Radama I
King of Madagascar
Reign	1810–1828
Coronation	1810
Predecessor	Andrianampoinimerina
Successor	Ranavalona I
Spouse	Ramavo
Father	Andrianampoinimerina
Mother	Rambolamasoandro
Born	1793 Ambohimanga
Died	1828 (age 32) Rova of Antananarivo
Burial	1828 Tomb of Radama I, Rova of Antananarivo

Radama I "the Great" (1793–1828), the first king of greater Madagascar from 1810 to 1828, united two-thirds of the island under his rule. He had twelve Great Wives, one of them his adopted sister Ranavalona I who would emerge victorious in the struggle for succession after his premature death.

Reign[link]

In 1810, at the age of 17, Radama succeeded his father Andrianampoinimerina as king of Imerina, a growing kingdom in the central plateau of the island around Antananarivo.^[1] Several of the principalities conquered by his father revolted upon news of Andrianampoinimerina's death, immediately obliging the young ruler to embark on military campaigns to put down the rebellions and secure his position. He successfully expanded his realm to the Indian Ocean in 1817 after seizing the eastern port town of Antsiranana with an army of 30,000 soldiers.^[1]

A shrewd diplomat, he successfully played off competing British and French interests while opening Madagascar to exchanges with foreign powers.^[1] The British were interested in securing the passage to India and preventing the French from taking Madagascar. Although the French had been weakened by losing Réunion and Mauritius to the British in 1810, the British at the time did not have enough available resources to possess Madagascar themselves. They settled on an alliance with Radama that supported his rule and ensured a privileged position for the British in regards to trade. British Governor Robert Townsend Farquhar, based in Mauritius, committed to training and supporting Radama's army.^[1] The Anglo-Merina treaty of friendship was sealed by a blood oath between Radama and the British envoy Captain Le Sage in 1817. As part of the treaty Radama agreed to put an end to the profitable slave trade; nevertheless slave-dealing continued clandestinely at a reduced level.

French language workbook of Radama I

As a result of the treaty social and political changes occurred: Radama organized a cabinet, and invited the Protestant London Missionary Society (LMS) to establish schools and churches. The LMS also brought a printing press and Welshmen David Jones and David Griffiths adapted the Latin alphabet for the Malagasy language, replacing the Arabico-Malagasy script previously in use. It was under Radama's rule that LMS missionaries(with notable contributions from Scottsman James Cameron) set up craft industries in wood, metal, leather, and cotton, transcribed the Malagasy language using the Latin script, introduced the first printing press, translated and printed Bibles in the Malagasy language and oversaw Radama's plan to establish dozens of schools offering compulsory literacy courses and basic education for the nobles of Imerina.

Illustration of Radama reviewing his troops (1825)

During this time and with the help of the British support, Radama’s military became the dominant force allowing him to unify by force the island. Expanding the boundaries of the kingdom, he first took over the area of the Betsileo tribe in the southern part of the island. His army took key eastern territories and several in the west. In 1825 he conquered the French settlement of Fort Dauphin at the southern end of the island, establishing the sovereignty of the island and securing his position as its rightful ruler. In each newly conquered territory, administrative posts were built within fortified garrisons (rova) on the model of the original Rova of Antananarivo. These were staffed with Merina colonists called voanjo ("peanuts"). Marriages of alliance were often contracted between Radama and key female nobles in the territories he brought under his rule. By the time of his death in 1828, the only parts of the island not under his control were the southern lands of the Mahafaly, Antandroy and Bara.^[1]

Death[link]

Radama died prematurely on July 27, 1828, at his residence (the Tranovola).^[3] Historical sources provide conflicting accounts regarding his cause of death. Radama was prone to drinking heavily, and shortly before his death he displayed symptoms of advanced alcoholism as his health rapidly declined. Explanations include the emotional strain caused by years of warfare^[1] and pressure to live up to his celebrated father, King Andrianampoinimerina.^[2] He may have simply fallen victim to the disease. However, the king had recently struggled with an acute affliction of the throat, and it was rumored that his corpse had been discovered with its throat slashed by a dagger. This in turn gave rise to speculation whether he had inadvertently or deliberately killed himself in a drunken fit of delerium tremens, or whether his own wife and future queen Ranavalona I may have arranged or even committed the murder of the king herself.^[4] While the exact circumstances of his death remain unclear, his death was officially declared to be the consequence of heavy intoxication.^[1]

Tomb of King Radama I (right), 1885

Radama was buried in a stone tomb on the grounds of the Rova of Antananarivo. Per Malagasy architectural norms, his tomb was topped with a trano masina ("sacred house") symbolic of royalty. Like his father Andrianampoinimerina and other Merina sovereigns that would follow him, he was laid to rest in a silver coffin, and it is said the funerary goods buried with him were the most extensive and richest of any tomb in Madagascar. These included a deep red silk lamba mena, imported paintings of European royalty, thousands of coins, eighty articles of clothing, swords, jewels, gold vases, containers of silver and so forth. Alongside each interior wall of the trano masina were a mirror, bed, several chairs and a table upon which were placed two porcelain water vessels and one bottle each of water and rum that were replenished annually during the fandroana (festival of the royal bath).^[5] Most of these items were lost when a 1995 fire destroyed the Rova of Antananarivo where the tomb was located.^[5]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Radama I

• Precolonial Madagascar history

Radama II
Radama II with crown
King of Madagascar
Reign	August 16, 1861 – May 12, 1863
Coronation	September 23, 1862
Predecessor	Ranavalona I
Successor	Rasoherina
Spouse	Rasoherina (as Rabodo) Ranavalona II (as Ramoma) Marie Rasoamieja[1]
Father	Andriamihaja
Mother	Ranavalona I
Born	September 23, 1829 Imasoandro, Rova of Antananarivo
Died	May 12, 1863 (age 33) – contested[2] Rova of Antananarivo – contested[2]
Burial	1863/1897 – contested[2] Ilafy/Tomb of the Kings, Rovan'Antananarivo – contested[2] (re-interred)

Radama II (September 23, 1829 – May 12, 1863 [assumed dead]) was the son and heir of Queen Ranavalona I and ruled from 1861 to 1863 over the Kingdom of Madagascar, which controlled virtually the entire island. Radama's rule, although brief, was a pivotal period in the history of the Kingdom of Madagascar. Under the unyielding and often harsh 33-year rule of his mother, Queen Ranavalona I, Madagascar had successfully preserved its cultural and political independence from French and British designs. Rejecting the queen's policy of isolationism and Christian persecution, Radama II permitted religious freedom and re-opened Madagascar to European influence. Under the terms of the Lambert Charter, which Radama secretly contracted in 1855 with French entrepreneur Joseph-François Lambert while Ranavalona yet ruled, the French were awarded exclusive rights to the exploitation of large tracts of valuable land and other lucrative resources and projects. This agreement, which was later revoked by Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony, was key to establishing France's claim over Madagascar as a protectorate and, in 1896, as a colony.

The dramatic contrast between Ranavalona's isolationism and her son's pro-European stance represented an abrupt reversal of policy that threatened the traditional sociopolitical order. Radama's absolutism in pursuing dramatic reforms in disregard of the advice of his ministers ultimately turned them against him. In a coup led by his Prime Minister, Rainivoninahitriniony, Radama II was strangled on May 12, 1863. His wife Rabodo, who took the throne name Rasoherina, was allowed by the ministers to succeed her husband on the condition that she and future sovereigns would no longer rule unilaterally, but rather in concert with the Hova (the class of free citizens) as represented by the position of Prime Minister. The public was informed that Radama had committed suicide and that his body had been unceremoniously interred in a tomb in Ilafy. However, there soon emerged rumors – believed by prominent foreigners Jean Laborde and William Ellis – that Radama lived and was making plans to reclaim the throne. A strong case has since been made on the basis of significant evidence that Radama may indeed have revived after the strangling and lived to old age in anonymity near Lake Kinkony in the northwestern part of the island.

Upbringing and early years[link]

Radama II was born Prince Rakoto (Rakotosehenondradama) on September 23, 1829 in the Imasoandro building on the compound of the Rova of Antananarivo.^[3] He was officially recognized as the son of King Radama I and his widow Queen Ranavalona I, although the king had died more than nine months before the prince's birth. He was likely fathered by a lover of his mother, Andriamihaja, a progressive young officer of the Merina army who the queen may have been tricked into putting to death by conservative ministers at court.^[4]

After his mother succeeded Radama I on the throne, she instituted an increasingly regressive regime that attempted to restore traditional values and contain or eliminate westernization.^[5] The prince, however, who had been highly influenced by the French adviser to the queen, Joseph-François Lambert, was favorably impressed by European culture, knowledge and its state of economic, political and technological development, and was troubled by some of the socially repressive policies pursued by Ranavalona I.^[4] According to a British account, the French played on this sympathy in 1855 by pressuring Prince Rakoto into signing a request for French aid that would have enabled France to establish control over Madagascar had the true nature of the letter and its signing not been uncovered by Rakoto and his British contacts^[4] An alternate explanation was offered by Lambert, who maintained that the prince had knowingly supported the attempt to put an end to his mother's harsh policies, and was a willing collaborator in a failed 1857 plot to remove her from the throne.^[6]

Prior to Queen Ranavalona's death, the conservative and progressive factions within the Merina court waged a tactical power struggle to secure a successor favorable to their own political agenda.^[5] The conservative faction favored Ramboasalama, the son of the Queen's sister, while the Queen's Prime Minister, Rainivoninahitriniony and head of the army, Rainilaiarivony, brothers and progressives, supported Radama II. The latter successfully obtained key strategic allies within the court that enabled Radama to seize the throne without violence following his mother's death. Ramboasalama was obliged to swear a public oath of allegiance to Radama, and was later sent into exile in the highland village of Ambohimirimo where he died in April 1962.^[4]

Reign[link]

Prince Rakoto acceded to the throne on August 16, 1861 upon the natural death of his mother, Queen Ranavalona I, assuming the throne name Radama II. His coronation ceremony was held the following year on September 23, 1862.^[3] Once upon the throne, he immediately initiated a rapid and dramatic reversal of many of his mother's traditionalist policies.^[4] He reopened the country to foreign powers and concluded treaties of friendship with Britain and France. The Lambert Charter opened up business possibilities for French investors. Freedom of religion was declared, persecution of Christians ceased, missionaries returned to the island and their schools were reopened. Radama abolished the traditional trial by ordeal of tangena, in which the guilt or innocence of an accused person was determined based on the outcome of consuming the poison of the tangena nut, and inhabitants of Antananarivo were permitted to raise swine within the city walls, a practice previously forbidden by a fady (taboo) forbidding them from being kept near the royal talismans (sampy). The sampy were dispersed to the sacred villages where they had originated under 16th-century Merina king Ralambo and other early monarchs.^[4] Significantly, Radama freed numerous political prisoners captured under Ranavalona I during provincial wars of subjugation and offered repatriation of confiscated property. This pardon was reciprocated by many of the beneficiary ethnic groups around the island, and good will between the coasts and central administration at Antananarivo improved significantly.^[4] These changes, and the king himself, were unequivocally praised by Madagascar's European partners:

"It is most remarkable that Radama II should have formed views of policy so large and liberal, so enlightened, humane and patriotic as those which form the foundation of his throne; that the son of such a mother, trained up under a despotism so dark, and restrictive and cruel, should have adopted such principles of religious freedom and political economy, as equal civil liberty and universal free trade principles, which our own nation has been so slow to learn, and which are still repudiated in many lands where civilization is far advanced."

—Ebenezer Prout, Madagascar: Its Mission and Its Martyrs (1863)^[7]

The reaction within Imerina was less one-sided. The abrupt and dramatic policy changes pursued by the progressive king both alienated and disfranchised the established conservative factions among the andriana (nobles) and Hova (freemen) at court. Especially controversial were the special privileges accorded to Joseph-François Lambert and his partners under the Lambert Charter, including the exclusive implementation of public works projects (felling trees, making roads, building canals etc.), control over minting coinage, lucrative mining rights and more as part of the purview of Lambert's proposed Compagnie de Madagascar (French Madagascar Company). The citizens' concern stemmed primarily from clauses in the agreement that would have permitted Lambert's company to become permanent owners of Malagasy lands. Until this point, land in Madagascar, which was viewed by the populace as the sacred ground of the ancestors, could only ever be temporarily possessed by foreigners until their death, at which point the land would revert to the crown. The threat of permanently losing any part of sacred Malagasy soil to foreigners was deeply troubling.^[4][a]

Assassination plot[link]

King Radama II walks with his wife Rabodo, who would become Queen Rasoherina after the coup against her husband.

The legalization of dueling was ultimately the issue that brought to a head the tension between King Radama II's entourage (mostly friends and some established political figures, known collectively as the menamaso or "red-eyes") and representatives of the opposition led by Radama's prime minister Rainivoninahitriniony.^[4] On May 7, 1863, Radama II announced his intention to allow disputes to be settled by a duel, much to the disapproval of many of his advisers at court who feared the practice would lead to anarchy. The prime minister prevented the law from being publicly declared at the Zoma (Friday) market the following day. Friday afternoon, the prime minister's younger brother, Rainilaiarivony, who was head of the army, called several thousand troops into the city to besiege a number of the menamaso and members of the royal family at the Rova palace compound, and by Saturday morning the decision had been made and carried out to execute eleven of the menamaso and other key political figures who had counseled Radama to legalize dueling. On Sunday, May 10, Rainivoninahitriniony demanded that Radama hand over the menamaso he was sheltering in the palace, which he refused to do until the Prime Minister agreed to spare their lives; they were handed over but by Monday morning had all been speared to death.^[4]

The drama ended on Tuesday morning, May 12, 1863, when a group of officers and soldiers forced their way into the Rova and seized the king.^[3] His wife, Queen Rabodo, pleaded for his life to be spared and attempted to stop them but was forcibly removed. The soldiers threw a lamba over Radama's head and strangled him with a silk sash until he was believed to be dead, thereby avoiding the shedding of royal blood as was the custom for royal executions in Imerina.^[4]

The nobles informed Rabodo that she would have their support as queen on the condition that she would accept to abide by certain articles that would form a new contract between rulers and ruled in Madagascar^[7]:

"For the future the word of the sovereign alone was not to be law, but that the sovereign, the nobles and the heads of the people were to unite in making the laws; that the friendship with foreigners was to be maintained; that no one was to be put to death on the word of the sovereign alone, but that the nobles and the heads of the people must concur in the sentence before it could be inflicted; that religion and worship were to be equally free to all – to natives and foreigners, to Christians and non-Christians – excepting in Ambohimanga where there should be no public worship. The ordeal of tangena was not to be used, but death should be inflicted for great crimes."

—Ebenezer Prout, Madagascar: Its Mission and Its Martyrs (1863)^[7]

Rabodo agreed to these conditions. The next morning, it was publicly announced in the marketplace that Radama had taken his own life due to grief over the deaths of his compatriots the menamaso and that Rabodo would succeed him as Queen Rasoherina. To cement the new power-sharing agreement between the ruler, the nobles and the heads of the people, a political marriage was contracted between the queen and Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony, who had been instrumental in her first husband's death.^[7] Radama's name was struck from the list of kings and it was declared illegal to mourn his death.^[9]

Rumors of survival[link]

Following Radama II's apparent death, rumors spread that he had only been rendered unconscious by the attempt on his life and had revived as his body was being transported to Ilafy for interment in his designated tomb. French historian Delval presents evidence that supports a scenario wherein the group tasked with carrying Radama's body to Ilafy became frightened as the king began to revive, prompting them to abandon the body and then falsely maintain that they had completed their task to place him in the tomb.^[2] Within months after his reported death, rumors began circulating that Radama was alive, residing on the west coast of the island and was amassing supporters for a political comeback. The rumors persisted to the point of causing political turmoil in Antananarivo.^[9] These claims may have had some substance judging by the actions of others. Prominent Christian missionaries outside the capital made extensive efforts to visit and support Radama but seemingly never succeeded. Traditionalist factions within the government were concerned enough by the rumors to have put to death sixteen of his supporters, as well as fining hundreds of others.^[10] According to evidence in Delval's study, Radama may indeed have survived and, failing to regain the throne, lived to old age as an ordinary citizen in the north of the island.^[5]

With the apparent murder of Radama II, the power of the Merina monarchs was broken. Subsequent monarchs were controlled by influential Hova, particularly Rainilaiarivony, who became Prime Minister after his brother and successively married all three remaining queens of the monarchy: Rasoherina, Ranavalona II and Ranavalona III.^[5]

Notes[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Radama II

References[link]

Lorella Cuccarini
Lorella Cuccarini, June 2008
Born	(1965-08-10)August 10, 1965 Rome, Italy

Lorella Cuccarini (born August 10, 1965) is an Italian dancer, singer, television host and actress.

Discography[link]

Albums[link]

• Lorel (1987)
• Voci (1993)
• Voglia di fare (1995)
• Le più belle canzoni (1986)

Singles[link]

• "Sugar Sugar" (1985)
• "Kangarù" (1986)
• "Tutto matto" (1987)
• "L'amore è" (with Alessandra Martines)
• "Io ballerò" (1987)
• "La notte vola" (1988)
• "Magic" (1990; English version of "La notte vola")
• "Ascolta il cuore" (1991)
• "Liberi liberi" (1991)
• "Un altro amore no" (1995)
• "Uno di noi" (2002)
• "Un'onda d'amore" (2008)

External links[link]

• Lorella Cuccarini at the Internet Movie Database

Monica Bellucci
Monica Bellucci at the Women's World Award 2009
Born	Monica Anna Maria Bellucci (1964-09-30) 30 September 1964 (age 47) Città di Castello, Umbria, Italy
Nationality	Italian
Occupation	Actress and fashion model
Years active	1990–present
Spouse	Vincent Cassel (1999–present)
Children	2

Monica Anna Maria Bellucci (Italian pronunciation: [ˈmɔnika belˈluttʃi]; born 30 September 1964)^[1] is an Italian actress and fashion model.

Early life[link]

Bellucci was born in Città di Castello, Umbria, Italy^[2][3] as the only child of Luigi Bellucci.^[4]

Career[link]

Modeling[link]

Monica Bellucci began modeling at age 13 by posing for a local photo enthusiast.^[5]

Monica Bellucci at Cannes Film Festival in 2002.

In 1988,Bellucci moved to one of Europe's fashion centers, Milan, where she signed with Elite Model Management. By 1989, she was becoming prominent as a fashion model in Paris and across the Atlantic, in New York City. She posed for Dolce & Gabbana and French Elle, among others. In that year, Bellucci made the transition to acting and began taking acting classes. The February 2001 Esquire's feature on Desire featured Bellucci on the cover and in an article on the five senses. In 2003, she was featured in Maxim.^[6] Men's Health also named her one of the "100 Hottest Women of All-Time", ranking her at No. 21.^[7] AskMen named her the number one most desirable woman in 2002.^[8] Bellucci's modelling career is managed by Elite+ in New York City. She is considered an Italian sex symbol.^[9][10][11] From 2006 to 2010 she was the face of a range of Dior products.^[12] Bellucci is signed to D'management group in Milan and also to Storm Model Management in London.^[13]

In 2004, while pregnant with her daughter Deva, Bellucci posed nude for the Italian Vanity Fair Magazine in protest against Italian laws that prevent the use of donor sperm.^[14] She posed pregnant and semi-nude again for the magazine's April 2010 issue.^[15]

In 2012 she became the Dolce & Gabbana face.^[16]

Acting[link]

Bellucci's film career began in the early 1990s. She played some minor roles in La Riffa (1991) and Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992). In 1996 she was nominated for a César Award for best supporting actress for her portrayal of Lisa in L'Appartement^[17] and strengthened her position as an actress. She became known and popular with worldwide audiences, following her roles in Malèna (2000), Brotherhood of the Wolf, and Irréversible (2002). She has since played in many films from Europe and Hollywood like Tears of the Sun (2003), The Matrix Reloaded (2003), The Passion of the Christ (2004), The Brothers Grimm (2005), Le Deuxième souffle (2007), Don't Look Back (2009), and The Sorcerer's Apprentice (2010).

She was supposed to be seen portraying Indian politician Sonia Gandhi in the biopic Sonia, originally planned for release in 2007, but it has been shelved.^[18]

Bellucci dubbed her own voice for the French and Italian releases of the film Shoot 'Em Up (2007).^[19] She also voiced Kaileena in the video game Prince of Persia: Warrior Within, and the French voice of Cappy for the French version of the 2005 animated film Robots.

She is for Empire, for her role of "Persephone" in Matrix, one of "The Sexiest 25 Characters In Cinema".^[20]

Personal life[link]

Bellucci is married to French actor Vincent Cassel, with whom she has appeared in several films. They have two daughters, Deva (born 2004) and Léonie (born 2010).^[21][22]

In the documentary movie The Big Question, about the film The Passion of the Christ, she stated: "I am an agnostic, even though I respect and am interested in all religions. If there's something I believe in, it's a mysterious energy; the one that fills the oceans during tides, the one that unites nature and beings."^[23]

Awards and nominations[link]

Wins[link]

• 2003 – Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists: Silver Ribbon for Best Supporting Actress (Ricordati di me)
• 2005 – Golden Globes, Italy: European Golden Globe

Nominations[link]

• 1997 – César Awards for Best Promising Actress (L'appartement)
• 2001 – European Film Awards: Audience Award for Best Actress (Malèna)
• 2002 – Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films: Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress (Brotherhood of the Wolf)
• 2003 – Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films: Cinescape Genre Face of the Future Award for Best Female (The Matrix Reloaded) and (The Matrix Revolutions)
• 2003 – David di Donatello Awards for Best Supporting Actress (Ricordati di me)
• 2003 – Teen Choice Awards for Choice Movie Female Breakout Star (The Matrix Reloaded) & (Tears of the Sun)
• 2004 – MTV Movie Awards for Best Kiss (The Matrix Reloaded)
• 2005 – Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists: Silver Ribbon for Best Supporting Actress (The Passion of the Christ)
• 2007 – Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists: Silver Ribbon for Best Supporting Actress (N (Io e Napoleone))

Filmography[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

Film portal

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Monica Bellucci

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Monica Bellucci

• Monica Bellucci at the Internet Movie Database
• Monica Bellucci at BFI Film & TV Database
• Monica Bellucci at the Fashion Model Directory
• Monica Bellucci at AllRovi
• Monica Bellucci at Yahoo! Movies
• Corliss, Richard (10 March 2003). "It's Monica Mania". TIME. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1004378,00.html. Retrieved 26 May 2007. 

Francesca Neri
Born	(1964-02-10) 10 February 1964 (age 48) Trento, Italy

Francesca Neri (born 10 February 1964) is an Italian actress.

Neri was born in Trento,^[1] she has twice received the Silver Ribbon Award for Best Actress from the Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists, for Pensavo fosse amore invece era un calesse, directed by Massimo Troisi (1991) and Carne trémula (Live Flesh) (1997).

She has also received three nominations for the David di Donatello Award (Italy's equivalent of the Oscar), as Best Actress in Il dolce rumore della vita and Io amo Andrea (both 1999) and as Best Supporting Actress for La felicità non costa niente (2003).

Other notable films include her three films in Spain: Live Flesh (1997, by Pedro Almodóvar, ¡Dispara! (Outrage, 1993, by Carlos Saura), both with her own voice speaking Spanish, and sex drama film Las edades de Lulú (The Ages of Lulu, 1990, by Bigas Luna, where she's dubbed into Spanish).

After years of highly acclaimed work in Europe, she first received widespread notice in America when she played the role of Allegra, wife of the Inspector Rinaldo Pazzi in the Hollywood blockbuster, Hannibal in 2001. In 2002, she played the Colombian wife of Claudio Perrini, and co-starred alongside Arnold Schwarzenegger in Collateral Damage.

Neri has one son, Rocco (born 1989), with actor Claudio Amendola.

Selected filmography[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Francesca Neri

• Francesca Neri at the Internet Movie Database

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