950, Gibson decided to make a solid-body guitar of its own according to its own design philosophy despite the fact many other guitar manufacturers were contemptuous of the concept of a solid-body guitar. Designed by the guitarist Les Paul, it was released as his signature model in 1952. The "Les Paul" was offered in several models, including the Custom, the Standard, the Special, and the Junior.[6]

In the mid-50s, the Thinline series was produced. Many guitarists did not like the bulk of a full-size archtop and wanted a thinner guitar. TheByrdland was the first produced. The first Byrdlands were slim, custom built, L-5 models for guitarists Billy Byrd and Hank Garland. Later, a shorter neck was added. Other guitarists who tried Gibson samples liked the idea and the model went into production. Other models such as the ES-350T and the ES-225T were introduced as less costly alternatives.[7]

In 1958, Gibson introduced the ES-335T model. Similar in size to the hollow-body Thinlines, the ES-335 family had a solid center, giving the string tone a longer sustain.


non-reverse (left) & reverse Firebird

In the late 50s, McCarty was aware that Gibson was perceived as a "conservative" company, generally making traditionally shaped instruments. He decided to change that. In 1958, Gibson produced two new designs: the eccentrically shaped Explorer and Flying V. These "modernistic" guitars did not sell initially. It was only in the late 1960s and early 70s when the two guitars were reintroduced to the market that they sold very well. The Firebird, in the early 60s, was a reprise of the modernistic idea, though less extreme. In the 1950s, Gibson also produced the Tune-o-matic bridge system and its version of the humbucking pickup, the PAF ("Patent Applied For"), first released in 1957 and still sought after for its sound.[citation needed]

In 1961 the body design of the Les Paul was changed due to the demand for a double-cutaway body design.[8] Les Paul did not care for the new body style and let his endorsement lapse. The new body design then became known as the SG (for "solid guitar"). The Les Paul returned to the Gibson catalog in 1968 due to the influence of players such as Keith Richards, Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, and Peter Green. Both the Les Paul and the SG became very popular with rock and roll and blues guitar players.

The 70s to today[link]

On December 22nd 1969 Gibson parent company, Chicago Musical Instruments, was taken over by a South American brewing conglomerate, E.C.L. Gibson, Inc. remained under the control of CMI until 1974, when it became a subsidiary of Norlin Musical Instruments (a member of Norlin Industries - named for ECL president Norton Stevens and CMI president Maurice Berlin). This began an era widely perceived as being characterized by corporate mismanagement and decreasing product quality similar to Fender's period under CBS ownership.

Gibson left Kalamazoo in 1984, then previous factory became Heritage Guitars
Gibson Showcase at Nashville
Gibson Factory at Memphis

Between 1974 and 1984 production of Gibson guitars was shifted from Kalamazoo to Nashville, Tennessee. Early Nashville-built guitars suffered from both inexperienced workers and climate-control problems in the humid South.[citation needed] The Kalamazoo plant was kept going for a few years as a custom-instrument shop, but was closed in 1984; several Gibson employees led by plant manager Jim Duerloo established Heritage Guitars in the old factory, building versions of classic Gibson designs. The company was within three months of going out of business before it was bought by Henry E. Juszkiewicz, David H. Berryman, and Gary A. Zebrowski in January 1986.[9] The survival and success of Gibson today is largely attributed[by whom?] to this change in ownership.[citation needed] Currently, Juszkiewicz is CEO and Berryman is president. More recently new production plants have been opened, such as Memphis, Tennessee, as well as Bozeman, Montana. The Memphis facility is used for semi-hollow and custom shop instruments, while the Bozeman facility is dedicated to acoustic instruments.

In mid 2009 Gibson reduced its work force to adjust for a decline in guitar industry sales in the United States.[10]

In 2011, Gibson acquired the Stanton Group, including Cerwin Vega!, KRK Systems and Stanton DJ. Gibson then formed a new division, Gibson Pro Audio, which will deliver professional grade audio items, including headphones, loudspeakers and DJ equipment.[11]

Gibson announced a partnership with the Japanese-based Onkyo Corporation in 2012. Onkyo, known for audio equipment and home theater systems, became part of the Gibson Pro Audio division.[12]

Instruments[link]

Brand names[link]

Gibson also owns and makes instruments under such brands as Baldwin,[2] Epiphone,[13] Kalamazoo,[citation needed] Kramer,[14] Maestro,[15] Slingerland,[2] Steinberger,[16] Tobias,[17] Valley Arts[citation needed] and Wurlitzer.[2]

Gibson purchased Garrison Guitars in 2007.[18]

Gibson serial numbers[link]

Gibson models may not be easily identified by serial number alone,[19][20] and as of 1999 the company has used six distinct serial numbering systems.[19] By 2006, that number had risen to seven.[20]

In 1977, Gibson introduced the serial numbering system in use until 2006.[20] An eight digit number on the back shows the date on which the instrument was produced, where it was produced and its order of production that day (e.g. first instrument stamped that day, second, etc.).[19]

An exception is the year 1994, Gibson's centennial year; many 1994 serial numbers start with "94", followed by a 6-digit production number[citation needed].

The Gibson website provides a book to help with serial number deciphering.[19]

After 2006[link]

In 2006 Gibson introduced a 9 digit serial number system.[20] The system is largely the same as the 8 digit system used since 1977,[19] but the 6th digit now represents a batch number.[20]

Recent innovation[link]

MaGIC[link]

In 2003,[21] Gibson debuted its ethernet-based[22] communications protocol, MaGIC, which it had developed in partnership with 3COM, Advanced Micro Devices and Xilinx.[21] Replacing traditional analog hook-ups with a digital connection that would, "satisfy the unique requirements of live audio performances" may have been the goal of this project.[22]

This system may require a special pickup,[21] but cabling is provided by standard Cat-5 ethernet cord.[21][22]

Self-tuning guitar[link]

The Gibson "self-tuning guitar", also known as a "robot model", an option on some newer Les Paul, SG, Flying V and Explorer instruments,[citation needed] will tune itself in little more than two seconds using robotics technology developed by Tronical GmbH.[23]

Corporate social responsibility[link]

Gibson's corporate social responsibility efforts include a participation in Music Rising, which facilitated the replacement of tens of thousands of privately owned, hurricane-damaged instruments.[2]

Unauthorized copies[link]

Gibson has sought legal action against those that make and sell guitars too-similar to their own.

In 1977 Gibson sued Hoshino/Elger for copying the Gibson Les Paul.[citation needed]

In 2000, Gibson sued Fernandes Guitars in a Tokyo court for allegedly copying Gibson designs. Gibson did not prevail.[24]

Gibson also sued PRS Guitars in 2005, to stop them from making their Singlecut model. The lawsuit against PRS was initially successful.[25] However, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit reversed the lower court decision and ordered the dismissal of Gibson's suit against PRS.[26]

Authorized Gibson designs[link]

Gibson makes authorized copies of its most successful guitar designs. They are less expensive than those bearing the Gibson name. A former competitor, Epiphone was purchased by Gibson and now makes competitively priced Gibson models, such as the Les Paul, sold under the Epiphone brand,[27] while continuing to make Epiphone-specific models like the Sheraton and Casino. In Japan, Orville by Gibson once made Gibson designs sold in that country.[28]

Recent criticism and controversy[link]

Gibson has come under scrutiny for allegedly importing illegal rare wood in potential violations of the Lacey Act.[29] Though no charges have been filed, two police raids of Gibson factories found ebony wood from India with misleading labels authorities say were used to hide violations of Indian export law.[29] Gibson claims the labeling was a mistake and that the transaction was approved by Indian authorities.[29]

On November 17, 2009 federal authorities seized six guitars and several pallets of alleged endangered and illegal, rare ebony wood that Gibson had purchased and stored at their factory.[30][31] Until the investigation has been concluded, Henry E. Juszkiewicz, CEO and Chairman of Gibson Guitar Corporation, has taken a leave of absence as a board member of the Rainforest Alliance.[32]

On June 2011, the United States Department of Justice filed a civil case against Gibson. Authorities said Gibson sourced unfinished ebony wood, in the form of blanks, from Nagel, Germany, which obtained it exclusively from a supplier in Madagascar. Gibson acquired the ebony to manufacture fingerboards. Madagascar prohibits the logging of ebony wood and export of unfinished ebony. The filing also made mentioned internal e-mails from 2008 and 2009 that discussed plans to harvest ebony wood and rosewood in Madagascar.[33][34] The case against Gibson Guitar was the first under the amended Lacey Act, which requires importing companies to purchase legally harvested wood and follow the environmental laws of the producing countries.[34]

In January 2011, Gibson Guitar filed a motion to recover the materials seized in the raid and to overturn the charges made by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.[35][36] The court denied the motion. According to reports that quote a special agent on the case, the prosecution expects to use the material as evidence.[36]

Gibson Guitar's offices and factories in Nashville and Memphis were raided again by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife on August 24, 2011. Details were not released about the nature of the raid or what was found due to the ongoing legal proceedings.[30] According to a statement issued by Gibson Guitar the following day, these raids focused on rare wood imported from India.[37][38] In the release, Gibson said authorities were "bullying Gibson without filing charges" and stating further: "Gibson has complied with foreign laws and believes it is innocent of any wrong doing. We will fight aggressively to prove our innocence." He also criticized the government's use of the Lacey Act because it interprets and enforces the laws of other nations.[37][39]

If the prosecution is successful, Gibson would face felony charges that could result in large fines or jail terms for executives involved.[40] Gibson Guitar is considered a progressive company for its promotion of sustainability and forest certification.[40] Although the Rainforest Alliance certified the wood used by Gibson Guitar,[34] its FSC certificates only applied to specific product lines. If wood was sourced from Madagascar, the wood could not have been used in products labeled or sold as FSC-certified.[40]

The case has also raised concerns for musicians who lack documentation of vintage instruments made of traditional, non-sustainable materials.[29][41] However, senior officials from the Justice Department and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service have stated that musicians who unknowingly possess instruments made from illegal wood would not be treated as criminals. Instead, they insisted that the government's aim is to target individuals and businesses that profit from the trafficking of these protected species. Despite these assurances, lobbying efforts by Juszkiewicz resulted in a proposed bill that would protect musicians who unknowingly possess materials that violate the Lacey Act, while also exempting wood supplies purchased by companies before May 22, 2008 and requiring the government publish a database of illegal wood sources for the public.[42]

See also[link]

References[link]

  1. ^ a b "Gibson History". Gibson Corporate Press Kit. Gibson Guitar Corporation. http://www.gibson.com/press/press_history.asp. Retrieved 20 May 2012. 
  2. ^ a b c d e Gibson Guitar embraces China, Latin markets reuters.com, Mon Apr 9, 2007 12:07am EDT
  3. ^ "Orville H. Gibson, 1856–1918". Siminoff.net. http://www.siminoff.net/pages/gibson_background.html. Retrieved 2011-01-28. 
  4. ^ "Gibson Dusk Tiger". Gibson.com. 2008-06-24. http://www2.gibson.com/Products/Electric-Guitars/Les-Paul/Gibson-USA/Dusk-Tiger/Next-Generation.aspx. Retrieved 2011-01-28. 
  5. ^ Wheeler, Tom. American Guitars. HarperCollins. 1992.pp 100–1 ISBN 978-0-06-273154-8
  6. ^ Hembry, Gil;Gibson Guitars: Ted McCarty's Golden Era 1948–1966; GH Books; Austin, TX; 2007. p 74–85.
  7. ^ Duchossoir, Andre. Gibson Electrics:The Classic Years. Hal Leonard Corp. 1998 pp 55–62
  8. ^ Hembry, Gil;Gibson Guitars: Ted McCarty's Golden Era 1948–1966; GH Books; Austin, TX; 2007. p 110.
  9. ^ Hembry, Gil;Gibson Guitars: Ted McCarty's Golden Era 1948–1966; GH Books; Austin, TX; 2007. p 306.
  10. ^ Email (2009-03-23). "Sources: Gibson adds to layoff tally | Make and Buy | NashvillePost.com: Nashville Business News + Nashville Political News". NashvillePost.com. http://www.nashvillepost.com/news/2009/3/23/sources_gibson_adds_to_layoff_tally. Retrieved 2011-01-28. 
  11. ^ "Gibson Guitar increases high-tech lineup with purchase". Tennessean.com. 2011-12-06. http://www.tennessean.com/article/20111206/BUSINESS06/312060036/Gibson-Guitar-increases-high-tech-lineup-purchase. Retrieved 2011-12-06. 
  12. ^ "Gibson Expands Pro Audio Division". Gibson.com. 2012-01-04. http://www.gibson.com/en-us/Lifestyle/News/gibson-pro-audio-0104-2012%5C. Retrieved 2012-02-09. 
  13. ^ "Home". Epiphone. http://www.epiphone.com. Retrieved 2012-05-09. 
  14. ^ kramerguitars.com Kramer Official Site
  15. ^ Maestro by Gibson Gibson Official Site
  16. ^ steinberger.com Steinberger Official Site
  17. ^ Tobias Gibson Official Site
  18. ^ Garrison Guitars sold to Gibson thetelegram.com, July 4th, 2007
  19. ^ a b c d e Blue Book of Electric Guitars. Sixth Edition: Gibson Serialization. Edited by S.P. Fjestad Gibson Official Site
  20. ^ a b c d e Gibson Serial Numbers: What a serial number can and can't tell you about your Gibson Gibson Official Site, 7.17.2007
  21. ^ a b c d The MaGIC of Gibson's Digital Guitars Maximum PC magazine, April 2003
  22. ^ a b c This Is MaGIC Gibson Official Site
  23. ^ Yuri Kageyama (The Associated Press) (December 3, 2007). "World's first robot guitar takes care of the tuning". Seattle Times. http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2004051225_guitar04.html. Retrieved 2007-12-04. 
  24. ^ "Northwestern Journal of Technology and Intellectual Property | Vol 4 | Iss 2". Law.northwestern.edu. 2010-08-19. http://www.law.northwestern.edu/journals/njtip/v4/n2/5/Port.pdf. Retrieved 2012-05-09. 
  25. ^ Gibson Guitar Corp. v. Paul Reed Smith Guitars, L.P., 325 F. Supp. 2d 841 (M.D. Tenn., 2004)
  26. ^ Gibson Guitar Corp. v. Paul Reed Smith Guitars, LP, 423 F.3d 539 (6th Cir. 2005).
  27. ^ "Epiphone Les Paul Standard". Epiphone.com. http://www.epiphone.com/Products/Les-Paul/Les-Paul-Standard.aspx. 
  28. ^ "Epiphone: A History – Epiphone and Gibson". Epiphone.com. http://www.epiphone.com/History.aspx#EpiphoneAndGibson. 
  29. ^ a b c d Felten, E. (26 August 2011). "Guitar frets: Environmental enforcement leaves musicians in fear". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 1 September 2011. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424053111904787404576530520471223268.html. Retrieved 1 September 2011. 
  30. ^ a b Wadhwani, A.; Paine, A. (25 August 2011). "Gibson Guitar raided but lips zipped". The Tennessean. Archived from the original on 26 August 2011. http://www.tennessean.com/article/20110825/NEWS01/308250049/Gibson-Guitar-raided-but-lips-zipped. Retrieved 26 August 2011. 
  31. ^ Lind, J.R. (29 December 2010). "Federal agent: Gibson wood investigation likely to result in indictments". NashvillePost.com. Archived from the original on 10 July 2011. http://nashvillepost.com/news/2010/12/29/federal_agent_gibson_wood_investigation_likely_to_result_in_indictments. 
  32. ^ "Statement in Response to the United States Fish & Wildlife Service's Investigation of Gibson Guitar Corporation". Rainforest Alliance. 2010. Archived from the original on 10 July 2011. http://www.rainforest-alliance.org/forestry/gibson-usfws. 
  33. ^ "Gibson/Lacey Act Update". Home Furnishings Business. 6 July 2011. Archived from the original on 10 July 2011. http://www.hfbusiness.com/article/doj-says-gibson-lacks-legal-standing-claim-ownership-ebony#utm_source=hfbusiness.com&utm_medium=article_page&utm_campaign=tools. 
  34. ^ a b c "Endangered species trafficking: What did Gibson Guitar know?". mongabay.com. 7 July 2011. Archived from the original on 23 August 2011. http://news.mongabay.com/2011/0706-ebony_gibson.html. Retrieved 23 August 2011. 
  35. ^ "Update: CEO's Outrage Gets Media Buzzing". Gibson Guitar Corp.. 26 August 2011. Archived from the original on 1 September 2011. http://www.gibson.com/en-us/Lifestyle/News/ceo-outrage-0826-2011/. Retrieved 1 September 2011. 
  36. ^ a b "Gibson Guitars fails to squash illegal wood investigation". Sound & Fair. 19 January 2011. Archived from the original on 1 September 2011. http://soundandfair.org/gibson-guitars-fails-to-overturn-illegal-madagascan-rosewood-and-ebony-charge. Retrieved 1 September 2011. 
  37. ^ a b "Gibson Guitar Corp. responds to federal raid". Gibson Guitar Corp.. 25 August 2011. Archived from the original on 1 September 2011. http://www.gibson.com/en-us/Lifestyle/News/gibson-0825-2011/. Retrieved 1 September 2011. 
  38. ^ Trotter, J. (25 August 2011). "Endangered lemurs could be connected to Gibson raid". WMCTV.com. Archived from the original on 26 August 2011. http://downtown.wmctv.com/news/news/58234-endangered-lemurs-could-be-connected-gibson-raid. Retrieved 26 August 2011. 
  39. ^ Stern, Andrew (25 August 2011). "Gibson Guitar to fight U.S. probe of its wood imports". Reuters. Archived from the original on 1 September 2011. http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/25/industry-us-gibsonguitar-probe-idUSTRE77O7KC20110825. Retrieved 1 September 2011. 
  40. ^ a b c Clarke, C.; Grant, A. (4 May 2011). "Are your wood products really certified?". wri.org. Archived from the original on 23 August 2011. http://www.wri.org/stories/2011/05/are-your-wood-products-really-certified. Retrieved 23 August 2011. 
  41. ^ Simmons, L. (31 August 2011). "Raid highlights music manufacturers' environmental risks". bizmology.com. Archived from the original on 1 September 2011. http://www.bizmology.com/2011/08/31/raid-highlights-music-manufacturers-environmental-risks/. Retrieved 1 September 2011. 
  42. ^ Eilperin, J. (13 November 2011). "Gibson Guitar ignites debate over environmental protections". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 16 November 2011. http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/gibson-guitar-ignites-debate-over-environmental-protections/2011/11/11/gIQAACDtIN_print.html. Retrieved 16 November 2011. 

External links[link]

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Related pages:

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http://de.wn.com/Gibson Guitar Corporation




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