Heptarchy

Friday, 04 January 2013

Cephalic Carnage - Heptarchy (In The UK)

Ancient Maps - The Heptarchy ( circa 700 )

Canterbury Cathedral, St Augustine's Abbey, and St ... (UNESCO/NHK)

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Alvingham
Coordinates: 53°24′01″N 0°02′57″E / 53.400392°N 0.049266°E / 53.400392; 0.049266
Alvingham is a village that lies on a small back road leading east out of Louth, Lincolnshire, England.
In the west of the parish, it borders Keddington. The parish boundary meets Brackenborough with Little Grimsby, east of Brackenborough Wood. Passing northwards, it meets Yarburgh, and crosses the Alvingham-Yarburgh road near Newholme. It follows Black Dike in a north-east direction, north of America Farm. Where it crosses the north-south Louth Canal, it briefly meets Grainthorpe.
On Alvingham Fen it meets Conisholme and the Seven Towns North Eau, a one of the constituents of the River Lud as it approaches the coast. Directly to the east is a large wind farm on Conisholme Fen. The boundary follows the Seven Towns North Eau southwards, to the west of Nunnitts Farm (outside the parish). It meets North Cockerington at the point the Seven Towns North Eau, Seven Towns South Eau, and Old Eau meet to form the River Lud. The river (and parish boundary) runs parallel, to the south, to the Louth Canal.

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Arlingham
Coordinates: 51°47′46″N 2°25′26″W / 51.796°N 2.424°W / 51.796; -2.424
Arlingham is a village and civil parish in the Stroud District of Gloucestershire, England. The 200 Census recorded a parish population of 410. The parish occupies a peninsula on a sharp bend in the River Severn. The next parish to the east is Fretherne with Saul.
In Passage Road is a fish restaurant called the Passage Inn. Arlingham FC, based near the parish church, is in Stroud League Division Four. The church has some of the oldest stained glass windows in Gloucestershire.
A Ham class minesweeper was named after the village - HMS Arlingham.
The centre of the village is built around The Cross and includes the Red Lion, a large public house partly dating from the 16th century. The village shop closed in 2007.
Arlingham is on the course of a Roman road which crossed the Severn (by a ford or ferry) to Newnham. The ford was in use until the 19th century but a change in the course of the river in 1802 made the ford difficult. The ferry continued in use until after the Second World War. In 1810 the Severn Tunnel Company secured an Act of Parliament to build a tunnel under the river here, and there were various schemes for a bridge, most recently in 1950.

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Bernicia
Bernicia (Old English: Bernice, Beornice; Latin: Bernicia) was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom established by Anglian settlers of the 6th century in what is now southeastern Scotland and North East England.
The Anglian territory of Bernicia was approximately equivalent to the modern English counties of Northumberland and Durham, and the former Scottish counties of Berwickshire and East Lothian, stretching from the Forth to the Tees. In the early 7th century, it merged with its southern neighbour, Deira, to form the kingdom of Northumbria and its borders subsequently expanded considerably.
Bernicia is mentioned in the 9th-century Historia Brittonum (§ 61) under the Welsh name of Berneich or Birneich and in Old Welsh poetry and elsewhere under the name of Bryneich or Brynaich. This may reflect the name of a preceding Brythonic kingdom or province, which was subsequently adopted by the Anglian settlers and rendered as Bernice or Beornice in the Old English tongue. If such forms represent a Welsh version of Bernicia, it is unclear why Welsh would need to borrow a 'foreign' name for the area, so the former hypothesis is usually accepted, although no etymological analysis has produced a consensus. The etymology which is most widely cited is that tentatively proposed by Kenneth H. Jackson, which gives the meaning "Land of the Mountain Passes" or "Land of the Gaps". The earlier derivation from the tribal name of the Brigantes has been dismissed as linguistically unsound. In 1997 John T. Koch suggested the conflation of a probable primary form *Bernech with the native form *Brïγent for the old civitas Brigantum as a result of Anglian expansion in that territory during the 7th century.

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Bristol
Bristol ⁱ/ˈbrɪstəl/ is a city, unitary authority area and ceremonial county in South West England, with an estimated population of 433,100 for the unitary authority in 2009, and a surrounding Larger Urban Zone (LUZ) with an estimated 1,070,000 residents in 2007. It is England's sixth and the United Kingdom's eighth most populous city, one of the group of English Core Cities and the most populous city in South West England.
Historically within Gloucestershire, the city received a Royal Charter in 1155 and was granted County status in 1373. From the 13th century, for half a millennium, it ranked amongst the top three English cities after London, alongside York and Norwich, on the basis of tax receipts, until the rapid rise of Liverpool, Birmingham and Manchester during the Industrial Revolution in the latter part of the 18th century. It borders the counties of Somerset and Gloucestershire, and is also located near the historic cities of Bath to the south east and Gloucester to the north. The city is built around the River Avon, and it also has a short coastline on the Severn Estuary, which flows into the Bristol Channel.

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College of Arms
The College of Arms or Herald's College is a royal corporation consisting of professional officers of arms, with jurisdiction over England, Wales, Northern Ireland and some Commonwealth realms. The heralds are appointed by the British Sovereign and are delegated authority to act on her behalf in all matters of heraldry, the granting of new coats of arms, genealogical research and the recording of pedigrees. Though a part of the Royal Household of the United Kingdom the College is self-financed, unsupported by any public funds.
Founded by royal charter in 1484 by King Richard III, the College is one of the few remaining official heraldic authorities in Europe. Within the United Kingdom, there are two such authorities, the Court of the Lord Lyon in Scotland and the College for the rest of the United Kingdom. The College has had its home in the City of London since its foundation, and has been at its present location on Queen Victoria Street since 1555. The College of Arms also undertakes and consults on the planning of many ceremonial occasions such as coronations, state funerals, the annual Garter Service and the State Opening of Parliament. Heralds of the College accompany the sovereign on many of these occasions.

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Danelaw
The Danelaw, as recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (also known as the Danelagh; Old English: Dena lagu; Danish: Danelagen), is a historical name given to the part of England in which the laws of the "Danes" held sway and dominated those of the Anglo-Saxons. It is contrasted with "West Saxon law" and "Mercian law". The term has been extended by modern historians to be geographical. The areas that comprised the Danelaw are in northern and eastern England. The origins of the Danelaw arose from the Viking expansion of the 9th century, although the term was not used to describe a geographic area until the 11th century. With the increase in population and productivity in Scandinavia, Viking warriors, having sought treasure and glory in the nearby British Isles, "proceeded to plough and support themselves", in the words of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, for the year 876.
Danelaw is also used to describe the set of legal terms and definitions created in the treaties between the English king, Alfred the Great, and the Danish warlord, Guthrum, written following Guthrum's defeat at the Battle of Edington in 878. In 886, the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum was formalised, defining the boundaries of their kingdoms, with provisions for peaceful relations between the English and the Vikings.

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Deira
Deira (Old English: Derenrice (Scandinavian: Deren Riket; Germanic Deren Reich) or Dere) was a kingdom in Northern England during the 6th century AD. It extended from the Humber to the Tees, and from the sea to the western edge of the Vale of York. It later merged with the kingdom of Bernicia to the north to form the kingdom of Northumbria.
The name of the kingdom is of Brythonic origin, perhaps from Deifr, meaning "waters", or from Daru, meaning "oak", in which case it would mean "the people of the Derwent", a derivation also found in the Latin name for Malton, Derventio.
According to Simeon of Durham it extended from the Humber to the Tyne, but the land was waste north of the Tees. After the Brythonic kingdom centered around Eboracum, which may have been called Ebrauc, was taken by Edwin, the city of Eboracum became its capital and was called Eoforwic (boar-place) by the Angles. Before this it is likely that the capital would have been at or near Pocklington.
The first Deiran Anglian king of whom we have any record is Ælla, who flourished in the later 6th century after conquering the realm from the Britons in 581. After his death, Deira was subject to king Æthelfrith of Bernicia, who united the two kingdoms into Northumbria. Æthelfrith ruled until the accession of Ælla's son Edwin, in 616 or 617, who also ruled both kingdoms until 633.

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Duddeston
Duddeston is an inner-city area of the Nechells ward of Birmingham, England. It was part of the Birmingham Duddeston constituency until that ceased to exist in 1950.
The name Duddeston comes from Dud's Town, with Dud being the Saxon proprietor, Lord of Dudley who probably had a seat in Duddeston. It was speculated that Duddeston came from Dudda's tun but nothing is known of Dudda.
Duddeston is first mentioned in a charter granted to Wulfget the Thane by Eadgar, King of the Angles in 963. There is no mention of Duddeston for another 200 years until it said that the Holte family were the residents of Duddeston Manor, a large house located next to the River Rea. This had been purchased by the family in 1365 by the family who also owned the manor of Nechells and were related to a prominent family in Erdington. Their wealth of land expanded two years later when the manor of Aston was bestowed upon them.
100 years later, Thomas Holte became the Chief Justice of Wales and a close friend of King Henry VIII. In 1546, Thomas died and Duddeston Hall was a sign of his wealth. His grandson, also called Thomas Holte, supplied a small army in defending Ireland and for this he was knighted. He commissioned the construction of Aston Hall soon after.

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Dudley
Coordinates: 52°30′43″N 2°05′45″W / 52.5119°N 2.0957°W / 52.5119; -2.0957
Dudley (ⁱ/ˈdʌdli/ DUD-lee) is a large town in the West Midlands county of England, and the administrative centre of the wider Metropolitan Borough of Dudley. At the 2001 census (according to the Office of National Statistics), the Dudley Urban Sub Area had a population of 194,919, making it the one of the largest settlements in England, the second largest town in the United Kingdom behind Reading, and the largest settlement in the UK without its own university.
Dudley is part of the West Midlands conurbation, and is located south of the city of Wolverhampton. It is the largest town in the Black Country region of England, and for many years the town (but not the castle, which was classed as part of Staffordshire) formed part of an exclave of the county of Worcestershire. Despite the more recent changes in county borders, the town still remains part of the Anglican Diocese of Worcester.
Dudley unsuccessfully bid to receive city status in 2012, losing out to Chelmsford, Perth and St. Asaph.

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Elmet
Elmet was an independent Brythonic kingdom covering a broad area of what later became the West Riding of Yorkshire during the Early Middle Ages, between approximately the 5th century and early 7th century. Although its precise boundaries are unclear, it appears to have been bordered by the River Sheaf in the south and the River Wharfe in the east. It adjoined Deira to the north and Mercia to the south, and its western boundary appears to have been near Craven, which was possibly a minor British kingdom. As such it was well to the east of other territories of the Britons in Wales and the West Country (i.e. Cornwall and Dumnonia), and to the south of those in the Hen Ogledd or Old North. As one of the southeasternmost Brythonic regions for which there is reasonably substantial evidence, it is notable for having survived relatively late in the period of Anglo-Saxon conquest.
Elmet was invaded and conquered by Northumbria in the autumn of 616 or 626. The kingdom is chiefly attested in topographical and archaeological evidence, references in early Welsh poetry, and historical sources such as the Historia Brittonum and Bede. The name survives throughout the area in place names such as Barwick-in-Elmet and Sherburn-in-Elmet. A local parliamentary constituency is also called Elmet.

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England
England ⁱ/ˈɪŋɡlənd/ is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, while the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separate it from continental Europe. Most of England comprises the central and southern part of the island of Great Britain in the North Atlantic. The country also includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly and the Isle of Wight.
The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Palaeolithic period, but it takes its name from the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in AD 927, and since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century, has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world. The English language, the Anglican Church, and English law—the basis for the common law legal systems of many other countries around the world—developed in England, and the country's parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the world's first industrialised nation. England's Royal Society laid the foundations of modern experimental science.

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Essex
Essex ( /ˈɛsɨks/) is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in the East of England, and one of the home counties. It is located to the northeast of Greater London. It borders with Cambridgeshire and Suffolk to the north, Hertfordshire to the west, Kent to the South and London to the south west. Essex County Council is the principal local authority for much of the county, sharing functions with twelve district councils. The county town is Chelmsford. The southern Essex boroughs of Thurrock and Southend-on-Sea are governed separately as unitary authorities. It was established in antiquity and formed the eastern portion of the Kingdom of Essex. Sections of the county closer to London are part of the Metropolitan Green Belt, which prohibits development. It is the location of the regionally significant Lakeside Shopping Centre and London Stansted Airport; and the new towns of Basildon and Harlow.
The name Essex originates in the Anglo-Saxon period of the Early Middle Ages and has its root in the Old English Ēastseaxe (i.e. the "East Saxons"), the eastern kingdom of the Saxons. Originally (in 527 AD) it occupied territory to the north of the River Thames, incorporating all of what later became Middlesex and most of what later became Hertfordshire, though its territory was later restricted to lands east of the River Lea.Colchester in the north east of the county is Britain's oldest recorded town, dating back to before the Roman conquest, when it was known as Camulodunum and was sufficiently well-developed to have its own mint. Subsequently the Kingdom of Essex was subsumed into the Kingdom of England and Essex eventually became a county.

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Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain (Welsh: Prydain Fawr, Scottish Gaelic: Breatainn Mhòr, Cornish: Breten Veur) is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, the largest European island, and the largest of the British Isles. With a population of about 60.0 million people in mid-2009, it is the third most populous island in the world, after Java and Honshū. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1,000 smaller islands and islets. The island of Ireland lies to its west. Politically, Great Britain may also refer to the island itself together with a number of surrounding islands which comprise the territory of England, Scotland and Wales.
All of the island is territory of the sovereign state of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and most of the United Kingdom's territory is in Great Britain. Most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island of Great Britain, as are their respective capital cities: London, Edinburgh, and Cardiff.

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Hampshire
Hampshire (ⁱ/ˈhæmpʃɪər/ or /ˈhæmpʃər/; abbreviated Hants) is a county on the southern coast of England in the United Kingdom. The county town of Hampshire is Winchester, the former capital city of England. Hampshire is the most populous ceremonial county in the United Kingdom and if excluding newly formed metropolitan counties such as the West Midlands, Hampshire would be the most populous county in the whole of the United Kingdom. Hampshire is notable for housing the birthplaces of the Royal Navy, British Army, and Royal Air Force. The ceremonial county borders Dorset to the west, Wiltshire to the north-west, Berkshire to the north, Surrey to the north-east, and West Sussex to the east. The southern boundary is the coastline of the English Channel and The Solent.
Hampshire is the largest county in South East England and the third largest shire county in the United Kingdom despite losing more land than any other English county during the Local Government Act 1972 boundary changes. At its greatest size in 1889, Hampshire was the fifth largest county in England. It now has an overall area of 3,700 square kilometres (1,400 sq mi), and measures approximately 86 kilometres (53 mi) east–west and 76 kilometres (47 mi) north–south.

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Hastings
Coordinates: 50°51′N 0°34′E / 50.85°N 0.57°E / 50.85; 0.57
Hastings is a town and borough in the county of East Sussex on the south coast of England. The town is located 24 mi (39 km) east of the county town of Lewes and 53 mi (85 km) south east of London, and has an estimated population of 86,900.
In historical terms, Hastings can claim fame through its connection with the Norman conquest of England; and also because it became one of the medieval Cinque Ports. Hastings was, for centuries, an important fishing port; although nowadays much reduced, it still has the largest beach-based fishing fleet in England. The town became a watering place in the 1760s, and then, with the coming of the railway, a seaside resort.
The attraction of Hastings as a tourist destination continues; although the number of hotels has decreased, it caters for wider tastes, being home to internationally-based cultural and sporting events, such as chess and running. It has set out to become "a modern European town" and seeks to attract commercial business in the many industrial sites round the borough.

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Herefordshire
Herefordshire ( /ˈhɛrɨfərdʃər/; abbreviated Herefs.) is a historic and ceremonial county in the West Midlands region of England. For Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS 3 region (code UKG11) and is one of three counties that comprise the "Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Gloucestershire" NUTS 2 region. It also forms a unitary district known as the County of Herefordshire. It borders the English ceremonial counties of Shropshire to the north, Worcestershire to the east, Gloucestershire to the south-east, and the Welsh preserved counties of Gwent to the south-west and Powys to the west. Hereford is a cathedral city and is the county town; with a population of approximately 55,800 inhabitants it is also the largest settlement.
The county is one of the most rural and sparsely populated in England, with a population density of 82/km² (212/sq mi). The land use is predominantly agricultural and the county is well known for its fruit and cider production, and the Hereford cattle breed.
From 1974 to 1998, Herefordshire was part of the former non-metropolitan county of Hereford and Worcester.

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Ireland
Coordinates: 53°20′N 08°00′W / 53.333°N 8°W / 53.333; -8
Ireland (pronounced [ˈaɪrlənd] ( listen); Irish: Éire [ˈeːɾʲə] ( listen); Ulster Scots: Airlann or Airlan) is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth. To its east is the larger island of Great Britain, from which it is separated by the Irish Sea.
Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers just under five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom, which covers the remainder and is located in the northeast of the island. The population of Ireland is approximately 6.4 million. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland and just under 1.8 million live in Northern Ireland.
Relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain epitomise Ireland's geography with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild but changeable oceanic climate, which avoids extremes in temperature. Thick woodlands covered the island until the 17th century. Today, it is one of the most deforested areas in Europe. There are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland.

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Isle of Wight
The Isle of Wight is a county and the largest island of England, located in the English Channel, on average about 2–5 miles (3–7 km) off the south coast of the county of Hampshire, separated from the mainland by a strait called the Solent. The Island has many resorts which have been holiday destinations since Victorian times.
The Island has a rich history, including a brief status as an independent kingdom in the 15th century. Until 1995, like Jersey and Guernsey, the Island had its own Governor—most notably Lord Mountbatten from 1969 to 1974, after which he became Lord Lieutenant until his assassination in 1979.
It was home to the poets Swinburne and Alfred Lord Tennyson, and to Queen Victoria, who built her much-loved summer residence and final home Osborne House at East Cowes. The Island's maritime and industrial history encompasses boat building, sail making, the manufacture of flying boats, the world's first hovercraft and the testing and development of Britain's space rockets. It is home to the Isle of Wight International Jazz Festival, Bestival and the recently revived Isle of Wight Festival, which, in 1970, was the largest rock music event ever held. The Island has some exceptional wildlife and is one of the richest locations of dinosaur fossils in Europe.

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Kent
Kent /ˈkɛnt/ is a county in South East England, and one of the home counties. It borders East Sussex, Surrey and Greater London and has a defined boundary with Essex in the middle of the Thames Estuary. The ceremonial county boundaries of Kent include the shire county of Kent and the unitary borough of Medway. Kent has a nominal border with France halfway through the Channel Tunnel. Maidstone is its county town and historically Rochester and Canterbury have been accorded city status, though only the latter still holds it.
Kent's location between London and the continental Europe has led to its being in the front line of several conflicts, including the Battle of Britain during World War II. East Kent was known as Hell Fire Corner during the conflict. England has relied on the county's ports to provide warships through much of the past 800 years; the Cinque Ports in the 12th–14th centuries and Chatham Dockyard in the 16th–20th centuries were of particular importance to the country's security. France can be seen clearly in fine weather from Folkestone, and the iconic White Cliffs of Dover.

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Kingdom of England
The Kingdom of England was, from 927 to 1707, a sovereign state to the northwest of continental Europe. At its height, the Kingdom of England spanned the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain (including both modern-day England and Wales) and several smaller outlying islands; what today comprises the legal jurisdiction of England and Wales. It had a land border with the Kingdom of Scotland to the north. At the start of the period its capital and chief royal residence was Winchester, but Westminster and Gloucester were accorded almost equal status, with Westminster gradually gaining preference.
England as a state began on 12 July 927 after a gathering of kings from throughout Britain at Eamont Bridge, Cumbria, but broadly traces its origins to the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain and the Heptarchy of petty states that followed and ultimately united. The Norman invasion of Wales from 1067–1283 (formalised with the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284) put Wales in England's control, and Wales came under English law with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542. On 1 May 1707, England was united with Scotland to create the Kingdom of Great Britain under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707. Though no longer a sovereign state, modern England continues as one of the countries of the United Kingdom.

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Leicestershire
Leicestershire (ⁱ/ˈlɛstəʃɪər/ or /ˈlɛstərʃər/ or /ˈlɛstəʃə/; abbreviation Leics.) is a landlocked county in the English Midlands. It takes its name from the heavily populated City of Leicester, traditionally its administrative centre, although the City of Leicester unitary authority is today administered separately from the rest of Leicestershire. The county borders Derbyshire to the north-west, Nottinghamshire to the north, Rutland to the east, Warwickshire to the south-west, Staffordshire to the west, Lincolnshire to the north-east, and Northamptonshire to the south-east. The border with Warwickshire is Watling Street (the A5).
County Hall, situated in Glenfield, about 3 miles (5 km) north-west of Leicester city centre, is the seat of Leicestershire County Council and the headquarters of the county authority. The City of Leicester is administered from offices in Leicester itself and the City Council meets at Leicester Town Hall.
The River Soar rises to the east of Hinckley, in the far south of the county, and flows northward through Leicester before emptying into the River Trent at the point where Derbyshire, Leicestershire, and Nottinghamshire meet. A large part of the north-west of the county, around Coalville, forms part of the new National Forest area extending into Derbyshire and Staffordshire. The highest point of the county is Bardon Hill at 278 metres (912 ft), which is also a Marilyn.

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Lincolnshire
Coordinates: 53°4′N 0°11′W / 53.067°N 0.183°W / 53.067; -0.183
Lincolnshire ( /ˈlɪŋkənʃə/ or /ˈlɪŋkənʃɪə/; abbreviated Lincs) is a county in the east of England. It borders Norfolk to the south east, Cambridgeshire to the south, Rutland to the south west, Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire to the west, South Yorkshire to the northwest, and the East Riding of Yorkshire to the north. It also borders Northamptonshire in the south for just 20 yards (18 m), England's shortest county boundary. The county town is Lincoln, where the county council has its headquarters.
The ceremonial county of Lincolnshire is composed of the non-metropolitan county of Lincolnshire and the area covered by the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire and North-East Lincolnshire. Therefore, part of the ceremonial county is in the Yorkshire and the Humber region, and part is in the East Midlands region. The county is the second largest of the English counties and one that is predominantly agricultural in land use. The county can be broken down into a number of geographical sub-regions including: the Lincolnshire Fens (south Lincolnshire), the Carrs (similar to the Fens but in north Lincolnshire), the Lincolnshire Wolds, and the industrial Humber Estuary and North Sea coast around Grimsby and Scunthorpe.

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Mercia
Mercia ( /ˈmɜrsiə/, /ˈmɜrʃə/) was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. It was centred on the valley of the River Trent and its tributaries in the region now known as the English Midlands. The name is a Latinisation of the Old English Mierce or Myrce, meaning "border people".
Mercia's neighbours included Northumbria, Powys and the kingdoms of southern Wales, Wessex, Sussex, Essex and East Anglia.
The name Mercia is still in use today by a wide range of organisations, including military units, public, commercial and voluntary bodies; and occurs as a female given name.
Mercia's exact evolution from the Anglo-Saxon invasions is more obscure than that of Northumbria, Kent, or even Wessex. Also, Mercia developed an effective political structure and adopted Christianity later than the other kingdoms. Archaeological surveys show that Angles settled the lands north of the River Thames by the 6th century. The name Mercia is Old English for "boundary folk" (see Welsh Marches), and the traditional interpretation is that the kingdom originated along the frontier between the native Welsh and the Anglo-Saxon invaders. However, P. Hunter Blair argued an alternative interpretation: that they emerged along the frontier of Northumbria and the inhabitants of the Trent river valley.

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Middlesex
Middlesex ( /ˈmɪdəlsɛks/; abbreviated Middx) is one of the 39 historic counties of England and the second smallest by area. The low-lying county contained the wealthy and politically independent City of London on its southern boundary and was dominated by it from a very early time. The county was significantly affected by the expansion of the metropolitan area of London in both the 18th and 19th centuries, such that from 1855 the south-east was administered as part of the metropolis. When county councils were initially introduced in England in 1889 about 20% of the area of Middlesex, along with a third of its population, was transferred to the County of London, and the remainder formed a smaller county, in the north-west, under the control of Middlesex County Council.
In the interwar years urban London had further expanded, with increasing suburbanisation, improvement and expansion of public transport, and the setting up of new industries outside the inner London area. After the Second World War, the population of the County of London and inner Middlesex was in steady decline, with new population growth only experienced in the outer suburbs. After a Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London, almost all of the original area was incorporated into an enlarged Greater London in 1965, with small parts transferred to neighbouring Hertfordshire and Surrey. Despite the disappearance of the county council, Middlesex is still used as an area name and was retained as a postal county; which is now an optional component of postal addresses.

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Northumbria
Northumbria (Old English: Norþanhymbra / Norþhymbre) was a mediæval kingdom of the Angles, in what is now Northern England and South-East Scotland, becoming subsequently an earldom in a united Anglo-Saxon kingdom of England. The name reflects the approximate southern limit to the kingdom's territory, the Humber Estuary.
Northumbria was formed by Æthelfrith in central Great Britain in Anglo-Saxon times. At the beginning of the 7th century the two kingdoms of Bernicia and Deira were unified. (In the 12th century writings of Henry of Huntingdon the kingdom was defined as one of the Heptarchy of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.) At its greatest the kingdom extended at least from just south of the Humber, to the River Mersey and to the Forth (roughly, Sheffield to Runcorn to Edinburgh) – and there is some evidence that it may have been much greater (see map).
The later (and smaller) earldom came about when the southern part of Northumbria (ex-Deira) was lost to the Danelaw. The northern part (ex-Bernicia) at first retained its status as a kingdom but when it become subordinate to the Danish kingdom it had its powers curtailed to that of an earldom, and retained that status when England was reunited by the Wessex-led reconquest of the Danelaw. The earldom was bounded by the River Tees in the south and the River Tweed in the north (broadly similar to the modern North East England).

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Scotland
Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Alba ([ˈalˠ̪apə] listen (help·info))) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In addition to the mainland, Scotland constitutes over 790 islands including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides.
Edinburgh, the country's capital and second largest city, is one of Europe's largest financial centres. Edinburgh was the hub of the Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th century, which transformed Scotland into one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe. Glasgow, Scotland's largest city, was once one of the world's leading industrial cities and now lies at the centre of the Greater Glasgow conurbation. Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third largest city in Scotland, the title of Europe's oil capital.

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Surrey
Surrey /ˈsʌri/ is a county in the South East of England, and one of the home counties. The county borders Greater London, Kent, East Sussex, West Sussex, Hampshire, and Berkshire. The historic county town is Guildford.Surrey County Council sits at Kingston upon Thames, although this has been part of Greater London since 1965. The London boroughs of Lambeth, Wandsworth and Southwark were considered part of Surrey until 1889; and Croydon, Kingston, Merton, Sutton, Barnes and Richmond - all now reclassified as part of Greater London - were part of Surrey until 1965.
Surrey is divided into 11 boroughs and districts: Elmbridge, Epsom and Ewell, Guildford, Mole Valley, Reigate and Banstead, Runnymede, Spelthorne, Surrey Heath, Tandridge, Waverley, Woking. After the elections of 1 May 2008, the Conservatives are in control of 10 out of 11 councils in Surrey, with Epsom and Ewell in Residents Association control. The Conservatives hold all 11 Parliamentary constituencies within the county borders.

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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.

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Wales
Wales ⁱ/ˈweɪlz/ (Welsh: Cymru;Welsh pronunciation: [ˈkəm.rɨ] ( listen)) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain,bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km² (8,023 sq mi). Wales has over 1,200 km (750 mi) of coastline, including its offshore islands; the largest, Anglesey (Ynys Môn), is also the largest island in the Irish Sea. Wales is largely mountainous, with its highest peaks in the north and central areas, especially in Snowdonia (Eryri), which contains Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), its highest summit.
During the Iron Age and early medieval period, Wales was inhabited by the Celtic Britons. A distinct Welsh national identity emerged in the centuries after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, and Wales is regarded as one of the modern Celtic nations today. Gruffydd ap Llywelyn was recognised as King of Wales in 1057. Llywelyn ap Gruffydd's death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of England's conquest of Wales. The castles and town walls erected to ensure its permanence are now UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to what was to become modern Wales, in the early 15th century. Wales was subsequently annexed by England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 since when, excluding those matters now devolved to Wales, English law has been the legal system of Wales and England. Distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism and the Labour Party. Welsh national feeling grew over the century; Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and The Welsh Language Society in 1962. The National Assembly for Wales, created in 1999 following a referendum, holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters.

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Wessex
The Kingdom of Wessex ( /ˈwɛsɨks/) or Kingdom of the West Saxons (Old English: Westseaxna rīce) was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the West Saxons in South West England, from the 6th century until the emergence of a united English state under the Wessex dynasty in the 10th century. It was to be an earldom after Canute the Great's conquest of 1016, from 1020 to 1066. After the Norman Conquest there was a dissolution of the English earldoms and Wessex was split among the followers of William the Conqueror.

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York
York (local ⁱ/ˈjɔːk/) is a walled city, situated at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The city has a rich heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events throughout much of its two millennia of existence. The city offers a wealth of historic attractions, of which York Minster is the most prominent, and a variety of cultural and sporting activities.
The city was founded by the Romans in 71 AD, under the name of Eboracum. It became in turn the capital of the Roman province of Britannia Inferior, and of the kingdoms of Northumbria and Jorvik. In the Middle Ages, York grew as a major wool trading centre and became the capital of the northern ecclesiastical province of the Church of England, a role it has retained.
In the 19th century York became a hub of the railway network and a confectionery manufacturing centre. In recent decades, the economy of York has moved from being dominated by its confectionery and railway-related industries to one that provides services. The University of York and health services have become major employers, whilst tourism has become an important element of the local economy.

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Alfred the Great
Alfred the Great (Old English: Ælfrēd, Ælfrǣd, "elf counsel"; 849 – 26 October 899) was King of Wessex from 871 to 899.
Alfred successfully defended his kingdom against the Viking attempt at conquest, and by his death had become the dominant ruler in England. He is the only English monarch to be accorded the epithet "the Great". Alfred was the first King of the West Saxons to style himself "King of the Anglo-Saxons". Details of his life are described in a work by the 10th century Welsh scholar and bishop Asser. Alfred was a learned and merciful man who encouraged education and improved his kingdom's legal system and military structure.
Alfred was born in the village of Wanating, now Wantage, Oxfordshire. He was the youngest son of King Æthelwulf of Wessex, by his first wife, Osburh.
In 853, at the age of four, Alfred is said to have been sent to Rome where, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, he was confirmed by Pope Leo IV who "anointed him as king". Victorian writers interpreted this as an anticipatory coronation in preparation for his ultimate succession to the throne of Wessex. However, his succession could not have been foreseen at the time, as Alfred had three living elder brothers. A letter of Leo IV shows that Alfred was made a "consul"; a misinterpretation of this investiture, deliberate or accidental, could explain later confusion. It may also be based on Alfred's later having accompanied his father on a pilgrimage to Rome where he spent some time at the court of Charles the Bald, King of the Franks, around 854–855.

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Arosæte
The Arosæte were an Anglo-Saxon tribe that lived in the Kingdom of Mercia. According to the historian D. P. Kirby the Arosæte territory, valued at 600 hides by the Tribal Hidage, probably followed the valleys of the two River Arrows, the Worcestershire Arrow which stretches from south Warwickshire to Worcestershire and the Herefordshire Arrow in Herefordshire and Powys. With the Weorgoran to the southwest, and other tribes to the north and east, their territory may have been close to Droitwich.

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Basingas
The Basingas were an Anglo-Saxon tribe who settled in the Loddon Valley in approximately 700. Their leader, Basa, gave the tribe its name which survives today in the names of Old Basing and Basingstoke, both in Hampshire.
Old Basing was first settled around 700 by an Anglo-Saxon tribe known as the Basingas, who give the village its name (the meaning is "Basa's people"). It was the site of the Battle of Basing on 22 January 871, when a Danish army defeated Ethelred of Wessex. It is also mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086.

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Beormingas
The Beormingas ( /ˈbeɪ.ɔərmɪŋɡəs/; from Old English) were a tribe or clan in Anglo-Saxon England, possibly forming an early administrative unit of the Kingdom of Mercia. The name literally means "Beorma's people" in Old English, and Beorma is likely to have been either the leader of the group during its settlement in Britain or a real or legendary tribal ancestor. The name of the tribe is recorded in the place name Birmingham, which means "home, homestead or land-unit of the Beormingas".
It has been suggested that the Beormingas occupied a wider area, much larger than Birmingham's manor and parish and including many surrounding settlements scattered along the River Tame. Such beorminga or "Beorming" settlements could have come together in much the same way as The Rodings, a cluster of Anglo-Saxon villages established by the tribe of Hroða, who sailed up the River Thames to settle in Essex. It is possible that Anglo-Saxon place-names still in modern usage near Birmingham (Bearwood, Berwood, Brewood, Bromford, Little Bromwich, West Bromwich and Bromsgrove, for example) may reflect a link to beorminga settlements across northern parts of the Forest of Arden in Staffordshire and Warwickshire.

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Bernicia
Bernicia (Old English: Bernice, Beornice; Latin: Bernicia) was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom established by Anglian settlers of the 6th century in what is now southeastern Scotland and North East England.
The Anglian territory of Bernicia was approximately equivalent to the modern English counties of Northumberland and Durham, and the former Scottish counties of Berwickshire and East Lothian, stretching from the Forth to the Tees. In the early 7th century, it merged with its southern neighbour, Deira, to form the kingdom of Northumbria and its borders subsequently expanded considerably.
Bernicia is mentioned in the 9th-century Historia Brittonum (§ 61) under the Welsh name of Berneich or Birneich and in Old Welsh poetry and elsewhere under the name of Bryneich or Brynaich. This may reflect the name of a preceding Brythonic kingdom or province, which was subsequently adopted by the Anglian settlers and rendered as Bernice or Beornice in the Old English tongue. If such forms represent a Welsh version of Bernicia, it is unclear why Welsh would need to borrow a 'foreign' name for the area, so the former hypothesis is usually accepted, although no etymological analysis has produced a consensus. The etymology which is most widely cited is that tentatively proposed by Kenneth H. Jackson, which gives the meaning "Land of the Mountain Passes" or "Land of the Gaps". The earlier derivation from the tribal name of the Brigantes has been dismissed as linguistically unsound. In 1997 John T. Koch suggested the conflation of a probable primary form *Bernech with the native form *Brïγent for the old civitas Brigantum as a result of Anglian expansion in that territory during the 7th century.

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Bilsæte
The Bilsæte ("dwellers of the ridge") were a tribe or clan in Anglo-Saxon England living in an area surrounding a small ridge now occupied by the modern settlement of Bilston in the West Midlands of England.
A grant of land from King Aethelred bestowing Wolverhampton on Lady Wulfrun in 985 named the settlement as Bilsatena, and a later Anglo-Saxon charter of 996 calls the settlement Bilsetnatun. These names confirm the etymology (dwelling (tun) of the people (saetna) of the ridge (bil), and disproves the alternative and better known etymology for Bilston (Billestun).

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Cilternsæte
The Cilternsæte (or Ciltern Sætna) was an Anglian tribe that occupied the Chilterns, probably in the 6th century AD.
The Tribal Hidage valued their territory at 4,000 hides. This assessment is relatively large compared with those of some other tribes or central England, being 4% of the whole of Wessex. Although the Tribal Hidage suggests the tribe gave its name to the hills, the truth must be the reverse since the toponym is of Brythonic origin. Eilert Ekwall suggested that Chiltern is possibly related to the ethnic name "Celt" ("Celtæ" in early Celtic). An adjective celto- ="high" with suffix -erno- could be the origin of Chiltern.

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Danelaw
The Danelaw, as recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (also known as the Danelagh; Old English: Dena lagu; Danish: Danelagen), is a historical name given to the part of England in which the laws of the "Danes" held sway and dominated those of the Anglo-Saxons. It is contrasted with "West Saxon law" and "Mercian law". The term has been extended by modern historians to be geographical. The areas that comprised the Danelaw are in northern and eastern England. The origins of the Danelaw arose from the Viking expansion of the 9th century, although the term was not used to describe a geographic area until the 11th century. With the increase in population and productivity in Scandinavia, Viking warriors, having sought treasure and glory in the nearby British Isles, "proceeded to plough and support themselves", in the words of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, for the year 876.
Danelaw is also used to describe the set of legal terms and definitions created in the treaties between the English king, Alfred the Great, and the Danish warlord, Guthrum, written following Guthrum's defeat at the Battle of Edington in 878. In 886, the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum was formalised, defining the boundaries of their kingdoms, with provisions for peaceful relations between the English and the Vikings.

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Deira
Deira (Old English: Derenrice (Scandinavian: Deren Riket; Germanic Deren Reich) or Dere) was a kingdom in Northern England during the 6th century AD. It extended from the Humber to the Tees, and from the sea to the western edge of the Vale of York. It later merged with the kingdom of Bernicia to the north to form the kingdom of Northumbria.
The name of the kingdom is of Brythonic origin, perhaps from Deifr, meaning "waters", or from Daru, meaning "oak", in which case it would mean "the people of the Derwent", a derivation also found in the Latin name for Malton, Derventio.
According to Simeon of Durham it extended from the Humber to the Tyne, but the land was waste north of the Tees. After the Brythonic kingdom centered around Eboracum, which may have been called Ebrauc, was taken by Edwin, the city of Eboracum became its capital and was called Eoforwic (boar-place) by the Angles. Before this it is likely that the capital would have been at or near Pocklington.
The first Deiran Anglian king of whom we have any record is Ælla, who flourished in the later 6th century after conquering the realm from the Britons in 581. After his death, Deira was subject to king Æthelfrith of Bernicia, who united the two kingdoms into Northumbria. Æthelfrith ruled until the accession of Ælla's son Edwin, in 616 or 617, who also ruled both kingdoms until 633.

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Egbert of Wessex
Egbert (also spelled Ecgberht, Ecgbert or Ecgbriht; 769 or 771 – 839) was King of Wessex from 802 until his death in 839. His father was Ealhmund of Kent. In the 780s Egbert was forced into exile by Offa of Mercia and Beorhtric of Wessex, but on Beorhtric's death in 802 Egbert returned and took the throne.
Little is known of the first 20 years of Egbert's reign, but it is thought that he was able to maintain Wessex's independence against the kingdom of Mercia, which at that time dominated the other southern English kingdoms. In 825 Egbert defeated Beornwulf of Mercia and ended Mercia's supremacy at the Battle of Ellandun, and proceeded to take control of the Mercian dependencies in southeastern England. In 829 Egbert defeated Wiglaf of Mercia and drove him out of his kingdom, temporarily ruling Mercia directly. Later that year Egbert received the submission of the Northumbrian king at Dore. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle subsequently described Egbert as a bretwalda, or "Ruler of Britain".
Egbert was unable to maintain this dominant position, and within a year Wiglaf regained the throne of Mercia. However, Wessex did retain control of Kent, Sussex and Surrey; these territories were given to Egbert's son Æthelwulf to rule as a subking under Egbert. When Egbert died in 839, Æthelwulf succeeded him; the southeastern kingdoms were finally absorbed into the kingdom of Wessex after Æthelwulf's death in 858.

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Elmetsæte
Elmet was an independent Brythonic kingdom covering a broad area of what later became the West Riding of Yorkshire during the Early Middle Ages, between approximately the 5th century and early 7th century. Although its precise boundaries are unclear, it appears to have been bordered by the River Sheaf in the south and the River Wharfe in the east. It adjoined Deira to the north and Mercia to the south, and its western boundary appears to have been near Craven, which was possibly a minor British kingdom. As such it was well to the east of other territories of the Britons in Wales and the West Country (i.e. Cornwall and Dumnonia), and to the south of those in the Hen Ogledd or Old North. As one of the southeasternmost Brythonic regions for which there is reasonably substantial evidence, it is notable for having survived relatively late in the period of Anglo-Saxon conquest.
Elmet was invaded and conquered by Northumbria in the autumn of 616 or 626. The kingdom is chiefly attested in topographical and archaeological evidence, references in early Welsh poetry, and historical sources such as the Historia Brittonum and Bede. The name survives throughout the area in place names such as Barwick-in-Elmet and Sherburn-in-Elmet. A local parliamentary constituency is also called Elmet.

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English people
The English (from Old English: Englisc) are a nation and ethnic group native to England, who speak English. The English identity is of early mediaeval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Anglecynn. England is now a country of the United Kingdom, and the majority of English people in England are British Citizens. Their ethnonym is derived from the Angles, a Germanic people originally from Northern Germany who migrated to Britain.
Historically, the English population is descended from several genetically similar peoples—the earlier Britons (or Brythons), the Germanic tribes that settled in the area, including Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, who founded what was to become England (from the Old English Englaland), and the later Danes, Normans and other groups. Following the Act of Union in 1707, in which the Kingdom of England became part of the Kingdom of Great Britain, English customs and identity became closely aligned with British customs and identity.

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Gaini
The Gaini (or Ganni) were an early Anglo-Saxon tribe. Their location cannot now be identified, but they are thought to have been one of the tribes which made up the kingdom of Mercia.
In 868, before he became king, Alfred the Great married Ealhswith, daughter of a Mercian nobleman, Æthelred, known as Mucel, ealdorman of the Gaini. Æthelred witnessed several charters between 867 and 895, and he is probably identical with the ealdorman Mucel who witnessed Mercian charters between 836 and 866. He may have been the son of another ealdorman Mucel who witnessed Mercian charters from 814 to the 840s, and this Mucel in turn was probably the son of ealdorman Esne who witnessed Mercian charters in the late eighth and early ninth centuries.
Ealhswith's brother, Æthelwulf, who died in 901, was also described as an ealdorman.
The approximate succession of Ealdormen of the Gaini may therefore be:

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Gewisse
The Gewisse (Old English Geuissæ) was a tribe or clan of Anglo-Saxon England, based in the upper Thames region around Dorchester-on-Thames.
The name of the tribe may be derived from an Old English word for "reliable" or "sure", (cf. German gewiss = "certain, sure"). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle presents an eponymous ancestor figure, named Giwis.Eilert Ekwall proposed that the similarity in toponymy between the kingdoms of the Gewisse and Hwicce suggests a common origin.^{[page needed]}
The Gewisse captured Searobyrig in 552 and Beranbyrig from the Britons in 556.Birinus converted the Gewisse to Christianity in 636 by baptising their king Cynegils and establishing the Diocese of Dorchester. The Gewisse killed the three sons of Sæbert of Essex in about 620, defeated the Britons at the Battle of Peonnum in 660 and by 676 had sufficient control over what is now Hampshire to establish a see at Winchester.
The conquests by the royal house of Gewisse in the 7th and 8th centuries led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Wessex, and Bede treated the two names as interchangeable. It was only during the reign of Cædwalla (685/6 – 688) that the title "king of the Saxons" began to replace "king of the Gewisse". Barbara Yorke has suggested that it was Cædwalla's conquest of the Jutish province and the South Saxons that led to the need for a new title to distinguish the expanded realm from its predecessor. However, as there are no surviving documents to indicate how these people described themselves, the most that can be said is that by the time Bede was writing (early 8th century), the phrase "West Saxons" had come into use by scholars.

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Gyrwas
Gyrwas was the name of an Anglo-Saxon population of the Fens, divided into northern and southern groups and recorded in the Tribal Hidage; related to the name of Jarrow.
Hugh Candidus, a 12th century chronicler of Peterborough Abbey, describes its foundation in the territory of the Gyrwas, under the name of Medeshamstede. Medeshamstede was clearly in the territory of the North Gyrwas. Hugh Candidus explains Gyrwas, which he uses in the present tense, as meaning people "who dwell in the fen, or hard by the fen, since a deep bog is called in the Saxon tongue Gyr". The territory of the South Gyrwas included Ely. Æthelthryth founded Ely monastery after the death of her husband Tondberht, who is described in Bede's Ecclesiastical History as a "prince of the South Gyrwas". Bede also described Bishop Thomas of Dunwich, in East Anglia, as having been "from the province of the Gyrwas", and deacon to his predecessor Felix.

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Haestingas
The Haestingas, or alternatively Heastingas or Hæstingas, were one of the tribes of Anglo-Saxon Britain. The Kingdom of Haestingas was located in modern-day Sussex, and was one of the minor sub-kingdoms of the Heptarchy.
When Ælle of Sussex came to Britain in 491, he soon forged the Saxon kingdom of Sussex. Soon after Ælle arrived, a Saxon tribe known as the Haestingas appeared in the southeastern region of Sussex. It is believed that they were named so after a chieftain or ruler called Haesta, as in the Old English language, Haestingas means "Haesta's People". Haesta by itself, however, means "violent". The Kingdom of Haestingas was most likely very small, extending only a few leagues from the centre of their kingdom, which became known as "Haestingas" now known under the modern name of Hastings.
In 771, Offa of Mercia conquered all of Sussex, effectively ending the reign of the Haestingas.

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Henry of Huntingdon
Henry of Huntingdon (c. 1088 – c. 1154), the son of a canon in the diocese of Lincoln, was a 12th century English historian, the author of a history of England, Historia anglorum, "the most important Anglo-Norman historian to emerge from the secular clergy". He served as archdeacon of Huntingdon. The few details of Henry's life that are known originated from his own works and from a number of official records. He was brought up in the wealthy court of Robert Bloet of Lincoln, who became his patron.
At the request of Bloet's successor, Alexander of Lincoln, Henry began to write his Historia Anglorum, first published c. 1129, an account of the history of England from its beginnings up to the year 1154. The Historia stops after this date, the year it is assumed Henry died.
Little is known of Henry, an archdeacon in the Diocese of Lincoln who was born c. 1110 and died soon after 1154.^{[unreliable source?]} No personal correspondence or anecdotes survived him and it seemed that no one considered him important enough to have written a memorial. His biography depends upon a few notices scattered through his own work and in a few places where he left his name in the course of his official duties. The identity of his mother is unknown. His father Nicholas, the first archdeacon of Huntingdon, was a clerk in holy orders, who had enough influence with the Bishop of Lincoln to secure the succession of his title for his son, a substantial inheritance for a man who had not yet reached thirty. Nicholas was canon of Lincoln for over thirty years until his death in 1110.

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House of Plantagenet
The House of Plantagenet ( /plænˈtædʒənət/ plan-TAJ-ə-nət) is the name given in England's historical narrative for the 14 Kings that ruled for the 331 years from 1154 until 1485. There is little evidence for the Plantagenet name before the mid-fifteenth century and it was evidently popularised by Shakespeare.
As a dynasty it is considered a branch of the Angevins. The dynasty's origins as a royal house result from the matchmaking of Fulk V le Jeune which were planned to neutralise the threat of the rise of Normandy. First he married his daughter Alice to William Adelin heir to Henry I of England. Following William's drowning he married his daughter Sibylla of Anjou to William Clito heir to Robert Curthose although King Henry had this annulled because of the political threat of a rival claim to his throne. Finally he married his son Geoffrey to Henry's heir Matilda thereby bringing about the historical convergence of the Angevins, House of Normandy and the House of Wessex.
Plantagenet kings first ruled the Kingdom of England in the 12th century. Their paternal ancestors originated in the French province of Gâtinais and gained the County of Anjou through marriage during the 11th century. The dynasty accumulated several other holdings, building the Angevin Empire that at its peak stretched from the Pyrenees to Ireland and the border with Scotland.

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Husmerae
The Husmerae were a tribe or clan in Anglo-Saxon England, possibly forming an early settlement of the Hwicce subkingdom. The Husmerae settled on the banks of the River Stour, prior to 736. They probably took their name from Usmere, a pool on the boundary of Wolverley whose name in preserved in Ismere House in Churchill, Worcestershire.
The tribe is mentioned only in the Ismere Diploma of 734, and subsequent charters relating to the same property until 964, when Usmere occurs on the boundary of Cookley in Wolverley. This charter was for the foundation of a coenubium (minster). That minster was probably at Kidderminster, quite probably occupying the site of the parish church there.
Although the Husmerae may have been of West Saxon origin, settling into the area some time after the West Saxon defeat of the Britons at the Battle of Dyrham in 577, the Ismere Diploma suggests that Husmerae is the ancient name for area, although uncertainty over its provenance leave the origins of the name open to question

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Hwicce
Hwicce was a kingdom in the Heptarchy period of Anglo-Saxon England. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle the kingdom was established in 577, after the Battle of Deorham. After 628 the kingdom became a client or sub-kingdom of Mercia as a result of the Battle of Cirencester.
It was assessed at 7000 hides in the Tribal Hidage, giving it a similar sized economy to the kingdoms of Essex and Sussex. The exact boundaries of their kingdom are uncertain, though it is likely that they coincided with those of the old Diocese of Worcester, founded in 679–80, the early bishops of which bore the title Episcopus Hwicciorum. The kingdom would therefore have included Worcestershire except the northwestern tip, Gloucestershire except the Forest of Dean, the southwestern half of Warwickshire, the neighbourhood of Bath north of the Avon, plus small parts of Herefordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire and north-west Wiltshire.
Various historians and archaeologists have examined the Hwicce Kingdom, including Della Hooke and Stephen J. Yeates in his book The Tribe of Witches (2008).

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Icelingas
The Kingdom of Mercia was an important state in the English Midlands from the 6th century to the 10th. For some two hundred years from the mid-7th century onwards it was the dominant member of the Heptarchy and consequently the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. During this period its rulers became the very first English monarchs to assume such wide ranging titles as King of Britain and King of the English.
Spellings varied widely in this period, even within a single document, and a number of variants exist for the names given below. For example, the sound th was usually represented with the Old English letters ð or þ.
For the Continental predecessors of the Mercians in Angeln, see List of kings of the Angles. For their successors see List of English monarchs.
The traditional rulers of Mercia were known as the Iclings, descendants of the kings of the Angles. When the Iclings became extinct in the male line, a number of other families, labelled B, C and W by historians, competed for the throne.

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Kingdom of Lindsey
Lindsey or Linnuis (Old English Lindesege) is the name of a petty Anglo-Saxon kingdom, absorbed into Northumbria in the 7th century.
It lay between the Humber and the Wash, forming its inland boundaries from the course of the Witham and Trent rivers (with the inclusion of an area inside of a marshy region south of the Humber known as the Isle of Axholme), and the Foss Dyke between them. It is believed that Roman Lindum (Lincoln) was the capital of this kingdom, with continuity of the place-name suggesting continuity of settlement traditions: in 625, Bede recounts, the missionary Paulinus of York was received by the praefectus of Lindum. Place-name evidence indicates that the Anglian settlement known as Lindisfaras spread from the Humber coast. Compare Winta and Winteringham.
Its name means the 'island of Lincoln'. This derives from the fact that it was surrounded by water and very wet land and had Lincoln towards its south-west corner. In the period of Anglo-Saxon settlement in Great Britain beginning in about 450, the kingdom of Lindsey was one of the lesser kingdoms within the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. Although it has its own list of kings, at an early date it came under external influence. It was from time to time effectively part of Deira, the Northumbrian kingdom and particularly later, of Mercia. Lindsey's independence was gone well before the arrival of the Danish Settlers.

wn.com/Kingdom_of_Lindsey
Lindisfaras
The Lindisfaras (or Lindesfaras) (Old English Lindisfaran) were an Anglian tribe who, in the 6th century, established the kingdom of Lindsey between the valleys of the rivers Humber and Witham, in the north of what is now Lincolnshire. They retained their administrative independence throughout the 7th century but, following the Battle of the Trent between the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria, remained under Mercian control until the Viking invasion of the ninth century. According to D. P. Kirby, the Heathfeld Land of Yorkshire mentioned as part of the Lindisfaras' 7000 hides listed in the Tribal Hidage, was Hatfield Chase.
Lindisfarne in Northumbria derived its name, according to one place-name authority, from the Lindisfaras, so having the meaning "island [of the] travellers from Lindsey", indicating that the island was settled from Lindsey, or possibly that its inhabitants travelled there.

wn.com/Lindisfaras
Magonsæte
Magonsæte was a minor sub-kingdom of the greater Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia, thought to be coterminous with the Diocese of Hereford.
The British territory of Pengwern was conquered by Oswiu of Northumbria in 656, while he was overlord of the Mercians. Western Pengwern was then occupied by Anglian groups. One group based itself at the old Roman town of Magnis or Caer Magon, modern Kenchester near Hereford.
The sub-kingdom of the Western Hecani existed in the late 7th and early 8th centuries, of which three rulers are known: Merewalh, Mildfrith, and Merchelm. By the later 8th century, the region would seem to have been reincorporated into Mercia, perhaps as Westerna, becoming known as the Magonsæte by the 9th century.

wn.com/Magonsæte
Meonwara
Meonwara or Meonsæte is the name of a people of probable Jutish ethnicity who lived in what is now known as the Meon Valley, an area in southern Hampshire, England, during the late 5th century and early 6th century. The name Meonwara simply means "People of the Meon" in Old English.
The land that the Meonwara Jutes settled was the valley of the River Meon and also part of southern Hampshire across the Solent from the Isle of Wight
The Anglo Saxon Chronicle records a series of landings between 449 and 514 CE of Anglo Saxon people in this area. While the identity of those in the later landings are described as "West Saxons" those in the earlier landings are without description and generally considered to be the Jutes. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle the founders of Meonwara were Port and his two sons Bieda and Maegla. These were later followed by Wihtgar and his brother Stuf who are said to have colonised the Isle of Wight (the name Wight being traditionally thought to derive from Wihtgar, however the name Vectis is attested in the Roman period in Pliny and Diodorus, among others.).

wn.com/Meonwara
Mercia
Mercia ( /ˈmɜrsiə/, /ˈmɜrʃə/) was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. It was centred on the valley of the River Trent and its tributaries in the region now known as the English Midlands. The name is a Latinisation of the Old English Mierce or Myrce, meaning "border people".
Mercia's neighbours included Northumbria, Powys and the kingdoms of southern Wales, Wessex, Sussex, Essex and East Anglia.
The name Mercia is still in use today by a wide range of organisations, including military units, public, commercial and voluntary bodies; and occurs as a female given name.
Mercia's exact evolution from the Anglo-Saxon invasions is more obscure than that of Northumbria, Kent, or even Wessex. Also, Mercia developed an effective political structure and adopted Christianity later than the other kingdoms. Archaeological surveys show that Angles settled the lands north of the River Thames by the 6th century. The name Mercia is Old English for "boundary folk" (see Welsh Marches), and the traditional interpretation is that the kingdom originated along the frontier between the native Welsh and the Anglo-Saxon invaders. However, P. Hunter Blair argued an alternative interpretation: that they emerged along the frontier of Northumbria and the inhabitants of the Trent river valley.

wn.com/Mercia
Middle Angles
The Middle Angles were an important ethnic or cultural group within the larger kingdom of Mercia in England in the Anglo-Saxon period.
It is likely that Angles broke into the Midlands from East Anglia and the Wash in the early 6th century. Those who established their control first came to be called Middil Engli (Middle Angles). Their territory was centred in modern Leicestershire and East Staffordshire, but probably extended as far as the Cambridgeshire uplands and the Chilterns. This gave them a strategically important place within both Mercia and England as a whole, dominating both the great land routes of Watling Street and Fosse Way, and the major river route of the River Trent, together with its tributaries, the Tame and Soar.
The Middle Angles were incorporated into the wider kingdom of Mercia, apparently well before the reign of Penda (c.626-655), who evidently felt safe enough to locate his base in their territory. He placed his eldest son, Peada, in charge of the Middle Angles as sub-king. Bede specifies the Middle Angles as the target of a four-man Christian mission accepted by Peada, who converted to Christianity, partly in order to wed the daughter of King Oswiu of Northumbria. This mission arrived in 653 and included St. Cedd. Peada's conversion and acceptance of baptism in Northumbria possibly indicates a continuing sense of disunity or local particularism within Mercia. It is unlikely that Peada could have pursued so different a course from his father, at the strategic and political centre of the Mercian kingdom, without local support among the Middle Angles.

wn.com/Middle_Angles
Middle Saxons
The Middle Saxons or Middel Seaxe were a people whose territory later became, with somewhat contracted boundaries, the county of Middlesex, England. It included the early London settlement. The area was part of the Kingdom of Essex, but was ceded to Mercia in the 8th century.

wn.com/Middle_Saxons
North Mercians
The Southumbrians or 'Suðanhymbre' were the Anglo-Saxon people occupying northern Mercia. The term may not have been used by the Mercians, and it may have been coined by the Deiran or Bernician people as a territorial response to their own Kingdom of Northumbria. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle refers to King Coenred as having become the King of the Southumbrians in 702, two years before he became King of all the Mercians. The fact that Coenred was the son of Wulfhere, the Mercian King, implies that Southumbria was a sub-kingdom of Mercia.
More generally Southumbria is used by modern historians to refer conveniently to all of Anglo-Saxon England south of the River Humber, and not in Northumbria, especially in the period before England was unified.

wn.com/North_Mercians
Pencersæte
The Pencersaete or Pencersæte (dwellers of the Penk valley) were a tribe or clan in Anglo-Saxon England living in the valley of the River Penk in the West Midlands of England and remaining around Penkridge throughout the existence of the Kingdom of Mercia.
They took their name from a hill near Penkridge, Brythonic penno - head and cruc - tumulus or hill.
An Anglo-Saxon charter of 849 describes an area of Cofton Hackett in the Lickey Hills south of Birmingham as "the boundary of the Tomsæte and the Pencersæte",.

wn.com/Pencersæte
Readingas
The Readingas (Old English Rēadingas) were a tribe or clan of early Anglo-Saxon England, whose territory adjoined that of the Sunningas to the east and that of the Basingas to the south. The name literally means means "Rēada's people" and later gave its name to the town of Reading.

wn.com/Readingas
Saint George
Saint George (c. 275/281 – 23 April 303) was, according to tradition, a Roman soldier from Syria Palaestina and a soldier in the Guard of Diocletian, who is venerated as a Christian martyr. In hagiography Saint George is one of the most venerated saints in the Catholic (Western and Eastern Rites), Anglican, Eastern Orthodox, and the Oriental Orthodox churches. He is immortalized in the tale of Saint George and the Dragon and is one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers. His memorial is celebrated on 23 April, and he is regarded as one of the most prominent military saints.
Many Patronages of Saint George exist around the world, including: Georgia, England, Egypt, Bulgaria, Aragon, Catalonia, Romania, Ethiopia, Greece, India, Iraq, Lithuania, Palestine, Portugal, Serbia, Ukraine and Russia, as well as the cities of Genoa, Amersfoort, Beirut, Botoşani, Drobeta Turnu-Severin, Timişoara, Fakiha, Bteghrine, Cáceres, Ferrara, Freiburg, Kragujevac, Kumanovo, Ljubljana, Pérouges, Pomorie, Preston, Qormi, Rio de Janeiro, Lod, Lviv, Barcelona, Moscow, Tamworth and the Maltese island of Gozo, as well as of the Scout Movement and a wide range of professions, organizations and disease sufferers.

wn.com/Saint_George
Snotingas
The Snotingas were an Anglian tribe who either took their name from a chieftain called 'Snot' or 'Snod', or from the word Snottenga, meaning 'caves'. The snotingas occupied the settlement of Snottengaham or Snodengaham (modern Nottingham).

wn.com/Snotingas
Southumbrians
The Southumbrians or 'Suðanhymbre' were the Anglo-Saxon people occupying northern Mercia. The term may not have been used by the Mercians, and it may have been coined by the Deiran or Bernician people as a territorial response to their own Kingdom of Northumbria. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle refers to King Coenred as having become the King of the Southumbrians in 702, two years before he became King of all the Mercians. The fact that Coenred was the son of Wulfhere, the Mercian King, implies that Southumbria was a sub-kingdom of Mercia.
More generally Southumbria is used by modern historians to refer conveniently to all of Anglo-Saxon England south of the River Humber, and not in Northumbria, especially in the period before England was unified.

wn.com/Southumbrians
Spaldingas
The Spaldingas ("dwellers of the Spald") were an Anglian tribe that settled in an area known as the spalda. This divided the fens and marshes of East Anglia in what is now the South Holland part of Lincolnshire. As well as establishing the town of Spalding, first mentioned in a charter by King Æthelbald of Mercia to the monks of Crowland Abbey in 716, they also gave their name to the village of Spaldington in east Yorkshire.
A tribe living in "Spalda" are mentioned in the Tribal Hidage (7th century). Eilert Ekwall regarded this name as etymologically obscure. He suggested that the tribe may have brought this name (Spaldas) from the Continent where there may have been a corresponding place-name. It would presumably be related to the unrecorded Anglo-Saxon spaldan (to cleave) (OHG spaltan) so the meaning of the noun would be "cleft" or "ravine". However, as there are no ravines in the fenland, all of the above should be treated with caution.
The Spaldingas appear to have retained their administrative independence into the 9th and 10th centuries, when Stamford formed one of the Five Boroughs of the Kingdom of York.^{[citation needed]}

wn.com/Spaldingas
Star Chamber
The Star Chamber (Latin: Camera stellata) was an English court of law that sat at the royal Palace of Westminster until 1641. It was made up of Privy Counsellors, as well as common-law judges and supplemented the activities of the common-law and equity courts in both civil and criminal matters. The court was set up to ensure the fair enforcement of laws against prominent people, those so powerful that ordinary courts could never convict them of their crimes. Court sessions were held in secret, with no indictments, no right of appeal, no juries, and no witnesses. Evidence was presented in writing. Over time it evolved into a political weapon, a symbol of the misuse and abuse of power by the English monarchy and courts.
In modern usage, legal or administrative bodies with strict, arbitrary rulings and secretive proceedings are sometimes called, metaphorically or poetically, star chambers. This is a pejorative term and intended to cast doubt on the legitimacy of the proceedings. The inherent lack of objectivity of any politically motivated charges has led to substantial reforms in English law in most jurisdictions since that time.

wn.com/Star_Chamber
Stoppingas
The Stoppingas was a tribe or clan of Anglo-Saxon England, based around Wootton Wawen and the valley of the River Alne in modern-day Warwickshire. The name of the tribe may have come from the personal name Stoppa, who could have been the tribe's founder or leader, or earliest common ancestor.
The Stoppingas formed part of the Saxon kingdom of the Hwicce, which was later conquered and absorbed by the kingdom of Mercia.
In the mid eighth century Æthelbald of Mercia gave a grant of land in the region of the Stoppingas to Æthelric, the son of King Oshere of the Hwicce, for the purpose of establishing a Minster in the territory. Such an institution was subsequently built at Wootton Wawen, and the later parochia of this minster probably represents the extent territory of the Stoppingas.

wn.com/Stoppingas
Sumorsaete
The Sumorsaete were an Anglo-Saxon group living in what is now Somerset, presumably around the town of Somerton. They are evidently the source of the county's name. The group may have been established as early as the 577, when the Saxons conquered part of the area from the Britons, but they are not mentioned by name until 845. They may have been related to the obscure Glastening or Glestinga, who may be the source of the name Glastonbury.
The name Sumorsǣte is Old English and may be a shortened form of Sumortūnsǣte, meaning "the people living at or dependent upon Sumortūn", i.e. the modern town of Somerton. The origin of Somerton itself is unknown; it may mean 'The sea-lake enclosure' from the Old English sae, mere and tun or possibly "summer farmstead", from sumer and -tūn. The first known use of the name Somersæte was in 845, after the region fell to the Saxons. When King Alfred coined the future county motto 'Sumorsǣte ealle' in the 10th century, he referred to the people of Somerset as the Sumortūnsǣte.

wn.com/Sumorsaete
Sweordora
The Sweordora were an Anglian tribe who, according to the Tribal Hidage (which assessed their territory at 300 hides) lived in the vicinity of Sword Point, Whittlesey Mere, Cambridgeshire (formerly Huntingdonshire), probably in the 6th Century.

wn.com/Sweordora
Weorgoran
The Weorgoran were a tribe or clan in Anglo-Saxon England, possibly forming an early settlement of the Hwicce sub-kingdom. The name literally means "people of the winding river" in Old English, and the Weorgoran settled on or near the site of an earlier Roman settlement (possibly Vertis), establishing a new Anglo-Saxon settlement of Weorgoran ceaster (modern Worcester).
The Weorgoran are likely to have been of West Saxon origin, having settled into the area some time after the West Saxon defeat of the Britons at the Battle of Dyrham in 577 and before the settlement was given a bishop and a cathedral in 680.

wn.com/Weorgoran
Wessex
The Kingdom of Wessex ( /ˈwɛsɨks/) or Kingdom of the West Saxons (Old English: Westseaxna rīce) was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the West Saxons in South West England, from the 6th century until the emergence of a united English state under the Wessex dynasty in the 10th century. It was to be an earldom after Canute the Great's conquest of 1016, from 1020 to 1066. After the Norman Conquest there was a dissolution of the English earldoms and Wessex was split among the followers of William the Conqueror.

wn.com/Wessex
Westerne
The Westerne were an Anglo-Saxon tribe, probably in western England. They occur only in the Tribal Hidage. Little is known about them, not even precisely where they were. They may have absorbed the Celtic tribe, the Cornovii, and have based their territory on their Roman Civitas.
The tribe became part of the Kingdom of Mercia.

wn.com/Westerne
Wreocensæte
The Wreocensæte (Old English: Wrēocensǣte, Wrōcensǣte, Wrōcesǣte, and probably Wōcensǣte), sometimes anglicized as the Wrekinsets, were one of the peoples of Anglo-Saxon Britain. Their name approximates to "Wrekin-dwellers". It is also suggested that Wrexham also derived from Wreocensæte. This area would have been a mixed Anglo-Saxon-Celtic sub kingdom in which was probably of the first evidences of Anglo-Saxon-Celtic multiculturalism.
The boundaries of the kingdom are uncertain, but it was substantial as the Tribal Hidage lists it as 7000 hides, equal to the kingdoms of the East Saxons and South Saxons. The evidence suggests that the Wrekinset were the most northerly of the three large Mercian subject kingdoms facing Wales, with the Magonsæte to their south, and the Hwicce farthest south. The chief place was seemingly the former Roman Viroconium Cornoviorum (modern Wroxeter), the former civitas of the Cornovii and close to the hill fort known as The Wrekin. The kingdom may have covered much of modern Cheshire, Shropshire and into North East Wales, Wrexham, Denbighshire and Flintshire. The border between Wales and Wreocensæte would have been Offa's Dyke.

wn.com/Wreocensæte
Æbbingas
Abingdon and Abingdon Abbey was founded in Saxon times, possibly the 7th century but its early history is confused by numerous legends, invented to raise its status and explain the place-name. The name seems to mean 'Hill of a man named Æbba, or a woman named Æbbe', possibly the saint to whom St Ebbe's Church in Oxford was dedicated (Æbbe of Coldingham or a different Æbbe of Oxford). However Abingdon stands in a valley and not on a hill. It is thought that the name was first given to a place on Boars Hill above Chilswell, and the name was transferred to its present site when the Abbey was relocated.

wn.com/Æbbingas

Cephalic Carnage - Heptarchy (In The UK)

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photo: AP / Juan Karita

File - Argentina's President Cristina Fernandez, front, gestures during a ceremony honoring Bolivia's Independence heroines in Cochabamba, Bolivia, Wednesday, July 18, 2012.

Argentina reasserts claim over Falklands

Al Jazeera

04 Jan 2013

Argentine President Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner has released a public letter urging the United Kingdom to relinquish its control over the disputed Falkland Islands. ... The veterans delivered a letter addressed to the British Ambassador in Argentina, John Freeman, criticising the British government for refusing to discuss the sovereignty of the islands with the Argentine government ... 508 Source .. Al Jazeera and agencies. Share....(size: 19.6Kb)

photo: WN / Imran Nissar

Youth Brigade of Kashmir carry out a protest demonstration in Srinagar, India, on Monday 24, December 2012. As solidarity with Delhi gang-rape case. The protesters were demanding action against people involved in rape incidents across the country.

Indian gang rape: suspects to appear in court

The Daily Telegraph

03 Jan 2013

A gang of men accused of repeatedly raping a 23-year-old student on a moving bus in New Delhi in a deadly crime that repulsed the nation are to appear in court today for the first time. A British tourist join others in a candlelight vigil to mourn the death of a gang rape victim, in Kolkata, India Photo. AP. 3.52AM GMT 03 Jan 2013 ... Police have ordered a bone test to determine his age and whether he can stand trial in an adult court....(size: 11.3Kb)

photo: US Navy / HMC Josh Ives

U.S. Army Lt. Col. Mark Martin, right, civil affairs team lead for Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT) Farah, shakes hands and laughs with Mawlawi Guhlam M. Ruhaani, director of Hajj and Endowment, at the conclusion of a key leader engagement in Farah City, Dec. 29, 2012.

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Zeenews

03 Jan 2013

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photo: AP / Ng Han Guan

North Korean leader Kim Jong Un attends a ceremony to reopen the Kumsusan Palace of the Sun in Pyongyang, North Korea, on Monday, Dec. 17, 2012.

North Korea's leader calls for peace with South in New Year's speech

Pittsburgh Post-Gazette

02 Jan 2013

SEOUL -- In a domestically televised New Year's Day speech, North Korean supreme leader Kim Jong Un said he wanted to "remove confrontation" on this divided peninsula and called on "anti-reunification forces" in South Korea to cease their hostility toward the North. The lengthy address, which laid out the national goals for 2013, marked Mr ... Mr. Kim on Tuesday asked for a detente -- but with prerequisites that the conservative Ms ... ....(size: 3.2Kb)

photo: AP / Mohammad Sajjad

Pakistani men carry the body of a teacher, who was killed by gunmen, from a hospital for burial in Swabi, Pakistan, Tuesday, Jan. 1, 2013.

7 teachers, health workers gunned down in Pakistan

Pittsburgh Post-Gazette

02 Jan 2013

ISLAMABAD -- Continuing a militant campaign of violence against aid workers in Pakistan, gunmen Tuesday shot dead seven Pakistani teachers and health workers, six of them women, police officials said. There was no immediate claim of responsibility ... The victims worked for the private Pakistani aid group Support With Working Solution, which works in the health and education sectors ... "One child, aged 7 to 8 years, miraculously survived." ... ....(size: 3.4Kb)

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Romney Campaign Makes Third Spelling Gaffe in a Week: It’s ‘Offical’

Mashable

05 Jun 2012

If you were running a major presidential campaign that just got slammed for misspelling America as “Amercia”, you might ask your staff to go through your campaign literature with a fine-tooth comb. Especially your online campaign literature, where mistakes could be erased in seconds ... Not so Mitt Romney ... Mercia was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy ... Mercia was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy ... ....(size: 14.2Kb)

Amercia the Meme: Why Romney’s Gaffe Won’t Die [PICS]

Mashable

31 May 2012

"> Amercia Meme. More Popular Galleries. 15 Rad Robot Accessories for Your Office. 12 Fantastic Memorial Day Weekend Instagram Shots [PHOTOS]. Comment Share 1 of 11. In case you couldn't find the typo, this photo clearly illustrates it. Oops 1 ... “It’s almost like an Etch A Sketch ... We bet they wish they could shake one now ... Mercia was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy ... Mercia was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy ... ....(size: 12.9Kb)

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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2007)

History of England
This article is part of a series
Timeline
Prehistoric Britain
Roman Britain
Sub-Roman Britain
Anglo-Saxon England
Heptarchy
Kingdom of England
Anglo-Norman England
House of Plantagenet
House of Lancaster
House of York
House of Tudor
English colonial empire
House of Stuart
Commonwealth of England
The Protectorate
Stuart Restoration
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Kingdom of Great Britain
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England Portal v t e

The Heptarchy (Greek: ἑπτά + ἀρχή seven + realm) is a now discredited^{[by whom?]} collective name applied to the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of south, east, and central Great Britain during late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, conventionally identified as seven: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms eventually unified into the Kingdom of England.

The term has been in use since the 16th century, but the initial idea that there were seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms is attributed to the English historian Henry of Huntingdon in the 12th century and was first used in his Historia Anglorum.^[1]

The heptarchy does not include any of the Sub-Roman Brythonic realms such as Elmet, Rheged, Strathclyde, Ebrauc, Bryneich and Gododdin, and during the same period, what are now Ireland, Scotland and Wales were also divided into comparable petty kingdoms.

1 Unification
2 Anglo-Saxon England heptarchy
- 2.1 Other minor kingdoms and territories
3 Attributed arms
4 See also
5 Notes
6 External material

Unification [link]

File:Anglo-Saxon England 2.svg

The main Anglo-Saxon kingdoms

By convention the label is considered to cover the period from 500 CE to 850 CE, often referred to as the Dark Ages, which approximately represents the period following the departure of Roman legions from Britain until the unification of the kingdoms under Egbert of Wessex.

Though heptarchy implies the existence of seven kingdoms, the number fluctuated, as kinglets contended for supremacy at various times within the conventional period.^[2] In the late sixth century the king of Kent was a prominent lord in the south; in the seventh century the rulers of Northumbria and Wessex were powerful; in the eighth century Mercia achieved hegemony over the other surviving kingdoms. Yet as late as the reigns of Eadwig and Edgar (955–75), it was still possible to speak of separate kingdoms within the English population.

In reality the end of the Heptarchy was a gradual process. The 9th century Viking raids that led to the establishment of a Danish-controlled enclave at York, and ultimately to the Danelaw, gained considerable advantage from the petty rivalries between the old kingdoms. The need to unite against the common enemy was recognised, so that by the time Alfred of Wessex resisted the Danes in the late 9th century, he did so essentially as the leader of an Anglo-Saxon nation. Successive kings of Wessex (and especially Athelstan) progressively reinforced the English unitary state, until, with the simultaneous dissolution of Mercia and submission of Northumbria upon Edgar's succession in 959, the old constituent kingdoms in effect became consolidated into one.

Recent research has revealed that some of the Heptarchy kingdoms (notably Essex and Sussex) did not achieve the same status as the others. Conversely, there also existed alongside the seven kingdoms a number of other political divisions which played a more significant role than previously thought. Such were the kingdoms (or sub-kingdoms) of: Bernicia and Deira within Northumbria; Lindsey in present-day Lincolnshire; the Hwicce in the southwest Midlands; the Magonsæte or Magonset, a sub-kingdom of Mercia in what is now Herefordshire; the Wihtwara, a Jutish kingdom on the Isle of Wight, originally as important as the Cantwara of Kent; the Middle Angles, a group of tribes based around modern Leicestershire, later conquered by the Mercians; the Hæstingas (around the town of Hastings in Sussex); and the Gewisse, a Saxon tribe in what is now southern Hampshire later developing into the kingdom of Wessex.

Certainly the term Heptarchy has been considered unsatisfactory since the early 20th century, and many professional historians no longer use it, feeling that it does not accurately describe the period to which it refers.^{[citation needed]} However, it is still sometimes used as a label of convenience for a phase in the development of England.

Anglo-Saxon England heptarchy [link]

The Heptarchy, according to Bartholomew's A literary & historical atlas of Europe (1914)

The four main kingdoms in Anglo-Saxon England were:

Wessex
East Anglia
Mercia
Northumbria, including sub-kingdoms Bernicia and Deira

The other main kingdoms which were conquered by others entirely at some point in their history are:

Attributed arms [link]

Arms were attributed to the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy. The Kingdom of Essex, for instance, was assigned a red shield with three notched swords (or "seaxes"). This coat was used by the counties of Essex and Middlesex until 1910, when the Middlesex County Council applied for a formal grant from the College of Arms (The Times, 1910). Middlesex was granted a red shield with three notched swords and a "Saxon Crown". The Essex County Council was granted the arms without the crown in 1932.

Kingdom of Wessex
Kingdom of Northumbria
Kingdom of Kent
Kingdom of East Anglia
Kingdom of Essex
Kingdom of Sussex
Kingdom of Mercia

Notes [link]

^ Historia Anglorum: the history of ... - Google Books. Books.google.com.au. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=O6U5BTD0-rYC&pg=PR61&dq=heptarchy+historiography#PPA17,M1. Retrieved 2010-04-09.
^ Norman F. Cantor, The Civilization of the Middle Ages1993:163f.

External material [link]

Reference [link]

Westermann Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte

External links [link]

Monarchs of Britain, Encyclopædia Britannica
The Burghal Hidage - Wessex's fortified burhs

Preceded by Sub-Roman Britain	The Heptarchy circa 550–927	Succeeded by Kingdom of England

v t e The Heptarchy

Kingdoms	East Anglia Essex Kent Mercia Northumbria Bernicia Deira Sussex Wessex

Lesser kingdoms	Ynys Weith (Isle of Wight) Meonwara Surrey Iclingas Lindsey Hwicce Magonsæte Pencersæte Pecsæte Wreocensæte Tomsæte Haestingas Middle Angles Kernow (Cornwall) Gyrwas Southumbrians

Minor Anglo-Saxon tribes and fiefs	Ælfingas Æbbingas Godhelmingas Arosæte Beormingas Bilsæte Duddensæte Cilternsæte Eorlingas Husmerae Gaini Sunningas Brycgstowl Icelingas Banesbyrig Lindisfaras Woccingas Nox-gaga and Oht-gaga Middle Saxons Middle Angles North Mercians Duddaæte Gyrwas Tetingas Basingas Snotingas Spaldingas Stoppingas Sweordora Westerne Elmetsæte Gewisse Readingas Weorgoran Sumorsaete

v t e Kingdom of England

History	Timeline · Anglo-Saxon England (Heptarchy) · Kingdom of England · Norman conquest · Anglo-Normans · Angevin Empire · Wars of the Roses · Tudor period · Stuart period · English Renaissance · English Reformation · Elizabethan era · Colonial empire · Gunpowder Plot · Jacobean era · Civil War · Commonwealth of England · English Restoration · Popish Plot · Glorious Revolution · Maritime history · Economy in the Middle Ages · Union with Scotland

Royal Houses	Wessex · Danes · Normans · Angevins · Plantagenet · Lancaster · York · Tudor · Stuart · Orange

Politics · Law	Witenagemot · Curia regis · Parliament · Monarchy · Peers · Privy Council · Acts of Parliament: to 1483 / 1485–1601 / 1603–1641 / 1642–1660 / 1660–1699 / 1700–1706 · Ministries · Secretaries of State · Governance (Elizabethan) · Star Chamber · Whigs · Tories

Geography	Counties · Islands · Places · Towns · Castles

Demographics	English language in England · English people (list)

Culture	Religion · Church of England · Cuisine · Folklore · Morris dance · Country dance

Architecture	Anglo-Saxon · English Gothic · Tudor · Elizabethan · Jacobean · Queen Anne · Georgian

Symbols	National flag (list) · Heraldry · Coat of arms · Royal Standards · Royal Supporters · Tudor rose · Oak tree · St George (St George's Day)

Articles on the history of England

http://wn.com/Heptarchy

http://it.wn.com/Eptarchia anglosassone

http://cs.wn.com/Sedm anglosaských království

http://es.wn.com/Heptarquía anglosajona

http://ru.wn.com/Гептархия

http://nl.wn.com/Heptarchie

http://pt.wn.com/Heptarquia

http://pl.wn.com/Heptarchia anglosaska

http://fr.wn.com/Heptarchie

http://de.wn.com/Heptarchie

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptarchy

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

For other uses, see Anglo-Saxon (disambiguation).

A reconstruction of the helmet found at Sutton Hoo, probably belonging to Raedwald of East Anglia, who died around 624. Based on a Roman parade-helmet design, it has decorations similar to those found in contemporary Swedish helmets found at Old Uppsala.

The term Anglo-Saxon is used by some historians to designate the Germanic tribes who invaded and settled the south and east of Britain beginning in the early 5th century and the period from their creation of the English nation up to the Norman conquest. The Anglo-Saxon era denotes the period of English history between about 550 and 1066.^[1]^[2] The term is also used for the language, now known as Old English, that was spoken and written by the Anglo-Saxons and their descendants in England (and part of southeastern Scotland) between at least the mid-5th century and the mid-12th century.^[3]

The Benedictine monk Bede, writing in the early 8th century, identified the English as the descendants of three Germanic tribes:^[4]

the Angles, who may have come from Angeln (in modern Germany): Bede wrote that their whole nation came to Britain,^[5] leaving their former land empty. The name England (Old English: Engla land or Ængla land) originates from this tribe;^[6]
the Saxons, from Lower Saxony (in modern Germany; German: Niedersachsen) and the Low Countries;
the Jutes, possibly from the Jutland peninsula (in modern Denmark; Danish: Jylland).

Their language, Old English, which derived from Ingvaeonic West Germanic dialects, transformed into Middle English from the 11th century. Old English was divided into four main dialects: West Saxon, Mercian, Northumbrian and Kentish.

Etymology [link]

The term Anglo-Saxon can be found in documents produced in the time of Alfred the Great, who seems to have frequently used the titles rex Anglorum Saxonum and rex Angul-Saxonum (king of the English Saxons).^[7] The Old English terms ænglisc ('Angle-kin') and Angelcynn ('gens Anglorum') had already lost their original sense of referring to the Angles, as distinct from the Saxons, when they are first attested. In their earliest sense they referred to the nation of Germanic peoples who settled eastern Britain from the 5th century.^{[citation needed]} The indigenous Britons, who wrote in both Latin and Welsh, referred to these invaders as 'Saxones' or 'Saeson' – the word Saeson is the modern Welsh word for 'English people';^[8] the equivalent word in Scottish Gaelic is Sasannach and in the Irish language, Sasanach.

The term Angli Saxones seems to have first been used in continental writing nearly a century before Alfred's time, by Paul the Deacon, historian of the Lombards, probably to distinguish the English Saxons from the continental Saxons (Ealdseaxe, literally, 'old Saxons').^{[citation needed]}

The Angles (Old English: Engle, Angle), took their name from their ancestral home in Jutland, Angul (modern Angeln), which has an area in the shape of a hook (Old English: angel, angul "fishhook", anga "hook").

History [link]

Anglo-Saxons, 500-1000 CE

Main article: History of Anglo-Saxon England

The history of Anglo-Saxon England broadly covers early medieval England, from the end of Roman rule and the establishment of numerous Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the 5th century until the Norman conquest of England by the Normans in 1066.

Origins (400–600)[link]

Further information: Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain and Ingaevones

The migration of Germanic peoples to Britain from what is now northern Germany, the northern part of the Netherlands and southern Scandinavia is attested from the 5th century (e.g. Undley bracteate). Based on Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, the intruding population is traditionally divided into Angles, Saxons and Jutes, but their composition was likely less clear-cut and may also have included peoples such as the Frisii and the Franks. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle may contain the first recorded indications of the movement of these Germanic tribes to Britain.

Heptarchy (600–800)[link]

Main article: Heptarchy

File:Anglo-Saxon England 2.svg

The main Anglo-Saxon peoples in about 600

Christianisation of the Anglo-Saxons began in 597 and was at least nominally completed in 686. Throughout the 7th and 8th centuries, power fluctuated between the larger kingdoms. Bede records Aethelbert of Kent as being dominant at the close of the 6th century, but power seems to have shifted northwards to the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria.

Aethelbert and some of the later kings of the other kingdoms were recognised by their fellow kings as Bretwalda (ruler of Britain). The so-called 'Mercian Supremacy' dominated the 8th century, though again it was not constant. Aethelbald and Offa, the two most powerful kings, achieved high status. This period has been described as the Heptarchy, though this term has now fallen out of academic use.

The word arose on the basis that the seven kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, Kent, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex and Wessex were the main polities of south Britain. More recent scholarship has shown that theories of the 'heptarchy' are not grounded in evidence, and it is far more likely that power fluctuated between many more 'kingdoms'. Other politically important 'kingdoms' across this period include: Hwicce, Magonsaete, Kingdom of Lindsey and Middle Anglia.

Viking Age and the Norman Conquest (800–1066)[link]

Main articles: Viking Age and Danelaw

In the 9th century, the Viking challenge grew to serious proportions. Alfred the Great's victory at Edington, Wiltshire, in 878 brought intermittent peace, but with their possession of Jorvik, the Danes gained a solid foothold in England.

Some of the earliest arrivals of invaders came in the form of small groups or companies of Danish heritage. It is widely believed they left their homelands for more religious freedom as they did not like Christianity being forced upon them. There was no prior indication for them being there before their arrival and thus little resistance if any at all from locals. They attacked various locations in England, and they were seemingly sporadic. For example these raiders attacked three different locations; Hampshire, Thanet, and Cheshire around 980, but no raids were recorded afterwards for another six years. The most notable event to come from these raids however was, that it was the first time that England came into contact with any form of diplomacy from Normandy.^[9]

They became hostile towards one another by summer in the year 990. Their feud became so great that Pope John XV had to send an envoy with a treaty in order to settle their quarrel. It was a Christmas Day in the year 990 the commission was presented to King Etherlred, and soon the council drew up a set of terms which were sent to the Duke of Normandy. The doctrine stated that neither shall befriend the others enemies, and that they should accept a reparation from any damage which either could sustain from the other nation.^[10]

An important development in the 9th century was the rise of the Kingdom of Wessex; by the end of his reign Alfred was recognised as overlord by several southern kingdoms. Æthelstan was the first king to achieve direct rule over what is considered "England".

Near the end of the 10th century, there was renewed Scandinavian interest in England, with the conquests of Sweyn of Denmark and his son Cnut the Great. By 1066 there were three lords with claims to the English throne, resulting in two invasions and the battles of Stamford Bridge and Hastings. The latter, which heralded the Norman conquest of England, resulted in the overthrow of the Anglo-Saxon polity and its replacement with Norman rule.

After the Norman Conquest [link]

Following the conquest, the Anglo-Saxon nobility were either exiled or joined the ranks of the peasantry.^[11] It has been estimated that only about 8 per cent of the land was under Anglo-Saxon control by 1087.^[12] Many Anglo-Saxon nobles fled to Scotland, Ireland, and Scandinavia.^[13]^[14] The Byzantine Empire became a popular destination for many Anglo-Saxon soldiers, as the Byzantines were in need of mercenaries.^[15] The Anglo-Saxons became the predominant element in the elite Varangian Guard, hitherto a largely Scandinavian unit, from which the emperor's bodyguard was drawn and continued to serve the empire until the early 15th century.^[16] However, the population of England at home remained largely Anglo-Saxon; for them, little changed immediately except that their Anglo-Saxon lord was replaced by a Norman lord.^[17]

Culture [link]

Architecture [link]

Main article: Anglo-Saxon architecture

Reconstruction of the Anglo-Saxon royal palace at Cheddar around 1000 AD

Early Anglo-Saxon buildings in Britain were generally simple, not using masonry except in foundations but constructed mainly using timber with thatch for roofing. Generally preferring not to settle within the old Roman cities, the Anglo-Saxons built small towns near their centres of agriculture, at fords in rivers or sited to serve as ports. In each town, a main hall was in the centre, provided with a central hearth.^[18]

There are few remains of Anglo-Saxon architecture, with but one secular work remaining above ground – a 10m. x 5m. houscarl's dwelling re-using local Roman materials.^[where?] This is still completely standing as an undivided single room with a single central north-facing door, belonging to the Godwin estates, so can be dated 1018–1066. At least fifty churches are of Anglo-Saxon origin, with many more claimed to be, in part from their dedication to local Anglo-Saxon saints, although in some cases the Anglo-Saxon part is small and much-altered. All surviving churches, except one timber church, are built of stone or brick and in some cases show evidence of re-used Roman work.

The character of Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical buildings ranges from Celtic influenced architecture in the early period; basilica influenced Romanesque architecture; to in the later Anglo-Saxon period, an architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings.

Art [link]

Main article: Anglo-Saxon art

Anglo-Saxon jewellery.

The Pentney hoard.

Anglo-Saxon art before roughly the time of Alfred (ruled 871–899) mostly in varieties of the Hiberno-Saxon or Insular style, a fusion of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic techniques and motifs. The Sutton Hoo treasure is an exceptional survival of very early Anglo-Saxon metalwork and jewellery, from a royal grave of the early 7th century. The period between Alfred and the Norman Conquest, with the revival of the English economy and culture after the end of the Viking raids, saw a distinct Anglo-Saxon style in art, though one in touch with trends on the Continent.

Anglo-Saxon art is mainly known today through illuminated manuscripts, including the Benedictional of St. Æthelwold (British Library) and Leofric Missal (Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Bodl, 579), masterpieces of the late "Winchester style", which drew on Hiberno-Saxon art, Carolingian art and Byzantine art for style and iconography, and combined both northern ornamental traditions with Mediterranean figural traditions. The Harley Psalter was a copy of the Carolingian Utrecht Psalter — which was a particular influence in creating an Anglo-Saxon style of very lively pen drawings.

Manuscripts were far from the only Anglo-Saxon art form, but they have survived in much greater numbers than other types of object. Contemporaries in Europe regarded Anglo-Saxon goldsmithing and embroidery (Opus Anglicanum) as especially fine. Perhaps the best known piece of Anglo-Saxon art is the Bayeux Tapestry which was commissioned by a Norman patron from English artists working in the traditional Anglo-Saxon style. The most common example of Anglo-Saxon art is coins, with thousands of examples extant. Anglo-Saxon artists also worked in fresco, ivory, stone carving, metalwork (see Fuller brooch for example) and enamel, but few of these pieces have survived.

Language [link]

Main article: Old English

Old English, sometimes called Anglo-Saxon, was the language spoken under Alfred the Great and continued to be the common language of England (non-Danelaw) until after the Norman Conquest of 1066 when, under the influence of the Anglo-Norman language spoken by the Norman ruling class, it changed into Middle English roughly between 1150–1500.

Old English is far closer to early Germanic than Middle English. It is less Latinised and retains many morphological features (nominal and verbal inflection) that were lost during the 12th to 14th centuries. The languages today which are closest to Old English are the Frisian languages, which are spoken by a few hundred thousand people in the northern part of Germany and the Netherlands.

Before literacy in the vernacular Old English or Latin became widespread, a runic alphabet, the futhorc, was used for inscriptions. When literacy became more prevalent, a form of Latin script was used with a couple of letters derived from the futhorc: 'thorn' ‹þ› and 'wynn' ‹ƿ› (generally replaced with ‹w› in modern reproductions).

The letters regularly used in printed and edited texts of Old English are the following:

a æ b c d ð e f g h i l m n o p r s t þ u w x y

with only rare occurrences of j, k, q, v, and z.

Law [link]

Main article: Anglo-Saxon laws

Very few law codes exist from the Anglo-Saxon period to provide an insight into legal culture beyond the influence of Roman law and how this legal culture developed over the course of time. The Saxons chopped off hands and noses for punishment (if the offender stole something or committed another crime). If someone killed a Saxon, he had to pay money called wergild, the amount varying according to the social rank of the victim.

Literature [link]

Main article: Anglo-Saxon literature

First page of the epic Beowulf

Old English literary works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles and others. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, a significant corpus of both popular interest and specialist research.

The most famous works from this period include the poem Beowulf, which has achieved national epic status in Britain. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of important early English history. Cædmon's Hymn from the 7th century is the earliest attested literary text in English.

Religion [link]

The indigenous pre-Christian belief system of the Anglo-Saxons was a form of Germanic paganism and therefore closely related to the Old Norse religion, as well as other Germanic pre-Christian cultures.

Christianity gradually replaced the indigenous religion of the English around the 7th and 8th centuries. Celtic Christianity was introduced into Northumbria and Mercia by monks from Ireland, but the Synod of Whitby settled the choice for Roman Christianity. As the new clerics became the chroniclers, the old religion was partially lost before it was recorded, and today historians' knowledge of it is largely based on surviving customs and lore, texts, etymological links and archaeological finds.

One of the few recorded references is that a Kentish King would only meet the missionary St. Augustine in the open air, where he would be under the protection of the sky god, Woden. Written Christian prohibitions on acts of paganism are one of historians' main sources of information on pre-Christian beliefs.

Despite these prohibitions, numerous elements of the pre-Christian culture of the Anglo-Saxon people survived the Christianisation process. Examples include the English language names for days of the week:

Tiw, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Tyr: Tuesday
Woden, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Odin: Wednesday
Þunor, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Thor: Thursday
*Fríge, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Frigg: Friday

Contemporary meanings [link]

"Anglo-Saxon" in linguistics is still used as a term for the original West Germanic component of the modern English language, which was later expanded and developed through the influence of Old Norse and Norman French, though linguists now more often refer to it as Old English. In the 19th century the term "Anglo-Saxon" was broadly used in philology, and is sometimes so used at present. In Victorian Britain, some writers such as Robert Knox, James Anthony Froude, Charles Kingsley^[19] and Edward A. Freeman^[20] used the term "Anglo-Saxon" to justify racism and imperialism, claiming that the "Anglo-Saxon" ancestry of the English made them racially superior to the colonised peoples. Similar racist ideas were advocated in the 19th Century United States by Samuel George Morton and George Fitzhugh.^[21]

The term "Anglo-Saxon" is sometimes used to refer to peoples descended or associated in some way with the English ethnic group. The definition has varied from time to time and varies from place to place. In contemporary Anglophone cultures outside the United Kingdom, the term is most commonly found in certain contexts, such as the term "White Anglo-Saxon Protestant" or "WASP". Such terms are often politicised, and bear little connection to the precise ethnological or historical definition of the term "Anglo-Saxon". It often encapsulates socio-economic identifiers more than ethnic ones.^{[citation needed]}

Outside Anglophone countries, both in Europe and in the rest of the world, the term "Anglo-Saxon" and its direct translations are used to refer to the Anglophone peoples and societies of Britain, the United States, and other countries such as Australia, Canada and New Zealand – areas which are sometimes referred to as the Anglosphere. The term "Anglo-Saxon" can be used in a variety of contexts, often to identify the English-speaking world's distinctive language, culture, technology, wealth, markets, economy, and legal systems. Variations include the German "Angelsachsen", French "Anglo-Saxon", Spanish "anglosajón", Portuguese "anglo-saxão", Italian "anglosassone", Catalan "anglosaxó", Japanese "Angurosakuson" and Ukrainian "aнглосакси" (anhlosaksy). As with the English language use of the term, what constitutes the "Anglo-Saxon" varies from speaker to speaker.^{[citation needed]}

Notes [link]

^ Frank M. Stenton, The Oxford history of England: Anglo-Saxon England: Volume 2: 550-1087 (3rd ed. 1971)
^ BBC - History - Anglo-Saxons
^ Richard M. Hogg, ed. The Cambridge History of the English Language: Vol 1: the Beginnings to 1066 (1992)
^ English and Welsh are races apart
^ Bede's Ecclesiastical History of England Chap XV
^ The Monarchy of England: Volume I – The Beginnings by David Starkey (extract at Channel 4 programme 'Monarchy')
^ The Life of King Alfred
^ The History of Wales, John Davies, Penguin Books, 1990. ISBN01.2570 1
^ Stenton, F.M. (1989). Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford Paperbacks. pp. 808. ISBN 0-19-282237-3.
^ Stenton, F. M. (1989). Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford Paperbacks. pp. 808. ISBN 0-19-282237-3.
^ Bartlett, Robert (2000). J.M.Roberts. ed. England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings 1075 -1225. London: OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-925101-8. , p.1
^ Wood, Michael (2005). In Search of the Dark Ages. London: BBC. ISBN 978-0-563-52276-8. p.248-249
^ From Norman Conquest to Magna Carta: England, 1066-1215, pp.13,14, Christopher Daniell, 2003, ISBN 0-415-22216-8
^ Slaves and warriors in medieval Britain and Ireland, 800-1200, p.385, David R. Wyatt, 2009, ISBN 978-90-04-17533-4
^ Western travellers to Constantinople: the West and Byzantium, 962-1204, pp. 140,141, Krijna Nelly Ciggaar, 1996, ISBN 90-04-10637-5
^ "Byzantine Armies AD 1118-1461", p.23, Ian Heath, Osprey Publishing, 1995, ISBN 978-1-85532-347-6
^ "The Norman conquest: England after William the Conqueror", p.98, Hugh M. Thomas, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7425-3840-5
^ York and London both offer examples of this trend.
^ Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830–1914 by Patrick Brantlinger. Cornell University Press, 1990
^ Race and Empire in British Politics by Paul B. Rich. CUP Archive, 1990
^ Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism by Reginald Horsman.Harvard University Press, 1981. (pgs. 126,273)

References [link]

Oppenheimer, Stephen. The Origins of the British(2006). Constable and Robinson, London. ISBN 1-84529-158-1

External links [link]

v t e Germanic peoples

Languages	Germanic Parent Language Proto-Germanic North Germanic Old Norse West Germanic Ingvaeonic South Germanic Northwest Germanic East Germanic Germanic philology

Prehistory	Nordic Bronze Age Pre-Roman Iron Age Jastorf Nordwestblock Przeworsk Wielbark Oksywie Chernyakhov

Roman Iron Age	Magna Germania Wars with Rome Battle of the Teutoburg Forest Germania Irminones Ingaevones Istvaeones Chatti Marcomanni Suebi

Migration Period	Germanic Iron Age Alamanni Anglo-Saxons Angles Jutes Saxons Burgundians Dani Franks Frisii Geats Goths Visigoths Ostrogoths Valagoths Gothic Wars Gotlanders Lombards Suebi Suiones Vandals Varangians Christianization of the Germanic peoples Romanization

Society and culture	Mead hall Poetry Migration Period art Runes Runic calendar Sippe Law Lawspeaker Thing Calendar King Names Numbers Romano-Germanic culture

Religion	Wodanaz Veleda Tuisto Mannus Paganism Anglo-Saxon Continental Germanic mythology Frankish Norse Christianity Arianism Gothic

Dress	Bracteates Fibula Suebian knot

Warfare	Gothic Anglo-Saxon Viking Spear Sword

Burial practices	Tumulus Ship burial Viking Age Alemannic Sutton Hoo Spong Hill

List of Germanic peoples Portal:Ancient Germanic culture

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David Haye

Statistics
Real name	David Haye
Nickname(s)	The Hayemaker
Rated at	Heavyweight Cruiserweight
Height	6 ft 3 in (1.91 m)
Reach	198 cm (78 in)
Nationality	British
Born	(1980-10-13) 13 October 1980 (age 31) Bermondsey, London, England
Stance	Orthodox
Boxing record
Total fights	27
Wins	25
Wins by KO	23
Losses	2

Medal record
Competitor for England
Men's boxing
World Amateur Championships
Silver	Belfast 2001	Heavyweight

David Deron Haye (born 13 October 1980) is a British professional boxer from England.^[1]

Haye is the former WBA heavyweight champion. He is also the former unified world cruiserweight champion, holding the WBA, WBC, WBO, and The Ring cruiserweight titles, and the former European cruiserweight champion.

1 Amateur
2 Professional career
3 Personal information
4 Professional boxing record
5 References
6 External links

Amateur [link]

Haye started his ambition and passion for boxing at old-school boxing gym Fitzroy Lodge Boxing Club in Lambeth, South London, where he quickly impressed and confidently won his first amateur bouts.

In 1999, 18-year-old Haye participated at the world amateur championships in Houston, Texas, USA at light-heavyweight but was eliminated by experienced American Michael Simms early in the contest.

At the 2001 World Amateur Boxing Championships in Belfast, Northern Ireland he fought in the heavyweight 201 lb division where he beat world class Sebastian Köber to reach the final where he gave Odlanier Solís a standing eight count before being stopped by the Cuban in round three, and taking the silver medal.

Professional career [link]

Cruiserweight [link]

Based in Bermondsey, London, England, Haye turned professional in December 2002, aged 22, knocking out Tony Booth in two rounds.^[2]

In 2003 he won seven fights, two of which were the only fights Haye has fought in the United States. He won all by knockouts, the most notable being a fourth round KO of Denmark's Lolenga Mock, in which Haye had to come off the floor to win.

Haye's fights were regularly seen on the BBC and his popularity began to grow in 2004, when he dispatched the 39-year-old ex-world champion "King" Arthur Williams in three rounds.

Later that year, in his eleventh pro fight, he fought 40-year-old former WBO champion Carl Thompson in a 'youth vs experience' matchup. Haye started fast and alarmingly caught Thompson with constant barrages of power punches, coming close to forcing a stoppage at numerous points over the first few rounds.

Gradually, despite the early punishment he received, Thompson warmed up and worked his way into the fight whilst Haye seemed to tire and slow down. Thompson began to pressure Haye and knocked Haye down with a chopping right hand in round 5. With seven seconds left in the round, Thompson landed two jabs followed by a flush right hand which cleanly caught a fatigued Haye, and compelled Haye's corner to throw in the towel.

Haye returned against Estonian Valery Semishkur, winning by TKO in round 1, then defeated Garry Delaney by a third round TKO. Following two more fights against Glen Kelly and Vincenzo Rossitto, Haye faced Alexander Gurov for the EBU cruiserweight championship. Haye easily knocked out Gurov with a single right hand in just 45 seconds.

In January 2006, Haye signed a three-year contract with former Lennox Lewis promoter Frank Maloney to further his world title ambitions. He successfully defended his EBU title against Ismail Abdoul and future world champion Giacobbe Fragomeni, with the latter fight being a WBC eliminator.

Haye's cameo at heavyweight in April 2007 resulted in an impressive first-round KO win over Polish fighter Tomasz Bonin,^[3] who at the time was ranked No. 11 by the WBC and had only one loss, against Audley Harrison.

World cruiserweight champion [link]

Haye challenged Jean-Marc Mormeck on 10 November 2007 for the WBA, WBC, & The Ring cruiserweight titles. Haye defeated Mormeck by knockout in the seventh round, despite Haye needing to rally after being knocked down by Mormeck in the fourth. The victory confirmed Haye's arrival as a genuine world class fighter.

The Mormeck fight was expected to be Haye's last fight in the cruiserweight division. Haye himself admitted that he struggles to make weight and feels that he can only box at "70 or 80 per cent" of his potential as a cruiserweight. However Haye would be tempted into a unification cruiserweight bout for the most lucrative fight of Haye's career.

"We thank Frank for sacrificing Maccarinelli, but we'd feel immense guilt if we took any more free money from Sports Network. I have a hard enough time sleeping at night as it is"

— David Haye on the prospect of working with Sports Network again^[4]

Haye and Enzo Maccarinelli met in an all-British world cruiserweight title fight in the early hours of 9 March 2008. Haye's WBA, WBC, & The Ring titles were at stake, while Maccarinelli's WBO title was on the line. British trade paper Boxing News produced a pullout special on the match. Widely billed as the biggest all-British bout since Chris Eubank met Nigel Benn. As both fighters are hard punchers with excellent KO records, a short fight was predicted.^[5] These predictions proved to be correct, as Haye knocked out Maccarinelli in the second round of the contest. Commenting on the fight and of the prospect of working again with Frank Warren, Maccarinelli's promoter, Haye said, "We thank Frank for sacrificing Maccarinelli, but we'd feel immense guilt if we took any more free money from Sports Network. I have a hard enough time sleeping at night as it is."^[4]

Heavyweight [link]

Haye described the victory over Maccarinelli as "the final piece" in his cruiserweight jigsaw. Haye then defeated heavyweight Monte Barrett at The O2 Arena in London on 15 November 2008, winning via TKO in the fifth round.^[6]

WBC Heavyweight Champion Vitali Klitschko confirmed he would defend his title in a fight with Haye to take place on 20 June 2009, at Stamford Bridge in London. Instead, his younger brother, WBO, IBO & IBF heavyweight champion Wladimir Klitschko agreed to fight Haye the same date in Gelsenkirchen, Germany. Haye pulled out of the fight claiming a back injury.^[7]

WBA heavyweight champion [link]

Haye then confirmed that he would meet the WBA champion Nikolay Valuev on 7 November 2009 in the Nuremberg Arena, Nuremberg, Germany. Haye's trainer Adam Booth claimed it was a fight that Valuev wanted; it was billed as David and Goliath.^[8] Haye weighed in at 217 pounds, almost 100 lbs less than his opponent. Haye said about Valuev: "He is the ugliest thing I have ever seen. I have watched Lord of the Rings and films with strange looking people, but for a human being to look like he does is pretty shocking."^[9]

Haye beat Valuev in a reserved display of accuracy and efficiency, countering Valuev's misses, jabbing and circling his much larger opponent.^[10] Haye came close to knocking down Valuev in the final round with a hard left hand, which made Valuev stumble. Haye won with scores of 114–114 (ITA), 116–112 (USA) and 116–112 (ESP).^[11] Haye is the first and currently only boxer in the history of the sport to be seven stone or more lighter than an opponent in a World title fight and still come out victorious.^{[citation needed]}

On 3 April 2010 Haye defeated John Ruiz in his first WBA title defence at the Manchester Arena by TKO in the ninth round after knocking him down four times during the fight excluding a point deduction for hitting Ruiz on the back of his head in round one. This was only the second time Ruiz has been stopped, after being knocked out in round one by David Tua fourteen years prior to facing David Haye. After the fight, Haye immediately called on both Klitschko brothers, after claiming their recent challengers Eddie Chambers and Chris Arreola were "a disgrace to boxing."

It was confirmed on 7 September 2010 that Haye would fight Audley Harrison on 13 November 2010 at the Manchester Arena. The press conference for the bout became heated, leading to the two fighters swearing at each other on live television.^[12] On 13 November 2010, Haye defeated Harrison with one minute, seven seconds remaining of the third round by TKO. Southpaw Harrison landed one jab during the entire fight. He staggered to his feet after being knocked down, only for Haye to immediately pounce right back on him, hitting him with another flurry of punches. The referee intervened and ended the bout.^[13]

Haye's plans to unify the heavyweight division took a major setback in January 2011 when it was revealed that Tomas Adamek would fight one of the Klitschko brothers in September 2011,^[14] before his planned retirement in October of that year. However, in April 2011, it was announced that Haye and Wladimir Klitschko had agreed to meet at the Imtech Arena in Hamburg on 2 July 2011.^[15]

Wladimir Klitschko vs David Haye [link]

Main article: Wladimir Klitschko vs. David Haye

Wladimir Klitschko versus David Haye was a heavyweight unification fight for the WBA, IBF, WBO and The Ring heavyweight titles, the fight taking place at the Imtech Arena, Hamburg, Germany on 2 July 2011^[16]^[17]^[18] This was the only heavyweight unification fight since Wladimir Klitschko and Sultan Ibragimov fought back in 2008. It was then when Wladimir Klitschko beat Ibragimov and added his WBO title to his IBF title. Klitschko defeated Haye by a unanimous decision to become the unified WBA Super, IBF, WBO, and The Ring heavyweight champion.^[19]^[20] The official scores were: 118–108, 117–109 and 116–110, which were all in favour of Klitschko.^[21]

Retirement [link]

BBC chief Charlie Smith told The Sun on 11 October 2011 that David Haye had informed him that he would not be not renewing his boxing licence, thus retiring from the sport.^[22] Haye has had a long-standing plan to retire early. After the Harrison fight Haye said his plans to retire before he is 31 had not altered: "I will have achieved what I wanted to achieve – undisputed cruiserweight champion, unify the heavyweight division and then call it a day." In December 2010, during the negotiations to fight Wladimir Klitschko, Haye said if the fight did not happen, "I'll just have to accept that becoming the WBA champion was enough and move on with my life. That'll be 20 years of getting punched in the face, which is a long enough time. I set my goals and achieved them so unifying the titles is the cherry on the cake but if it doesn't happen it wasn't meant to be and I've just got to get on with my life".^[23]

Vitali Klitschko vs David Haye negotiations [link]

Haye put retirement on hold and was in negotiations for a possible bout with WBC heavyweight title holder Vitali Klitschko on 3 March 2012.^[24]^[25] However, Klitschko went on to schedule a fight with Dereck Chisora on 18 February 2012, which he won by decision. Following the fight there was a fracas between Chisora and Haye, who had attended as a spectator, leading to speculation that Haye might come out of retirement to fight Chisora. However, on 21 February, Haye confirmed that he would only come out of retirement to fight Klitschko.^[26] On 8 May, Haye signed on to face Dereck Chisora on 14 July.

Haye Vs Dereck Chisora [link]

Press Conference Brawl [link]

After his loss to WBC heavyweight champion Vitali Klitschko, Dereck Chisora got into a brawl with compatriot David Haye at the post-fight press conference. Klitschko’s manager Bernd Boente said "with the bad experience we've had with British fighters we will now look for other countries". He then told Haye from the dais "You had an offer, you didn't accept it, now you are out. You are out. You cannot talk yourself back into the fight, you have no belts." Chisora then called out Haye, but Haye dismissed Chisora as "a loser". Chisora challenged Haye to tell him that to his face and approached Haye sparking a melee with Haye throwing the first punch with what appeared to be a glass bottle in his hand, as the brawl progressed Haye was seen swinging a camera tripod. After order was restored, a furious Chisora stated multiple times that he would "shoot" David Haye and claimed Haye "glassed" him. Haye's manager Adam Booth emerged from the fracas with a facial wound and Chisora suggested to Booth that Haye hit him with a bottle by mistake while Booth insisted it was one of Chisora's entourage that had hit him with a bottle . During a interview at the Chisora Vs Haye press confrence Booth was asked "how did you end up with a cut on your head?" to which he replied "David hit me with a tripod" but also added "he bought me a new S-class Mercedes as an apology".^[27]^[28]

Fight Negotiations [link]

On 8 May 2012, Haye and his promotion team announced that he would fight against Dereck Chisora at West Ham United FC, Upton Park, London on Saturday 14 July 2012. The announcement caused controversy as neither held a British Boxing Licence, and so had agreed a licence deal with the Luxembourg Boxing Association. Seen as a direct attempt to undermine the British Boxing Board of Control, it meant that fights could take place in Britain even if a boxer was facing disciplinary action.

Personal information [link]

David was born to a white English mother and black Jamaican father and grew up in Bermondey, London for most of his childhood. He has an older sister Louisa and a younger brother James. Haye attended Bacon's College in Rotherhithe, South East London. His training camp is based in Kyrenia, Northern Cyprus and he has worn the Northern Cyprus flag on his shorts alongside the Flag of St. George and the Union Flag in the past. David Haye was awarded with the citizenship of North Cyprus due to his contributions to the North Cyprus.^[29] Haye lives in Bexleyheath;^[30] he is married and has a son called Cassius, named after Cassius Clay. He supports London football team Millwall.^[31] On 20 October 2010, he was awarded an honourary doctorate from Anglia Ruskin University, at the graduation ceremony in the Cambridge Corn Exchange. Haye's successful defences of his title against Ruiz and Harrison saw Haye be selected for the final 10 shortlist for the 2010 BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award.^[32]

Professional boxing record [link]

25 Wins (23 knockouts, 2 decisions), 2 Losses, 0 Draws^[33]
Res.	Record	Opponent	Type	Rd., Time	Date	Location	Notes
N/A	N/A	Dereck Chisora	N/A	N/A	2012-07-14	Boleyn Ground, West Ham, London	For WBO&WBA International & Intercontinental titles, licensed by Luxembourg BBoC.
Loss	25–2	Wladimir Klitschko	UD	12	2011-07-02	Imtech Arena, Altona, Hamburg	Lost WBA, for IBF, WBO, IBO & The Ring Heavyweight titles.
Win	25–1	Audley Harrison	TKO	3 (12), 1:53	2010-11-13	Manchester Arena, Manchester, North West England	Retained WBA Heavyweight title.
Win	24–1	John Ruiz	TKO	9 (12), 2:01	2010-04-03	Manchester Arena, Manchester, North West England	Retained WBA Heavyweight title.
Win	23–1	Nikolai Valuev	MD	12	2009-11-07	Nuremberg Arena, Nuremberg, Bavaria	Won WBA Heavyweight title.
Win	22–1	Monte Barrett	TKO	5 (10), 1:28	2008-11-15	O₂ Arena, Greenwich, London
Win	21–1	Enzo Maccarinelli	TKO	2 (12), 2:04	2008-03-08	O₂ Arena, Greenwich, London	Retained WBA, WBC & The Ring, Won WBO Cruiserweight titles.
Win	20–1	Jean-Marc Mormeck	TKO	7 (12), ?	2007-11-10	Stade Marcel Cerdan, Paris, Île-de-France	Won WBA, WBC & The Ring Cruiserweight titles.
Win	19–1	Tomasz Bonin	TKO	1 (12), 1:45	2007-04-27	Wembley Arena, Wembley, London
Win	18–1	Giacobbe Fragomeni	TKO	9 (12), 1:29	2006-11-17	York Hall, Bethnal Green, London	Retained EBU Cruiserweight title, WBC Cruiserweight Title Eliminator.
Win	17–1	Ismail Abdoul	UD	12	2006-07-21	Leisure Centre, Altrincham, Greater Manchester	Retained EBU Cruiserweight title.
Win	16–1	Lasse Johansen	TKO	8 (12), 2:08	2006-03-24	York Hall, Bethnal Green, London	Retained EBU Cruiserweight title.
Win	15–1	Alexander Gurov	KO	1 (12), 0:45	2005-12-16	Leisure Centre, Bracknell, Berkshire	Won EBU Cruiserweight title.
Win	14–1	Vincenzo Rossitto	TKO	2 (10), 2:55	2005-10-14	Leisure Centre, Huddersfield, Yorkshire
Win	13–1	Glen Kelly	TKO	2 (10), 1:09	2005-03-04	Magna Centre, Rotherham, Yorkshire
Win	12–1	Garry Delaney	RTD	3 (6), 3:00	2005-01-21	Fountain Leisure Centre, Brentford, London
Win	11–1	Valeri Semiskur	KO	1 (6), 1:36	2004-12-10	Hillsborough Leisure Centre, Sheffield, Yorkshire
Loss	10–1	Carl Thompson	TKO	5 (12), 2:53	2004-09-10	Wembley Arena, Wembley, London
Win	10–0	Arthur Williams	TKO	3 (8), 2:46	2004-05-12	Rivermead Leisure Centre, Reading, Berkshire
Win	9–0	Hastings Rasani	TKO	1 (6)	2004-03-20	Wembley Arena, Wembley, London
Win	8–0	Tony Dowling	TKO	1 (10)	2003-11-14	York Hall, Bethnal Green, London
Win	7–0	Lolenga Mock	TKO	4 (6)	2003-09-26	Rivermead Leisure Centre, Reading, Berkshire
Win	6–0	Greg Scott-Briggs	KO	1 (6)	2003-08-01	York Hall, Bethnal Green, London
Win	5–0	Vance Winn	TKO	1 (6), 0:54	2003-07-15	The Playboy Mansion, Beverly Hills, California
Win	4–0	Phil Day	TKO	2 (4), 2:09	2003-03-18	Rivermead Leisure Centre, Reading, Berkshire
Win	3–0	Roger Bowden	TKO	1 (6), 2:42	2003-03-04	Seville Hotel, Miami, Florida
Win	2–0	Saber Zairi	TKO	4 (4), 0:54	2003-01-24	Ponds Forge Arena, Sheffield, Yorkshire
Win	1–0	Tony Booth	RTD	2 (4), 3:00	2002-12-08	York Hall, Bethnal Green, London	Professional debut.

References [link]

^ Sheehan, Pat (2011-10-11). "British star David Haye quits boxing". The Sun (London). http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/sport/boxing/3864500/British-star-David-Haye-quits-boxing.html.
^ Mahdi, Amar. "How rich is WBA boxing heavyweight champion David Haye?". thisismoney.co.uk. 2 July 2011. Accessed 6 July 2011.
^ "Haye powers to win as heavyweight". BBC Sport. 27 April 2007. Accessed 6 July 2011.
^ ^a ^b Livefight.com | Haye – I will never work with Sports Network again^{[dead link]}
^ Haye Faces Toughest Test Yet, BBC Sport
^ "Round-by-Round: Haye vs. Barrett". FightHype. http://fighthype.com/pages/content3802.html.
^ Wladimir Klitschko replaces injured David Haye with Ruslan Chagaev for June 20 fight – ESPN. Sports.espn.go.com (2009-06-06). Retrieved on 2010-10-11.
^ "Haye to fight WBA champion Valuev". BBC Sport. 23 July 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/boxing/8164412.stm. Retrieved 23 July 2009.
^ Charles, Chris (23 September 2009). "Sport quotes of the week". BBC Sport. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/funny_old_game/8268911.stm. Retrieved 23 September 2009.
^ Mitchell, Kevin (8 November 2009). "David Haye beat Nikolai Valuev despite suffering a broken hand". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2009/nov/08/david-haye-nikolai-valuev.
^ > Haye Takes WBA Heavy Title!. BoxingNews365. Retrieved on 2011-06-17.
^ "WBA champion David Haye to fight Audley Harrison". BBC Sport. 7 September 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/boxing/8968472.stm. Retrieved 7 September 2010.
^ Dirs, Ben (14 November 2010). "David Haye targets Klitschko brothers for next fight". BBC Sport. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/boxing/9187669.stm. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
^ "Haye hopes dented by Adamek deal". BBC News. 26 January 2011. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/boxing/9376173.stm.
^ "David Haye and Wladimir Klitschko set for 2 July fight". BBC. 20 April 2011. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/boxing/13140466.stm.
^ BoxRec Boxing Records. Boxrec.com. Retrieved on 2011-06-17.
^ Boxing – Klitschko-Haye in Hamburg. Fightnews.com (2011-04-20). Retrieved on 2011-06-17.
^ Boxen | Klitschko | Haye. RTL.de. Retrieved on 2011-06-17.
^ Klitschko defeats Haye to become unified champion^{[dead link]}
^ Roughley, Gregg (2 July 2011). "David Haye v Wladimir Klitschko – as it happened". Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2011/jul/02/david-haye-wladimir-klitschko-live. Retrieved 4 July 2011.
^ Klitschko-Haye decision results. boxrec.com
^ . http://www.skysports.com/story/0,,20876_7234718,00.html". ^{[dead link]}
^ "David Haye offers Wladimir Klitschko 50–50 split". BBC News (2010-12-21). Retrieved on 2012-05-19.
^ "Haye confirms Kiltschko fight talks". BBC News. 28 November 2011. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/boxing/15927657.stm.
^ Sheehan, Pat (2011-12-07). "Haye Marches to Vitali fight". The Sun (London). http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/sport/boxing/3968197/David-Haye-could-fight-Vitali-Klitschko-in-March.html.
^ "Haye David Haye will not fight Dereck Chisora and may never enter the ring again, says Adam Booth". Telegraph.co.uk. 21 February 2012. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/boxing/9095580/David-Haye-will-not-fight-Dereck-Chisora-and-may-never-enter-the-ring-again-says-Adam-Booth.html.
^ Boxing News | Chisora brawls with David Haye. Fightnews (2012-02-19). Retrieved on 2012-05-19.
^ BBC Sport – Dereck Chisora – David Haye brawl transcript. Bbc.co.uk (2012-02-19). Retrieved on 2012-05-19.
^ David Haye is now North Cyprus citizen as well Haye awarded North Cyprus citizenship on 21 September 2010
^ ITV News, 21 February 2012
^ Coles, Bill (7 November 2009). "David V Goliath". Express.co.uk. http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/138754/David-v-Goliath-David-v-Goliath-David-v-Goliath-David-v-Goliath-David-v-Goliath-David-v-Goliath-David-v-Goliath-. Retrieved 21 May 2010.
^ "Sports Personality of the Year 2010: David Haye". BBC Sport. 29 November 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tv_and_radio/sports_personality_of_the_year/9216834.stm. Retrieved 16 December 2010.
^ David Haye – Boxer. Boxrec.com (2007-11-24). Retrieved on 2010-10-11.

External links [link]

Achievements
Preceded by Jean-Marc Mormeck	WBC Cruiserweight Champion November 10, 2007 – May 12, 2008 Vacated	Vacant Title next held by Giacobbe Fragomeni
	WBA Cruiserweight Super Champion November 10, 2007 – May 12, 2008 Vacated	Succeeded by Firat Arslan as Champion
	The Ring Cruiserweight Champion November 10, 2007 – May 23, 2008 Vacated	Vacant Title next held by Tomasz Adamek
Preceded by Enzo Maccarinelli	WBO Cruiserweight Champion March 8, 2008 – May 12, 2008 Vacated	Vacant Title next held by Victor Emilio Ramirez
Preceded by Nikolai Valuev	WBA Heavyweight Champion November 7, 2009 – July 2, 2011 Lost bid for Super Title	Succeeded by Wladimir Klitschko as Super Champion
Preceded by Nikolai Valuev		Vacant Title next held by Alexander Povetkin as Regular Champion

Persondata
Name	Haye, David
Alternative names
Short description	British boxer
Date of birth	13 October 1980
Place of birth	Bermondsey, London
Date of death
Place of death

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