Northern Ireland

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The Good Friday Agreement or Belfast Agreement (Irish: Comhaontú Bhéal Feirste or Comhaontú Aoine an Chéasta, Ulster-Scots: Bilfawst Greeance or Guid Friday Greeance),^[1] sometimes called the Stormont Agreement, was a major political development in the Northern Ireland peace process. The Agreement was made up of two inter-related documents, both signed in Belfast on 10 April 1998 (Good Friday): a multi-party agreement by most of Northern Ireland's political parties, and an international agreement between the British and Irish governments. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) was the only major political group in Northern Ireland to oppose the Agreement.

The Belfast Agreement set out a complex series of provisions relating to a number of areas, including: the future status and system of government within Northern Ireland; the relationship between Northern Ireland and institutions in both the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom; human rights; the principle of respect for each of Northern Ireland's communities and their traditions; the decommissioning of arms held by the various paramilitary groups, the release of members of paramilitary groups from prison; and the normalisation of British security arrangements within Northern Ireland.

The Agreement was approved by voters in Northern Ireland at a referendum held on 23 May 1998, while on the same day the Agreement was tacitly approved by voters in the Republic of Ireland at a referendum to amend the Constitution in conformity with the Agreement.

The Agreement came into force on 2 December 1999.^[2][3] The present constitutional status of Northern Ireland as part of the United Kingdom, and Northern Ireland's devolved system of government (made up of the Northern Ireland Assembly and a joint executive based on cross-community power-sharing) are based on the Belfast Agreement, as well as on the 2006 St Andrews Agreement.

Structure of the Agreement[link]

The Agreement is an international agreement between the British and Irish governments. It comprises two elements: the legal agreement between the two governments and a more substantive agreement between eight political parties and the two governments. That former text is very short. It has just four articles.^[3] It is that short text which is the legal agreement. The Northern Ireland political parties were not involved in its negotiation. However, the short legal agreement incorporates in its Schedules the latter agreement reached by the eight political parties (the Ulster Unionist Party, the Social Democratic and Labour Party, Sinn Féin, the Alliance Party, the Progressive Unionist Party, the Northern Ireland Women’s Coalition, the Ulster Democratic Party and the Labour Group) and the two governments.^[3] Technically, this Scheduled agreement can be distinguished as the multi-party agreement as opposed to the Belfast Agreement itself.^[3]

Provisions in detail[link]

General provisions[link]

• The multi-party agreement commits its participants:
  • to "partnership, equality and mutual respect" as the basis for relations within Northern Ireland, between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, and "between these islands";
  • to "exclusively democratic and peaceful means of resolving differences on political issues";
  • to oppose "any use or threat of force by others for any political purpose".
• The various "institutional and constitutional arrangements" set out in the Agreement are also stated to be "interlocking and interdependent".

Constitutional issues[link]

• The Agreement acknowledged and recognised:
  • that the majority of the people of Northern Ireland at the time wished to remain as part of the United Kingdom, and that Northern Ireland's present and continuing status as part of the United Kingdom was a reflection of that wish;
  • that a "substantial section" of the people of Northern Ireland, and the majority "of the people of the island of Ireland", wished to bring about a united Ireland;
  • that both views were legitimate;
  • that it was only for the people of Ireland as a whole, by agreement between North and South, "to exercise their right of self-determination on the basis of consent, freely and concurrently given", to bring about a united Ireland;
  • that any future change in the status of Northern Ireland as a part of the United Kingdom is only to be brought about by the freely exercised choice of "a majority of the people of Northern Ireland";
  • and that the British and Irish governments are under "a binding obligation" to implement that choice.
• The Agreement also "affirm[s]" that whether as part of the United Kingdom, or in future as a part of a united Ireland, the relevant government with authority over Northern Ireland shall exercise its authority there "with rigorous impartiality on behalf of all the people in the diversity of their identities and traditions and shall be founded on the principles of full respect for, and equality of, civil, political, social and cultural rights, of freedom from discrimination for all citizens, and of parity of esteem and of just and equal treatment for the identity, ethos, and aspirations of both communities".
• The "birthright" of all the people of Northern Ireland "to identify themselves and be accepted as Irish or British, or both", is also recognised, as well as their right to hold both British and Irish citizenship; and that these rights are not to be affected should Northern Ireland become a part of a united Ireland.
• The British government was committed to secure the repeal by the Parliament of the United Kingdom of the Government of Ireland Act 1920.
• The Irish government was committed to secure the amendment of Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland, which asserted a territorial claim to Northern Ireland, and to amend Section 29 of the Constitution so as to give authority to the cross-border institutions to be set up under the Agreement.

"Strand One"[link]

• The Agreement sets out a framework for the creation and functioning of:
  • the Northern Ireland Assembly, with mandatory "cross-community" voting on certain major decisions; and
  • a power-sharing executive, with ministerial portfolios to be allocated between parties by the d'Hondt method.

"Strand Two"[link]

• The Agreement established a "North-South Ministerial Council", made up of ministers from the governments of Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, "to develop consultation, co-operation and action" on issues of mutual interest, and provided for the existence of North-South "implementation bodies" to deal with specific cross-border issues.

"Strand Three"[link]

• The Agreement also established:
  • a "British-Irish Council", to be made up of ministerial representatives from the British and Irish governments, the governments of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, and from the Isle of Man, Jersey, and Guernsey; and
  • a British-Irish Intergovernmental Conference, to be held regularly between the British and Irish governments to discuss "non-devolved Northern Ireland matters", in recognition of the latter government's "special interest in Northern Ireland", and replacing the existing bodies established under the 1985 "Anglo-Irish Agreement".

Human rights, etc.[link]

• The multi-party agreement affirmed a commitment to "the mutual respect, the civil rights and the religious liberties of everyone in the community".
• The British government committed to incorporate the European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR) into the law of Northern Ireland, to the establishment of a Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission, and "as a particular priority" to set down a statutory obligation upon all "public authorities" in Northern Ireland to carry out their work "with due regard to the need to promote equality of opportunity in relation to religion and political opinion; gender; race; disability; age; marital status; dependants; and sexual orientation".
• The Irish government committed to "[taking] steps to further the protection of human rights in its jurisdiction", and to the establishment of a human rights commission.
• The multi-party agreement recognised "the importance of respect, understanding and tolerance in relation to linguistic diversity", especially in relation to the Irish language, Ulster Scots, and the languages of Northern Ireland's ethnic minorities, "all of which are part of the cultural wealth of the island of Ireland".

Decommissioning, security, and prisoners[link]

• The multi-party agreement committed the parties to "use any influence they may have" to bring about the decommissioning of all paramilitary arms within two years of the referendums approving the Agreement
• The British government committed to bringing restoring to "normal" its security arrangements, including:
  • the reduction in the number of its armed forces deployed in Northern Ireland, and the reduction of the role of those forces, "to levels compatible with a normal peaceful society";
  • the removal of security installations; and
  • the removal of special emergency powers in Northern Ireland.
• Both the British and Irish governments committed to the early release of prisoners serving sentences in connection with the activities of paramilitary groups, provided that those groups continued to maintain "a complete and unequivocal ceasefire".
• The Irish government also committed to a "wide-ranging review" of its "Offences against the State" legislation.

Policing and justice[link]

• The Agreement called for the establishment of an independent commission to review policing arrangements in Northern Ireland, "including [the] means of encouraging widespread community support" for those arrangements.
• The British government also committed to a "wide-ranging review" of the criminal justice system in Northern Ireland.

Implementation[link]

• Both the British and Irish governments committed to organising referendums on 22 May 1998 in Northern Ireland and across the Republic respectively: the Northern Ireland referendum to explicitly approve the Agreement, the Irish referendum to approve the constitutional amendments required by the Agreement.

Vague wording of some of the provisions (described as "constructive ambiguity"),^[4] which helped ensure acceptance of the agreement at the time, served to postpone debate on some of the more contentious issues—most notably paramilitary decommissioning, police reform and normalisation. A date of May 2000 was set for total disarming of all paramilitary groups. This was not achieved and delayed the establishment of the Assembly and Executive,^[5] because of claims by unionists that one of the main parties in the Assembly, Sinn Féin had links with the paramilitary group, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA). In line with those claims, unionists refused to share power with this party while the IRA remained armed. In September 2005, the IRA decommissioned their weapons.^[6]

Referendums[link]

In May 1998, there were separate referendums concerning the Belfast Agreement. The referendum in Northern Ireland was a direct vote on the Agreement, while the vote in the Republic of Ireland was a vote to amend the Irish constitution in line with the Belfast Agreement.

The result of these referendums was a large majority in both parts of Ireland in favour of the Agreement. In the Republic, 56% of the electorate voted, with 94% of the votes in favour of the amendment to the Constitution. The turnout in Northern Ireland was 81%, with 71% of the votes in favour of the Agreement.

In the Republic, the electorate voted upon the nineteenth amendment to the Constitution of Ireland. This amendment both permitted the state to comply with the Belfast Agreement and provided for the removal of the 'territorial claim' contained in Articles 2 and 3. Ireland voted upon the Amsterdam Treaty on the same day. The results of the two simultaneous referendums on the Belfast Agreement were as follows:

Agreement comes into effect[link]

Direct London rule came to an end in Northern Ireland when power was formally devolved to the new Northern Ireland Assembly, the North-South Ministerial Council and the British-Irish Council when commencement orders for the British-Irish Agreement came into effect on 2 December.^[7][8][9] However, Article 4(2) of the British-Irish Agreement (the Agreement between the British and Irish governments for the implementation of the Belfast Agreement) required the two governments to notify each other in writing of the completion of the requirements for the entry into force of the Belfast Agreement.^[10] Entry into force was to be upon the receipt of the latter of the two notifications. The British government agreed to participate in a televised ceremony at Iveagh House in Dublin, the Irish department of foreign affairs. Peter Mandelson, the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, attended early on 2 December 1999. He exchanged notifications with David Andrews, the Irish foreign minister. Shortly after the ceremony, at 10.30 am, the Taoiseach, Bertie Ahern signed the declaration formally amending Articles 2 & 3 of the Irish Constitution. He then announced to the Dáil that the British-Irish Agreement had entered into force (including certain supplementary agreements concerning the Belfast Agreement).^[3][11]

History of implementation[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

The Assembly and Executive were eventually established in December 1999 on the understanding that decommissioning would begin immediately, but were suspended within two months due to lack of progress, before being re-established in May 2000 as Provisional IRA decommissioning eventually began. Aside from the decommissioning issue, however, ongoing paramilitary activity (albeit relatively low level compared to the past) by the Provisional Irish Republican Army — e.g., arms importations, smuggling, organised crime, "punishment beatings", intelligence-gathering and rioting — was also a stumbling block. The loyalist paramilitaries also continued similar activity although as they were not represented by a significant political party, their position was less central to political change.

The overall result of these problems was to damage confidence among unionists in the Agreement, which was exploited by the anti-Agreement DUP which eventually defeated the pro-Agreement Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) in the 2003 Assembly election. The UUP had already resigned from the power-sharing Executive in 2002 following arrests of Sinn Féin personnel on charges of gathering intelligence for use by terrorists. These charges were eventually dropped in 2005 on the controversial grounds that pursuit would not be "in the public interest". Immediately afterwards, one of the accused Sinn Féin members, Denis Donaldson was exposed as a British agent.

In 2004, negotiations were held between the two governments, the DUP, and Sinn Féin on an agreement to re-establish the institutions. These talks failed, but a document published by the governments detailing changes to the Belfast Agreement became known as the 'Comprehensive Agreement'. On 26 September 2005, however, it was announced that the Provisional Irish Republican Army had completely decommissioned its arsenal of weapons and "put them beyond use". Nonetheless, many unionists, most notably the DUP, remained sceptical and agreement on how to restore the power-sharing assembly still had not been reached as of July 2006. Of the loyalist paramilitaries, only the Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF) had decommissioned any weapons.^[12] Further negotiations took place in October 2006, leading to the St Andrews Agreement.

In May 2007, a power sharing executive was again established to govern Northern Ireland in devolved matters. The second Northern Ireland Executive consisted of the DUP and Sinn Féin, with Ian Paisley of the DUP as First Minister and Martin McGuinness of Sinn Féin as Deputy First Minister. Although Paisley was the head of the government, he and Martin McGuinness held equal powers within the Northern Ireland Assembly government.

Paisley retired from the office of First Minister and from the leadership of the DUP on 5 June 2008 and was succeeded in both functions by Peter Robinson. In the third Northern Ireland Executive the same political relationship now exists between Robinson and McGuinness as existed formerly between Paisley and McGuinness.

Similarities and differences with the Sunningdale Agreement[link]

Some commentators have referred to the Agreement as "Sunningdale for slow learners", which suggests that it was nothing more than what was on offer in the Sunningdale Agreement of 1973.^[13] This assertion has been criticised by political scientists one of whom stated that "..there are... significant differences between them [Sunningdale and Belfast], both in terms of content and the circumstances surrounding their negotiation, implementation, and operation".^[14] The main issues omitted by Sunningdale and addressed by the Belfast agreement are the principle of self-determination, the recognition of both national identities, the British-Irish intergovernmental cooperation and the legal procedures to make power-sharing mandatory, such as the cross-community vote and the d'Hondt system to appoint ministers to the executive.^[15][16] Former IRA member and journalist Tommy McKearney says that the main difference is the intention of the British government to broker a comprehensive deal by including the IRA and the most uncompromising unionism.^[17]

See also[link]

• Northern Ireland Act 1998
• Nineteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland
• St Andrews Agreement
• Northern Ireland peace process
• Independent Commission on Policing for Northern Ireland
• Independent International Commission on Decommissioning
• Independent Commission for the Location of Victims' Remains
• Commissioner for Victims and Survivors of the Troubles
• Castle Buildings
• Sunningdale Agreement
• Anglo-Irish Agreement
• Downing Street Declaration

References[link]

External links[link]

• Full text of the Belfast Agreement
• North-South Ministerial Council/An Chomhairle Aireachta Thuaidh/Theas
• British-Irish Council^{[dead link]}
• Irish Government - British-Irish Intergovernmental Conference
• Inside Out: An Integrative Critique of the Northern Ireland Peace Process^{[dead link]} U.S. Institute of Peace July 2006
• Address given at the Exchange of Notifications ceremony, whereby the Republic of Ireland dropped its territorial claim to Northern Ireland, Iveagh House, Dublin, 2 December 1999

Good Friday
Type	Christian, civic
Significance	Commemorates the crucifixion and death of Jesus Christ
Date	Friday immediately preceding Easter Sunday
2012 date	April 6 (Western) April 13 (Eastern)
2013 date	March 29 almost (western) May 3 (eastern)
Celebrations	No traditional celebrations
Observances	Worship services, prayer and vigil services, fasting, almsgiving

Good Friday (from the senses pious, holy of the word "good"),^[1] is a religious holiday observed primarily by Christians commemorating the crucifixion of Jesus Christ and his death at Calvary. The holiday is observed during Holy Week as part of the Paschal Triduum on the Friday preceding Easter Sunday, and may coincide with the Jewish observance of Passover. It is also known as Holy Friday, Great Friday, Black Friday,^[2] or Easter Friday,^[3] though the latter properly refers to the Friday in Easter week.

Based on the details of the Canonical gospels, the Crucifixion of Jesus was most likely to have been on a Friday (John 19:42).^[4] The estimated year of the Crucifixion is AD 33, by two different groups, and originally as AD 34 by Isaac Newton via the differences between the Biblical and Julian calendars and the crescent of the moon.^[5] A third method, using a completely different astronomical approach based on a lunar Crucifixion darkness and eclipse model (consistent with Apostle Peter's reference to a "moon of blood" in Acts 2:20), points to Friday, 3 April AD 33.^[6]

Biblical accounts[link]

The Judas Kiss by Gustave Doré, 1866

According to the accounts in the Gospels, the Temple Guards, guided by Jesus' disciple Judas Iscariot, arrested Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane. Judas received money (30 pieces of silver) (Matthew 26:14-16) for betraying Jesus and told the guards that whomever he kisses is the one they are to arrest. Following his arrest, Jesus was brought to the house of Annas, the father-in-law of the high priest, Caiaphas. There he was interrogated with little result and sent bound to Caiaphas the high priest where the Sanhedrin had assembled (John 18:1-24).

Conflicting testimony against Jesus was brought forth by many witnesses, to which Jesus answered nothing. Finally the high priest adjured Jesus to respond under solemn oath, saying "I adjure you, by the Living God, to tell us, are you the Anointed One, the Son of God?" Jesus testified ambiguously, "You have said it, and in time you will see the Son of Man seated at the right hand of the Almighty, coming on the clouds of Heaven." The high priest condemned Jesus for blasphemy, and the Sanhedrin concurred with a sentence of death (Matthew 26:57-66). Peter, waiting in the courtyard, also denied Jesus three times to bystanders while the interrogations were proceeding just as Jesus had predicted.

A Good Friday procession in Mumbai by Indian Roman Catholics, depicting the Way of the Cross

In the morning, the whole assembly brought Jesus to the Roman governor Pontius Pilate under charges of subverting the nation, opposing taxes to Caesar, and making himself a king (Luke 23:1-2). Pilate authorized the Jewish leaders to judge Jesus according to their own law and execute sentencing; however, the Jewish leaders replied that they were not allowed by the Romans to carry out a sentence of death (John 18:31).

Pilate questioned Jesus and told the assembly that there was no basis for sentencing. Upon learning that Jesus was from Galilee, Pilate referred the case to the ruler of Galilee, King Herod, who was in Jerusalem for the Passover Feast. Herod questioned Jesus but received no answer; Herod sent Jesus back to Pilate. Pilate told the assembly that neither he nor Herod found guilt in Jesus; Pilate resolved to have Jesus whipped and released (Luke 23:3-16). Under the guidance of the chief priests, the crowd asked for Barabbas, who had been imprisoned for committing murder during an insurrection. Pilate asked what they would have him do with Jesus, and they demanded, "Crucify him" (Mark 15:6-14). Pilate's wife had seen Jesus in a dream earlier that day, and she forewarned Pilate to "have nothing to do with this righteous man" (Matthew 27:19). Pilate had Jesus flogged and then brought him out to the crowd to release him. The chief priests informed Pilate of a new charge, demanding Jesus be sentenced to death "because he claimed to be God's son." This possibility filled Pilate with fear, and he brought Jesus back inside the palace and demanded to know from where he came (John 19:1-9).

Antonio Ciseri's depiction of Ecce Homo with Jesus and Pontius Pilate, 19th century

Coming before the crowd one last time, Pilate declared Jesus innocent and washed his own hands in water to show he has no part in this condemnation. Nevertheless, Pilate handed Jesus over to be crucified in order to forestall a riot (Matthew 27:24-26) and ultimately to keep his job. The sentence written was "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews." Jesus carried his cross to the site of execution (assisted by Simon of Cyrene), called the place of the Skull, or "Golgotha" in Hebrew and in Latin "Calvary". There he was crucified along with two criminals (John 19:17-22).

Jesus agonized on the cross for six hours. During his last 3 hours on the cross, from noon to 3 p.m., darkness fell over the whole land.^[7] With a loud cry, Jesus gave up his spirit. There was an earthquake, tombs broke open, and the curtain in the Temple was torn from top to bottom. The centurion on guard at the site of crucifixion declared, "Truly this was God's Son!" (Matthew 27:45-54)

Joseph of Arimathea, a member of the Sanhedrin and secret follower of Jesus, who had not consented to his condemnation, goes to Pilate to request the body of Jesus (Luke 23:50-52). Another secret follower of Jesus and member of the Sanhedrin named Nicodemus brought about a hundred pound weight mixture of spices and helped wrap the body of Christ (John 19:39-40). Pilate asks confirmation from the centurion whether Jesus is dead (Mark 15:44). A soldier pierced the side of Jesus with a lance causing blood and water to flow out (John 19:34), and the centurion informs Pilate that Jesus is dead (Mark 15:45).

Joseph of Arimathea took Jesus' body, wrapped it in a clean linen shroud, and placed it in his own new tomb that had been carved in the rock (Matthew 27:59-60) in a garden near the site of crucifixion. Nicodemus (John 3:1) also brought 75 pounds of myrrh and aloes, and placed them in the linen with the body, in keeping with Jewish burial customs (John 19:39-40). They rolled a large rock over the entrance of the tomb (Matthew 27:60). Then they returned home and rested, because Shabbat had begun at sunset (Luke 23:54-56). On the third day, Sunday, which is now known as Easter Sunday (or Pascha), Jesus rose from the dead.

In the Roman Catholic Church[link]

Day of Fasting[link]

Crucifix prepared for veneration

The Catholic Church treats Good Friday as a fast day, which in the Latin Rite of the Church is understood as having only one full meal (but smaller than a regular meal) and two collations (a smaller repast, two of which together do not equal one full meal) and on which the faithful abstain from eating meat. In countries where Good Friday is not a day of rest from work, the afternoon liturgical service is usually put off until a few hours after the recommended time of 3 p.m.

Services on the day[link]

The Latin Rite ordinarily has no celebration of Mass between the Lord's Supper on Holy Thursday evening and the Easter Vigil unless a special exemption is granted for rare solemn or grave occasions by the Vatican or the local bishop. The only sacraments celebrated during this time are Baptism (for those in danger of death), Penance, and Anointing of the Sick.^[8] While there is no celebration of the Eucharist, it is distributed to the faithful only in the Service of the Passion of the Lord, but can also be taken at any hour to the sick who are unable to attend this service.^[9] During this period crosses, candlesticks, and altar cloths are removed from the altar which remains completely bare.^[10] It is also customary to empty the holy water fonts in preparation of the blessing of the water at the Easter Vigil.^[11] Traditionally, no bells are rung on Good Friday or Holy Saturday until the Easter Vigil.

The Celebration of the Passion of the Lord takes place in the afternoon, ideally at three o'clock, but for pastoral reasons a later hour may be chosen.^[12] The vestments used are red (more commonly) or black (more traditionally).^[13] Before 1970, vestments were black except for the Communion part of the rite when violet was used.^[14] Before 1955 black was used throughout.^[15] If a bishop or abbot celebrates, he wears a plain mitre (mitra simplex).^[16]

Liturgy[link]

Communion from the Blessed Sacrament on Good Friday (Our Lady of Lourdes, Philadelphia)

The liturgy consists of three parts: the Liturgy of the Word, the Veneration of the Cross, and Holy Communion.

• The Liturgy of the Word, consists of the clergy and assisting ministers entering in complete silence, without any singing. They then silently make a full prostration, "[signifying] both the abasement of 'earthly man,'^[17] and also the grief and sorrow of the Church."^[18] Then follows the Collect prayer, and the reading or chanting of Isaiah 52:13-53:12, Hebrews 4:14-16, 5:7-9, and the Passion account from the Gospel of John, traditionally divided between three deacons,^[19] yet often divided between the celebrant and more than one singer or reader. This part of the liturgy concludes with the orationes sollemnes, a series of prayers for the Church, the Pope, the clergy and laity of the Church, those preparing for baptism, the unity of Christians, the Jewish people, those who do not believe in Christ, those who do not believe in God, those in public office, those in special need.^[20] After each prayer intention, the deacon calls the faithful to kneel for a short period of private prayer; the celebrant then sums up the prayer intention with a Collect-style prayer.

• The Adoration of the Cross, has a crucifix, not necessarily the one that is normally on or near the altar at other times, solemnly displayed to the congregation and then venerated by them, individually if possible and usually by kissing the wood of the cross, while hymns and the Improperia ("Reproaches") with the Trisagion hymn are chanted.^[21]

• Holy Communion is done according to a rite based on that of the final part of Mass, beginning with the Our Father, but omitting the ceremony of "Breaking of the Bread" and its related chant, the "Agnus Dei". The Eucharist, consecrated at the Evening Mass of the Lord's Supper on Holy Thursday is distributed at this service.^[22] Before the reform of Pope Pius XII, only the priest received Communion in the framework of what was called the "Mass of the Presanctified", which included the usual Offertory prayers, with the placing of wine in the chalice, but which omitted the Canon of the Mass.^[15] The priest and people then depart in silence, and the altar cloth is removed, leaving the altar bare except for the cross and two or four candlesticks.^[23]

Stations of the Cross[link]

The Way of the Cross, celebrated at the Colosseum in Rome on Good Friday

Rome: canopy erected at the "Temple of Venus and Rome" during the "Way of the Cross" ceremony

In addition to the prescribed liturgical service, the Stations of the Cross are often prayed either in the church or outside, and a prayer service may be held from midday to 3.00 p.m., known as the Three Hours' Agony. In countries such as Malta, Italy, Philippines, Puerto Rico and Spain, processions with statues representing the Passion of Christ are held.

In Rome, since the papacy of His Holiness John Paul II, the heights of the Temple of Venus and Roma and their position opposite the main entrance to the Colosseum have been used to good effect as a public address platform. This may be seen in the photograph below where a red canopy has been erected to shelter the Pope as well as an illuminated cross, on the occasion of the Way of the Cross ceremony. The Pope, either personally or through a representative, leads the faithful through meditations on the stations of the cross while a cross is carried from there to the Colosseum.

In Polish churches, a tableau of Christ's Tomb is unveiled in the sanctuary. Many of the faithful spend long hours into the night grieving at the Tomb, where it is customary to kiss the wounds on the Lord's body. A life-size figure of Christ lying in his tomb is widely visited by the faithful, especially on Holy Saturday. The tableaux may include flowers, candles, figures of angels standing watch, and the three crosses atop Mt Calvary, and much more. Each parish strives to come up with the most artistically and religiously evocative arrangement in which the Blessed Sacrament, draped in a filmy veil, is prominently displayed.

Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ[link]

El Greco's Jesus Carrying the Cross, 1580

The Roman Catholic tradition includes specific prayers and devotions as acts of reparation for the sufferings and insults that Jesus suffered during his Passion on Good Friday. These Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ do not involve a petition for a living or deceased beneficiary, but aim to repair the sins against Jesus. Some such prayers are provided in the Raccolta Catholic prayer book (approved by a Decree of 1854, and published by the Holy See in 1898) which also includes prayers as Acts of Reparation to the Virgin Mary.^{[24][25][26][27]}

In his encyclical Miserentissimus Redemptor on reparations, Pope Pius XI called Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ a duty for Catholics and referred to them as "some sort of compensation to be rendered for the injury" with respect to the sufferings of Jesus.^[28]

Pope John Paul II referred to Acts of Reparation as the "unceasing effort to stand beside the endless crosses on which the Son of God continues to be crucified".^[29]

Malta[link]

The Holy Week commemorations reach their peak on Good Friday as the Roman Catholic Church celebrates the passion of Jesus. Solemn celebrations take place in all churches together with processions in different villages around Malta and Gozo. During the celebration, the narrative of the passion is read in some localities. The Adoration of the Cross follows. Good Friday processions take place in Birgu, Bormla, Għaxaq, Luqa, Mosta, Naxxar, Paola, Qormi, Rabat, Senglea, Valletta, Żebbuġ (Città Rohan) and Żejtun. Processions in Gozo will be in Nadur, Victoria (St. George and Cathedral), Xagħra and Żebbuġ, Gozo.

The Philippines[link]

In predominantly Roman Catholic Philippines, the day is commemorated with street processions, the Way of the Cross, the chanting of the Pasyon, and performances of the Senakulo, a Passion play. Church bells are not rung and Masses are not celebrated. Some devotees engage in self-flagellation and even have themselves crucified as expressions of penance despite health issues and strong disapproval from the Church.^[30]

After three o'clock in the afternoon (the time at which Jesus is traditionally believed to have died), the faithful venerate the cross in the local church and follow the procession of the Burial of Jesus. The image of the dead Christ is then laid in state to be venerated, and sometimes treated in accordance with local burial customs.

In Cebu and other Visayan Islands, people usually eat binignit and biko as a form of fasting.

In Eastern Christianity[link]

Icon of the Crucifixion, 16th century, by Theophanes the Cretan (Stavronikita Monastery, Mount Athos)

Byzantine Christians (Eastern Christians who follow the Rite of Constantinople: Orthodox Christians and Greek-Catholics) call this day "Holy and Great Friday", or simply "Great Friday".

Because the sacrifice of Jesus through his crucifixion is commemorated on this day, the Divine Liturgy (the sacrifice of bread and wine) is never celebrated on Great Friday, except when this day coincides with the Great Feast of the Annunciation, which falls on the fixed date of March 25 (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, March 25 currently falls on April 7 of the modern Gregorian Calendar). Also on Great Friday, the clergy no longer wear the purple or red that is customary throughout Great Lent,^[31] but instead don black vestments. There is no "stripping of the altar" on Holy and Great Thursday as in the West; instead, all of the church hangings are changed to black, and will remain so until the Divine Liturgy on Great Saturday.

The faithful revisit the events of the day through public reading of specific Psalms and the Gospels, and singing hymns about Christ's death. Rich visual imagery and symbolism as well as stirring hymnody are remarkable elements of these observances. In the Orthodox understanding, the events of Holy Week are not simply an annual commemoration of past events, but the faithful actually participate in the death and resurrection of Jesus.

Each hour of this day is the new suffering and the new effort of the expiatory suffering of the Savior. And the echo of this suffering is already heard in every word of our worship service - unique and incomparable both in the power of tenderness and feeling and in the depth of the boundless compassion for the suffering of the Savior. The Holy Church opens before the eyes of believers a full picture of the redeeming suffering of the Lord beginning with the bloody sweat in the Garden of Gethsemane up to the crucifixion on Golgotha. Taking us back through the past centuries in thought, the Holy Church brings us to the foot of the cross of Christ erected on Golgotha, and makes us present among the quivering spectators of all the torture of the Savior.^[32]

Holy and Great Friday is observed as a strict fast, and adult Byzantine Christians are expected to abstain from all food and drink the entire day to the extent that their health permits. "On this Holy day neither a meal is offered nor do we eat on this day of the crucifixion. If someone is unable or has become very old [or is] unable to fast, he may be given bread and water after sunset. In this way we come to the holy commandment of the Holy Apostles not to eat on Great Friday."^[32]

Matins of Holy and Great Friday[link]

The Byzantine Christian observance of Holy and Great Friday, which is formally known as The Order of Holy and Saving Passion of our Lord Jesus Christ, begins on Thursday night with the Matins of the Twelve Passion Gospels. Scattered throughout this Matins service are twelve readings from all four of the Gospels which recount the events of the Passion from the Last Supper through the Crucifixion and burial of Jesus. Some churches have a candelabrum with twelve candles on it, and after each Gospel reading one of the candles is extinguished.

Good Friday cross from the Catholicon at Holy Trinity Monastery, Meteora, Greece

The first of these twelve readings John 13:31-18:1 is the longest Gospel reading of the liturgical year, and is a concatenation from all four Gospels. Just before the sixth Gospel reading, which recounts Jesus being nailed to the cross, a large cross is carried out of the sanctuary by the priest, accompanied by incense and candles, and is placed in the center of the nave (where the congregation gathers), with a two-dimensional painted icon of the body of Christ (Greek: soma) affixed to it. As the cross is being carried, the priest or a chanter chants a special antiphon, Sēmeron Kremātai Epí Xýlou:

Today He who hung the earth upon the waters is hung upon the Cross (three times).
He who is King of the angels is arrayed in a crown of thorns.
He who wraps the Heavens in clouds is wrapped in the purple of mockery.
He who in Jordan set Adam free receives blows upon His face.
The Bridegroom of the Church is transfixed with nails.
The Son of the Virgin is pierced with a spear.
We venerate Thy Passion, O Christ (three times).
Show us also Thy glorious Resurrection.^[33][34]

During the service, all come forward to kiss the feet of Christ on the cross. After the Canon, a brief, moving hymn, The Wise Thief is chanted by singers who stand at the foot of the cross in the center of the nave. The service does not end with the First Hour, as usual, but with a special dismissal by the priest:

May Christ our true God, Who for the salvation of the world endured spitting, and scourging, and buffeting, and the Cross, and death, through the intercessions of His most pure Mother, of our holy and God-bearing fathers, and of all the saints, have mercy on us and save us, for He is good and the Lover of mankind.

Royal Hours[link]

The next day, in the forenoon on Friday, all gather again to pray the Royal Hours, a special expanded celebration of the Little Hours (including the First Hour, Third Hour, Sixth Hour, Ninth Hour and Typica) with the addition of scripture readings (Old Testament, Epistle and Gospel) and hymns about the Crucifixion at each of the Hours (some of the material from the previous night is repeated). This service is somewhat more festive in character, and derives its name of "Royal" from both the fact that the Hours are served with more solemnity than normal, commemorating Christ the King who humbled himself for the salvation of mankind, and also from the fact that this service was in the past attended by the Emperor and his court.

Vespers of Holy and Great Friday[link]

The crucified Christ, just before the Deposition from the Cross and the placing of the Epitaphios in the Sepulcher.

The epitaphios ("winding sheet"), depicting the preparation of the body of Jesus for burial

In the afternoon, around 3 pm, all gather for the Vespers of the Taking-Down from the Cross, commemorating the Deposition from the Cross. The Gospel reading is a concatenation taken from all four of the Gospels. During the service, the body of Christ (the soma) is removed from the cross, as the words in the Gospel reading mention Joseph of Arimathea, wrapped in a linen shroud, and taken to the altar in the sanctuary. Near the end of the service an epitaphios or "winding sheet" (a cloth embroidered with the image of Christ prepared for burial) is carried in procession to a low table in the nave which represents the Tomb of Christ; it is often decorated with an abundance of flowers. The epitaphios itself represents the body of Jesus wrapped in a burial shroud, and is a roughly full-size cloth icon of the body of Christ. Then the priest may deliver a homily and everyone comes forward to venerate the epitaphios. In the Slavic practice, at the end of Vespers, Compline is immediately served, featuring a special Canon of the Crucifixion of our Lord and the Lamentation of the Most Holy Theotokos by Symeon the Logothete.

Matins of Holy and Great Saturday[link]

The Epitaphios being carried in procession

The Epitaphios mounted upon return of procession

On Friday night, the Matins of Holy and Great Saturday, a unique service known as The Lamentation at the Tomb (Epitáphios Thrēnos) is celebrated. This service is also sometimes called Jerusalem Matins. Much of the service takes place around the tomb of Christ in the center of the nave.

A unique feature of the service is the chanting of the Lamentations or Praises (Enkōmia), which consist of verses chanted by the clergy interspersed between the verses of Psalm 119 (which is, by far, the longest psalm in the Bible). The Enkōmia are the best-loved hymns of Byzantine hymnography, both their poetry and their music being uniquely suited to each other and to the spirit of the day. They consist of 185 tercet antiphons arranged in three parts (stáseis or "stops"), which are interjected with the verses of Psalm 119, and nine short doxastiká ("Gloriae") and Theotókia (invocations to the Virgin Mary). The three stáseis are each set to its own music, and are commonly known by their initial antiphons: "Life in a grave", "Worthy it is", and "All the generations". Musically they can be classified as strophic, with 75, 62, and 48 tercet stanzas each, respectively. The climax of the Enkōmia comes during the third stásis, with the antiphon "Ō glyký mou Éar", a lamentation of the Virgin for her dead Child ("O, my sweet spring, my sweetest child, where has your beauty gone?"). The author(s) and date of the Enkōmia are unknown. Their High Attic linguistic style suggests a dating around the 6th century, possibly before the time of St. Romanos the Melodist.

At the end of the Great Doxology, while the Trisagion is sung, the epitaphios is taken in procession around the outside the church, and is then returned to the tomb. Some churches observe the practice of holding the epitaphios at the door, above waist level, so the faithful most bow down under it as they come back into the church, symbolizing their entering into the death and resurrection of Christ. The epitaphios will lay in the tomb until the Paschal Service early Sunday morning. In some churches, the epitaphios is never left alone, but is accompanied 24 hours a day by a reader chanting from the Psalter.^{[citation needed]}

The Troparion (hymn of the day) of Good Friday is:

<poem> The noble Joseph, when he had taken down Thy most pure Body from the tree, wrapped it in fine linen, and anointed it with spices, and placed it in a new tomb. Glory to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit, both now and ever, and unto ages of ages. Amen. The angel came to the myrrh-bearing women at the tomb and said: Myrrh is fitting for the dead, but Christ has shown Himself a stranger to corruption. </poem>

Anglican Communion[link]

The 1662 Book of Common Prayer did not specify a particular rite to be observed on Good Friday but local custom came to mandate an assortment of services, including the Seven Last Words from the Cross and a three-hour service consisting of Matins, Ante-communion (using the Reserved Sacrament in high church parishes) and Evensong. In recent times revised editions of the Prayer Book and Common Worship have re-introduced pre-Reformation forms of observance of Good Friday corresponding to those in today's Roman Catholic Church, with special nods to the rites that had been observed in the Church of England prior to the Henrican, Edwardian and Elizabethan reforms, including Creeping to the Cross.

Lutheran Church[link]

In Lutheran tradition from the 16th to the 20th century, Good Friday was the most important holiday, and abstention from all worldly works was expected. During that time, Lutheranism had no restrictions on the celebration of the Eucharist on Good Friday; on the contrary, it was a prime day on which to receive the Eucharist, and services were often accentuated by special music such as the St Matthew Passion by Lutheran Johann Sebastian Bach.

In more recent, the Lutheran liturgical practice moved away from the Eucharist celebrated on Good Friday, and among the major Lutheran bodies today, the Eucharist is not celebrated on Good Friday. Rather, it is celebrated in remembrance of the Last Supper on Maundy Thursday. The common practice among Lutheran churches is to celebrate a tenebrae service on Good Friday, typically conducted in candlelight and consisting of the crucifixion readings.^[35]

Other Protestant traditions[link]

Many other Protestant communities hold special services on this day as well. Moravians hold a Lovefeast on Good Friday as they receive Holy Communion on Maundy Thursday. The Methodist Church commemorates Good Friday with a service of worship, often based on the Seven Last Words from the Cross.^[36][37] It is not uncommon for some communities to hold interdenominational services on Good Friday.

Some Baptist,^[38] Pentecostal, many Sabbatarian^[39] and non-denominational churches oppose the observance of Good Friday, regarding it as a papist tradition, and instead observe the Crucifixion on Wednesday to coincide with the Jewish sacrifice of the Passover Lamb (which Christians believe is an Old Testament pointer to Jesus Christ). A Wednesday Crucifixion of Jesus Christ allows for Christ to be in the tomb ("heart of the earth") for three days and three nights as he told the Pharisees he would be (Matthew 12:40), rather than two nights and a day if he had died on a Friday.^[40][41] Preparation Day (14 Nisan on the Hebrew calendar) - which is the day before Passover (15 Nisan), instead of the Friday morning found in the Synoptic Gospels.

Associated customs[link]

In many countries with a strong Christian tradition such as Australia, Bermuda, Brazil, Canada, the countries of the Caribbean, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Finland, Germany, Malta, Mexico, New Zealand,^[42][43][44] Peru, the Philippines, Singapore, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and Venezuela, the day is observed as a public or federal holiday. In the United States, 11 states observe Good Friday as state holiday.

Bermuda[link]

In Bermuda, Easter kites are flown. They are often handmade with wooden sticks, colorful tissue paper, glue, and string. The shape of the kite and the use of wood is meant to symbolize the cross that Jesus died on. Also, the kite flying in the sky symbolizes his ascension to heaven.

Canada[link]

In Canada, banks and government offices (at all levels) and public sector businesses are closed, along with most private sector businesses, except in Quebec where government offices and schools are closed but the majority of private-sector businesses (except banks) remain open. Government regulated beer and liquor stores are also closed.

Cuba[link]

The Catholic News Agency (CNA), in an online news story article posted by Alejandro Bermudez on Saturday, March 31, 2012, stated that, in response to a specific request made personally to Cuban President Raul Castro by Pope Benedict XVI, during his Apostolic Visitation of Leon, Mexico and the island in March of 2012, following the pattern of small advances in Church-Cuban relations, it was decreed by the Communist Party and Castro and his advisers that in 2012, Good Friday would be made a holiday, with a possibility that the move could perhaps be made permanent (following the move of the late Pope John Paul II, who got Fidel Castro to declare Christmas Day a holiday- which is still the case- due to a personal request during his landmark trip in 1998).^[45]

Hong Kong and Macau[link]

In Hong Kong and Macau, all businesses and government offices are closed for a public holiday. Both SAR have a notable Christian population and have observed this holiday prior to their respective handover.

India[link]

In India, Good Friday is a Central or Federal Government as well as a State Government holiday. The Stock Markets and banks are closed as it is regarded as a Negotiable Instruments Holiday. Some other businesses are also closed in states where Christians are in considerable numbers viz. Mizoram, Nagaland, Manipur, Goa, and Kerala. The majority of business establishments remain open all over the country. Generally, all schools and colleges are closed in India on Good Friday.

Indonesia[link]

Good Friday intercessory prayers, Austria

In Muslim-majority Indonesia, Good Friday is a national holiday. All government offices, schools and certain businesses are closed on Good Friday by law and many newspapers choose not to publish on this day. Public holiday is also observed in Singapore and in the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak.

Ireland[link]

Good Friday service in Ireland

Ireland, a predominantly Catholic country, prohibits all alcohol from being sold on Good Friday. Section 10 of the Intoxicating Liquor Act 1962 introduced "area exemption orders" to allow the sale of alcohol for the special events that occur on the same day. Banks and public institutions are closed on this day but it is not an official bank holiday (i.e. public holiday), so many offices and other workplaces remain open. All pubs and many restaurants in Ireland close for the day – it is similar to Christmas Day in this regard. This tradition has come under criticism of late, with secular businesses claiming a loss in earnings by way of a religious festival.

France[link]

In France, Good Friday is only observed in the Departments that once belonged to Germany: Bas-Rhin, Haut-Rhin and Moselle, along with some overseas departments such as Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyane, and Réunion

Germany[link]

In Germany, comedic theatre performances and events which include public dancing are illegal on the day (although this restriction is enforced unevenly); cinemas and television are not affected, although many TV channels show religious material on the day; sports events are prohibited (e.g. the usual Friday soccer games are played on Thursday). The enforcement of these rules even on non-Christians has met with increased opposition in the last decade.

Scandinavia[link]

In Sweden, Finland, Denmark and Norway, Good Friday is a public holiday. Businesses and schools are closed on Good Friday, as well as some retail stores that either close all day, or half day.

South Africa[link]

In South Africa, the government regulates the opening of businesses and entertainment outlets on this day (as with Christmas Day). All government offices, schools and certain businesses are closed on Good Friday by law. The buying and selling of alcohol is prohibited.

United Kingdom[link]

Hot cross buns are traditionally toasted and eaten on Good Friday in Britain.^[46]

In England and Wales, Good Friday is an official public holiday^[47] (a.k.a. Bank Holiday). All schools are closed and most businesses treat it as a holiday for staff; however, many retail stores now remain open.

There is no horse racing on Good Friday in the UK. However, in 2008, betting shops and stores opened for the first time on this day.^[48] The BBC has for many years introduced its 7 am News broadcast on Radio 4 on Good Friday with a verse from Isaac Watts' hymn "When I Survey the Wondrous Cross".

United States[link]

In the United States, Good Friday is not a government holiday at the federal level; however, individual states, counties and municipalities may observe the holiday. Good Friday is a state holiday in Connecticut^[49], Delaware^[50], Florida^[51], Hawaii^[52], Indiana^[53], Kentucky^[54], Louisiana^[55], New Jersey^[56], North Carolina^[57], North Dakota^[58], Tennessee^[59] and Texas^[60]. State and local government offices and courts are closed, as well as some banks and postal offices in these states, and in those counties and municipalities where Good Friday is observed as holiday. Good Friday is also a holiday in the U.S. territories of Guam^[61], U.S. Virgin Island^[62] and Puerto Rico^[63].

The financial market and stock market is closed on Good Friday^[64]. Most retail stores remain open, while some of them may close early. All public schools and universities are closed on Good Friday, either as a holiday of its own, or part of spring break. The postal service operates, and banks regulated by the federal government do not close for Good Friday^[65].

Other[link]

Eastern Orthodox Christians are not supposed to eat at all on this day and the next, while the Catholic Church observes fasting and abstinence for this day as well as Ash Wednesday.

Traditionally, Roman Catholics are to abstain from eating meat every Friday of the year as penance. In the US this is only a requirement during Fridays of Lent; during Fridays of the rest of the year, other methods of penance may be followed, for example an extra prayer or abstaining from something other than food. Many Roman Catholics (and members of the Protestant denominations as well) will eat fish and vegetables on Good Friday.

Calculating the date[link]

Good Friday is the Friday before Easter, which is calculated differently in Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity (see Computus for details). Easter falls on the first Sunday following the Paschal Full Moon, the full moon on or after 21 March, taken to be the date of the vernal equinox. The Western calculation uses the Gregorian calendar, while the Eastern calculation uses the Julian calendar, whose 21 March now corresponds to the Gregorian calendar's 3 April. The calculations for identifying the date of the full moon also differ. See Computus.

In Eastern Christianity, Easter can fall between March 22 and April 25 on Julian Calendar (thus between April 4 and May 8 in terms of the Gregorian calendar, during the period 1900 and 2099), so Good Friday can fall between March 20 and April 23, inclusive (or between April 2 and May 6 in terms of the Gregorian calendar). (See Easter.)

Cultural references[link]

Good Friday assumes a particular importance in the plot of Richard Wagner's music drama Parsifal, which contains an orchestral interlude known as the "Good Friday Music".

See also[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Good Friday

• The Eastern Orthodox commemoration of Holy Friday
• Great Friday instructions from S. V. Bulgakov's Handbook for Church Servers (Russian Orthodox Church)
• "Good Friday" article from The Catholic Encyclopedia
• Episcopal Good Friday Service
• Presbyterian Good Friday Service

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The Right Honourable The Lord Trimble PC
First Minister of Northern Ireland
In office 6 November 2001 – 15 October 2002
Monarch	Elizabeth II
Deputy	Mark Durkan
Preceded by	Reg Empey (Acting)
Succeeded by	Ian Paisley
In office 1 July 1998 – 1 July 2001
Monarch	Elizabeth II
Deputy	Seamus Mallon
Preceded by	Office Created
Succeeded by	Reg Empey (Acting)
Member of the Northern Ireland Assembly for Upper Bann
In office 25 June 1998 – 7 March 2007
Preceded by	Constituency Created
Succeeded by	George Savage
Member of Parliament for Upper Bann
In office 2 February 1990 – 5 May 2005
Preceded by	Harold McCusker
Succeeded by	David Simpson
Personal details
Born	(1944-10-15) 15 October 1944 (age 67) Bangor, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
Political party	Conservative (2007–present)
Other political affiliations	Ulster Unionist (Before 1973; 1978–2007) Ulster Vanguard (1973–1978)
Spouse(s)	Heather McComb (1968–1976) Daphne Orr (1978–present)
Children	4
Alma mater	Queen's University Belfast
Religion	Presbyterian

William David Trimble, Baron Trimble, PC (born 15 October 1944, in Belfast), is a politician from Northern Ireland. He served as Leader of the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP; 1995–2005), was the first First Minister of Northern Ireland (1998–2002), and was a Member of the British Parliament (1990–2005).^[1][2] He is currently a life peer for the Conservative Party. Trimble was awarded the 1998 Nobel Peace Prize, along with John Hume.

While a professor of law at Queen's University Belfast, he was elected to the Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention.^[2] He served as Member of Parliament for Upper Bann from 1990 until 2005. He resigned leadership of the UUP soon afterwards. In June 2006, he became a member of the House of Lords, as The Right Honourable William David Trimble by the name, style, and title of Baron Trimble, of Lisnagarvey in the County of Antrim.^[3] In April 2007 he left the UUP to join the Conservative Party.^[4]

In June 2010, the Israeli government appointed Lord Trimble to be one of two international observers serving on an Israeli commission of inquiry looking into the events surrounding an Israeli raid on the Mavi Marmara, along with Canadian former Judge Advocate General Ken Watkin.^[5] The panel concluded both Israel’s naval blockade of Gaza and the interception of the flotilla “were found to be legally pursuant to the rules of international law”.

Early life and education[link]

Trimble is the son of William and Ivy Trimble, and grew up in a lower-middle class Presbyterian home in Bangor on the County Down coast.^[6][7] He was educated at Bangor Grammar School in Bangor, County Down (1956–63).^[8]

He then studied at Queen's University of Belfast (QUB) from 1964 to 1968, winning the McKane Medal for Jurisprudence.^[8] There he received a first class honours degree (the first at Queens in three years), becoming a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B).^[9][10]

Early career[link]

Academic career[link]

Trimble qualified as a barrister in Northern Ireland in 1969. He began that year as a Queen's University of Belfast lecturer, subsequently becoming Assistant Dean of the Faculty of Law from 1973–75, a Senior Lecturer in 1977, and Head of the Department of Commercial and Property Law from 1981 through 1989.^{[8][11][12][13]} In 1990, after becoming a member of Parliament, he resigned from the university.^[8]

In 1983, as he sat in his office at the university, he heard gunshots which turned out to be those of IRA killers of Edgar Graham, a friend and fellow law professor of his.^[13] He was asked to identify the body.^[13] In 1994 he himself was targeted for assassination.^[13]

Political career[link]

Trimble became involved with the right-wing, paramilitary-linked Vanguard Progressive Unionist Party (known as Vanguard) in the early 1970s. He ran unsuccessfully for the party in the 1973 Assembly election for North Down, coming in last.^[14] In 1974, he was a legal adviser to the Ulster Workers' Council during the successful UWC strike against the Sunningdale Agreement.^[15]

He was elected to the Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention in 1975 as a Vanguard member for Belfast South, and for a time he served as the party's joint deputy leader, along with the Ulster Defence Association's Glenn Barr.^[16] The party had been established by Bill Craig to oppose sharing power with Irish Nationalists, and to prevent closer ties with the Republic of Ireland; however Trimble was one of those to back Craig when the party split over Craig's proposal to allow voluntary power sharing with the SDLP.

He joined the mainstream established Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) in 1978 after Vanguard disbanded, and was elected one of the four party secretaries.^[10][16] He was Vice Chairman of Lagan Valley Unionist Association in 1983 through 1985, and became Chairman in 1985.^[11] In 1989 through 1995, he was Chairman of the UUP Legal Committee, and in 1990 through 1996, he was Honorary Secretary of the Ulster Unionist Council.^[11]

He was elected to Parliament with 58% of the vote in a by-election in Upper Bann in 1990.^[16][17][18] He was one of the few British politicians who urged support for the Islamic government of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the civil war in the 1990s.

Leadership of Ulster Unionist Party[link]

In September 1995 Trimble was unexpectedly elected Leader of the UUP, the largest party in Northern Ireland and the voice of mainstream unionism, defeating the front-runner John Taylor and three other candidates.^[12][19]

A mural in Northern Ireland supporting the Portadown Orangemen

Trimble's election as party leader came in the aftermath of his role in the Drumcree conflict, in which he led a controversial 1995 Orange Order Protestant march, amidst Nationalist protest, down the predominantly Roman Catholic Nationalist Garvaghy Road in Portadown, County Armagh.^[6][12] Trimble and Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) leader Ian Paisley walked hand-in-hand as the march, banned since 1997, proceeded down the road.^[20] Irish Catholics viewed it as insensitive; Protestants viewed it as Trimble sticking up for them.^[12]

Trimble shortly after his election became the first unionist leader in 30 years to meet with a Taoiseach (prime minister) in Dublin.^[12] In 1997, he became the first unionist leader to agree to attend negotiations with Sinn Féin since the island of Ireland was partitioned in 1922 between Northern Ireland, which remained in the United Kingdom, and the quasi-independent Irish Free State.^[21]

Later, in the All Party negotiations, he led the UUP delegation and sat at the table with Sinn Féin, though in the eight months of the negotiations he never spoke directly to their leader, Gerry Adams.^[6][11] The talks were successful, culminating in the Belfast Agreement of 10 April 1998, which resulted in power-sharing with Nationalists.^[10][11] On 22 May 1998, the Agreement was approved by 71% in Northern Ireland.^[11]

Trimble was appointed to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom in the 1998 New Year Honours.^[22][23]

First Minister of Northern Ireland; Nobel Peace Prize[link]

Trimble at first opposed the appointment of former U.S. Senator George J. Mitchell as the chairman of multi-party talks, but eventually accepted him. The talks resulted in the Belfast (Good Friday) Agreement (GFA) of April 1998.^[24] Trimble was subsequently seen as instrumental in getting his party to accept the accord.^[25] He backed the agreement despite opposition from more than half his parliamentary colleagues, which won him overwhelming support from London, Dublin, and Washington.^[25] In a referendum, over 70% of the Northern Ireland electorate endorsed the agreement, and he later won support for his approach from his party’s ruling body.^[25]

Trimble was elected on 25 June 1998 as a Member of the Northern Ireland Assembly for Upper Bann.^[26] On 1 July 1998 he was elected First Minister of Northern Ireland in the New Northern Ireland Assembly.^[26]

In October 1998, Trimble and John Hume were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts to find a peaceful solution to the conflict in Northern Ireland.^[27] The Nobel Institute noted:

As the leader of the traditionally predominant party in Northern Ireland, David Trimble showed great political courage when, at a critical stage of the process, he advocated solutions which led to the [Belfast (Good Friday)] peace agreement.^[27]

Arguments over the extent of Provisional Irish Republican Army decommissioning led to repeated disruptions during Trimble's tenure as First Minister. In particular:

• The office of First Minister was suspended from 11 February 2000 to 30 May 2000.
• Trimble resigned as First Minister on 1 July 2001 due to the continuing impasse with regard to the IRA refusing his demands that it decommission its arms, as per the commitments all parties had signed up to in section 7 pt. 3 (page 25) ^[28] of the 1998 Good Friday Agreement^[29] but he was re-elected on 5 November 2001.
• The Assembly was suspended from 14 October 2002 until 2007 due to accusations of an IRA spy ring being operated there (the so-called Stormontgate Affair).

In 1998, Tony Blair announced a new judicial inquiry, the Bloody Sunday Inquiry, into the killing of 14 unarmed civil rights marchers in Derry in 1972. A previous investigation, the Widgery Tribunal, into the same event had been discredited. During the debate in the House of Commons, Trimble was one of few dissenting voices. He said "I am sorry to have to say to the Prime Minister that I think that the hope expressed by the hon. Member for Foyle (Mr. Hume) that this will be part of the healing process is likely to be misplaced. Opening old wounds like this is likely to do more harm than good. The basic facts of the situation are known and not open to dispute."^[30] Reporting in 2010, The Saville Inquiry confirmed that all of the 14 killings and 13 woundings were unjustified.

House of Lords; Conservative Party[link]

At the general elections of 2005, Trimble was defeated by the Democratic Unionist Party's David Simpson in his bid for re-election to Parliament in Westminster. The Ulster Unionist Party retained only one seat in Parliament (out of 18 in Northern Ireland) after the 2005 general election, and Trimble resigned as Leader of the party on 7 May 2005.

The House of Lords meets in the Palace of Westminster

On 11 April 2006, it was announced that Trimble would take a seat in the House of Lords as a working life peer, as an appointed members of the Peerage whose title may not be inherited.^[31] On 21 May 2006 it was announced that he had chosen the geographical designation Lisnagarvey, the original name for his adopted home town of Lisburn. Subsequently, on 2 June 2006, he was created Baron Trimble, of Lisnagarvey in the County of Antrim.

On 18 December 2006, he announced that he would be standing down from the Northern Ireland Assembly at the next election.^[32]

Trimble was named an Honorary Patron of the University Philosophical Society, Trinity College, Dublin.

On 17 April 2007, Trimble announced he had decided to join the Conservative Party in order to have greater influence in politics in the United Kingdom.^[4] At the same time, however, he stated that he did not intend to campaign against the Ulster Unionist Party, and proposed the idea of a future alliance between the Conservatives and the Ulster Unionists, similar to that which had existed prior to 1974 and the fallout of the Sunningdale Agreement. This idea became reality with the formation of Ulster Conservatives and Unionists - New Force in late 2008. It was reported that if the Conservatives won the 2010 general election, Trimble would receive a "significant" ministerial role, possibly in the Cabinet.^[33] In the event, however, Trimble was not offered any governmental or front bench position following the formation of the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government.

In May 2010 when the former prime minister of Spain Jose Maria Aznar initiated and launched the "Friends of Israel Initiative," a non-Jewish international project supporting Israel's right to exist, Trimble joined him along with Peru's former president Alejandro Toledo, Italian philosopher Marcelo Pear, former United States Ambassador to the United Nations John R. Bolton, and British historian Andrew Roberts.^[34]

Turkel Commission of Inquiry[link]

Routes of Gaza-bound flotilla (green) and Israeli Navy (orange)

On 14 June 2010, he was appointed as an observer to the Israeli special independent public Turkel Commission of Inquiry into the Gaza flotilla raid.^[35][36]

The Commission investigated whether Israel's actions in preventing the arrival of ships in Gaza were in accordance with international law.^[36] It focused among other things on the security considerations for imposing a naval blockade on the Gaza Strip and the conformity of the naval blockade with the rules of international law; the conformity of the actions during the raid to principles of international law; and the actions taken by those who organised and participated in the flotilla, and their identities.^[36]

On the Commission were former Israeli Supreme Court Justice, Jacob Turkel, and former Technion University President, Amos Horev, as well two other members added in July 2010. (Bar Ilan University Professor of International Law Shabtai Rosenne also served on the Commission from its establishment until his death on 21 September 2010.^[37]) In addition, the Commission had two foreign observers, Trimble and former head of the Canadian military's judiciary, Judge Advocate General, Ken Watkin, who took part in hearings and discussions, but did not vote on the final conclusions.^[38][39] The panel, in January 2011, concluded both Israel’s naval blockade of Gaza and the interception of the flotilla “were found to be legally pursuant to the rules of international law”.^[40]

Personal life[link]

Trimble's first marriage, to Heather McComb in August 1968, ended in divorce in 1976. There were no children from his first marriage. Trimble married a former student, Daphne Elizabeth (née Orr), in August 1978, and they have two sons and two daughters (Richard, Victoria, Nicholas, and Sarah).^[7] Lady Trimble served as a member of the Equality Commission for Northern Ireland, and later the Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission, before standing unsuccessfully in the UK Parliamentary election of May 2010 for the UCUNF.

Electoral history[link]

Westminster Elections[link]