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Gypsy moth
Mounted male
Mounted female
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Arthropoda
Class:	Insecta
Order:	Lepidoptera
Family:	Lymantriidae
Genus:	Lymantria
Species:	L. dispar
Binomial name
Lymantria dispar (Linnaeus, 1758)
Synonyms
Phalaena dispar Linnaeus, 1758 Ocneria dispar (Linnaeus, 1758) Porthetria dispar (Linnaeus, 1758)

The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, is a moth in the family Lymantriidae of Eurasian origin. Originally ranging from Europe to Asia, it was introduced to North America in the late 1860s and has been expanding its range ever since. It is also known as the Asian gypsy moth.

Eggs[link]

Gypsy moth egg masses are typically laid on branches and trunks of trees, but may be found in any sheltered location, particularly human dwellings, sometimes to the point of even nesting in clothes and footwear. Female gypsy moths in the U.S. are flightless^{[citation needed]}, so they lay eggs on the surface where they emerged from their pupa or somewhere they can crawl - thus nearby.

The egg is the overwintering stage. After an acclimation stage, eggs can withstand freezing temperatures. The longer they are chilled in winter, the less heating is required for their hatch in spring.

Egg clusters, usually an oval about 3/4 of an inch long, look like a piece of felt or velour and are buff colored when first laid, but may bleach out over the winter months when exposed to direct sunlight and weathering. As the female lays them, she covers them with hair-like setae from her abdomen. Many individuals find these hairs irritating, and they may offer the eggs some protection. Egg clusters contain from a couple of hundred to about 1,200 eggs, although some batches may be as small as 50 eggs.

Larvae[link]

Gypsy moth caterpillar

The hatching of gypsy moth eggs coincides with budding of most hardwood trees. Larvae (caterpillars) emerge from egg masses from early spring through mid-May.

Gypsy moths are dispersed in two ways. Natural dispersal occurs when newly hatched larvae hanging from host trees on silken threads are carried by the wind for a distance of up to about 1 mile^{[citation needed]}, although most go less than 50 meters. Eggs can be carried for longer distances. Artificial dispersal occurs when people transport gypsy moth eggs thousands of miles from infested areas on cars and recreational vehicles, firewood, household goods, and other personal possessions. Females are flightless in most varieties, so these are the only means of spreading.

Older gypsy moth caterpillar in frontal view

Larvae develop into adults by going through a series of progressive moults through which they increase in size. Instars are the stages between each molt. Male larvae normally go through five instars (and females, six) before entering the pupal stage. Newly hatched larvae are black with long, hair-like setae. Older larvae have five pairs of raised blue spots and six pairs of raised brick-red spots along their backs, and a sprinkling of setae.

During the first three instars, larvae remain in the middle or crowns of host trees. The first stage or instar chews small holes in the leaves. The second and third instars feed from the outer edge of the leaf toward the center.

When population numbers are sparse, the movement of the larvae up and down the tree coincides with light intensity. Larvae in the fourth instar feed in the top branches or crown at night. When the sun comes up, they crawl down the trunk of the tree to rest during daylight hours, hiding under flaps of bark, in crevices, or under branches - any place that provides protection. When larvae hide underneath leaf litter, mice, shrews, and Calosoma beetles can prey on them. At dusk, when the sun sets, larvae climb back up to the top branches of the host tree to feed. When population numbers are dense, however, larvae feed continuously day and night until the foliage of the host tree is stripped. Then they crawl in search of new sources of food.

Full-grown caterpillars are 40–50 mm long (Porter, 1997).

Pupae[link]

Pupa

The larvae reach maturity between mid-June and early July, then enter the pupal stage, during which larvae change into adult moths. Pupation lasts from seven to 14 days. When the population is spread out and running low, pupation can take place under flaps of bark, in crevices, under branches, on the ground, and in other places where larvae rested. During periods when population numbers are dense, pupation is not restricted to these locations, but can take place in sheltered and open locations, even exposed on the trunks of trees or on foliage of nonhost trees. Usually, the caterpillars create flimsy cocoons made of silk strands holding the leaf together, while others do not cover their pupae in cocoons, but rather hang from a twig or tree bark, like butterfly pupae do.

Adults[link]

Adult white female gypsy moth

Adult male gypsy moth

The forewing of the male moth is 20–24 mm long, and that of the female 31–35 mm ^[1].

The brown male gypsy moth emerges first, flying in rapid zigzag patterns searching for females. The males are active throughout night and sometimes even daytime, as well, unlike most moths, which are only nocturnal. When heavy, black-and-white egg-laden females emerge, they emit a pheromone that attracts the males. After mating, the female lays her eggs in July and August close to the spot where she pupated. Then, both adult gypsy moths die. The European and most Russian forms have flightless females. Although they have large wings, the musculature is not developed. However, the Japanese gypsy moth females do fly and are attracted to lights.

Gypsy moths (at least of the introduced American population) fly all day and night, with the possible exception of the late morning. They are most active soon after dusk and in the later hours of the night ^[2].

Gypsy moths in different parts of the world[link]

New Zealand[link]

Gypsy moth eggs are often found on inbound freight in New Zealand and a live moth was found in 2003. A spraying programme was carried out which eradicated the moth.

United States[link]

Older gypsy moth caterpillar

The gypsy moth was introduced into the United States in 1868 by a French scientist, Leopold Trouvelot, living in Medford, Massachusetts. The native silk-spinning caterpillars were proving to be susceptible to disease, so Trouvelot brought over gypsy moth eggs to try to make a caterpillar hybrid that could resist diseases. When some of the moths escaped from his lab, they found suitable habitat and started to multiply. The gypsy moth is now one of the most destructive pests of hardwood trees in the eastern United States; it and other foliage-eating pests cause an estimated $868 million in annual damages in the U.S.^[3]

Japan[link]

Gypsy moths are found throughout Japan, except in the northern part of Hokkaido. Two haplotypes are found in Japan: the Asian strain and the Hokkaido strain. Hokkaido has both strains, whereas other areas of Japan have only the Asian strain.^{[citation needed]}

References[link]

This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2009)

• Barbosa, P. & Greenblatt, J. (1979): Suitability, digestibility and assimilation of various host plants of the gypsy moth Lymantria dispar L. (Lepidoptera, Lymantriidae). Oecologia 43(1): 111-119.
• Barbosa, P.; Waldvogel, M.; Martinat, P. et al. (1983): Developmental and reproductive performance of the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L) (Lepidoptera, Lymantriidae), on selected hosts common to mid-atlantic and southern forests. Environmental Entomology 12(6): 1858-1862.
• Dwyer, G. & Elkinton, J.S. (1993): Using simple-models to predict virus epizootics in gypsy-moth populations. Journal of Animal Ecology 62(1): 1-11.
• Elkinton, J.S.; Healy, W.M.; Buonaccorsi, J.P.; Boettner, G.H.; Hazzard, A.M.; Smith, H.R. & Liebhold, A.M. (1996): Interactions among gypsy moths, white-footed mice, and acorns. Ecology 77(8): 2332-2342.
• Fullard, James H. & Napoleone, Nadia (2001): Diel flight periodicity and the evolution of auditory defences in the Macrolepidoptera. Animal Behaviour 62(2): 349–368. doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1753 PDF full
• Gansner, D.A.; Herrick, O.W.; Mason, G.N. & Gottschalk, K.W. (1987) Coping with the gypsy moth on new frontiers of infestation. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry Research 11: 201-209.
• Gould, J.R.; Elkinton, J.S. & Wallner, W.E. (1990): Density-dependent suppression of experimentally created gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (Lepidoptera, Lymantriidae), populations by natural enemies. Journal of Animal Ecology 59(1): 213-233.
• Porter, Jim (1997): The Colour Identification Guide to Caterpillars of the British Isles (Macrolepidoptera). Viking, London. Page 81.
• Rossiter, M.C. (1991): Maternal effects generate variation in life-history - consequences of egg weight plasticity in the gypsy moth. Functional Ecology 5(3): 386-393.
• Waring, P., Townsend, M. and Lewington, R. (2003): Field Guide to the Moths of Great Britain and Ireland. British Wildlife Publishing, Hook, UK. Page 211.
• Weseloh, R.M. & Andreadis, T.G. (1992): Epizootiology of the fungus Entomophaga maimaiga, and its impact on gypsy moth populations. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 59(2): 133-141.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Lymantria dispar

• asiangypsymoth.org
• Asian Gypsy Moth - Gallery of Pests
• Gypsy moth in Morocco
• About Entomophaga maimaiga
• Species Profile- European Gypsy Moth (Lymantria dispar), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for European Gypsy Moth.

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2009)

Hoyt Wayne Axton (March 25, 1938 – October 26, 1999)^[1] was an American country music singer-songwriter, and a film and television actor. He became prominent in the early 1960s, establishing himself on the West Coast as a folk singer with an earthy style and powerful voice. As he matured, some of his songwriting efforts became well known throughout the world. Among them were "Joy to the World", "The Pusher" and "Greenback Dollar".

Biography[link]

He was born in Duncan, Oklahoma and spent his pre-teen years in Comanche, Oklahoma with his brother, John.^[2] His mother, Mae Boren Axton, co-wrote the classic rock 'n' roll song "Heartbreak Hotel", which became the first major hit for Elvis Presley. Some of Hoyt Axton's own songs were also later recorded by Elvis. Hoyt Axton's father, John T. Axton, was a Navy officer stationed in Jacksonville, Florida; the family joined him there in 1949. Axton graduated from Robert E. Lee High School in 1956 and left town after Knauer's Hardware burned down on graduation night, a prank gone wrong.^[3] Axton attended Oklahoma State for a short length of time before following his father and enlisting in the Navy. Axton served aboard the USS Ranger before pursuing a music career.^[4]

After his discharge from the Navy on the West Coast, he began singing folk songs in San Francisco nightclubs. In the early 1960s he released his first folk album titled The Balladeer (recorded at the Troubadour), which included his song "Greenback Dollar", a 1963 hit for The Kingston Trio. Axton released numerous albums well into the 1980s.

Axton had many minor singing hits of his own, such as "Boney Fingers", "When the Morning Comes", and 1979's "Della and the Dealer", as well as "Jealous Man" (the latter two he sang in a guest appearance on WKRP in Cincinnati). His vocal style featured his distinctive bass-baritone (which later deepened to near-bass) and use of characterization.

But his most lasting contributions were songs made famous by others: "Joy to the World" and "Never Been to Spain" (Three Dog Night), the previously mentioned "Greenback Dollar" (Kingston Trio), "The Pusher" and "Snowblind Friend" (Steppenwolf), "No-No Song" (Ringo Starr), and an array of others, covered by singers such as Joan Baez, Guthrie Thomas, John Denver, Waylon Jennings, and Anne Murray. Axton also sang a couple of duets with Linda Ronstadt, including "Lion in Winter" and "When the Morning Comes" (a top 40 country hit). His most popular and signature song, "Joy to the World", as performed by Three Dog Night, was number 1 on the charts for six straight weeks in 1971, making it the top hit of the year.

Axton first appeared on television in a David L. Wolper ABC production of The Story of a Folksinger (1963). He frequently appeared on Hootenanny (US TV series), hosted by Jack Linkletter during this period. In 1965, he appeared in an episode of Bonanza, then followed with other TV roles over the years. As he matured, Axton as an actor specialized in playing good ol' boys on television and in films. His face became well known in the 1970s and 1980s through many TV and film appearances, such as in the movies Gremlins and The Black Stallion. He sang the jingle "Head For the Mountains" in the Busch beer commercials in the 1980s (and also "The Ballad of Big Mac", touting McDonald's Big Mac on screen in a 1969 commercial he filmed for the hamburger franchise).

Axton spent some time struggling with cocaine addiction and several of his songs, including "The Pusher", "Snowblind Friend", and "No-No Song", partly reflect his negative drug experiences. He had been known as an opponent of drug use for many years when, in February 1997, he and his wife were arrested at their Montana home for possession of approximately 500 grams of marijuana, a little over a pound. His wife explained later that she offered Axton marijuana to relieve pain and stress following a 1995 stroke; both were fined and given deferred sentences.

Axton never fully recovered from his stroke, and still had to use a wheelchair much of the time. His mother, Mae, drowned in a hot tub at her Tennessee home in 1997. Hoyt Axton died of a heart attack in Victor, Montana, on October 26, 1999, at the age of 61,^[5] after suffering a severe heart attack two weeks earlier.^[6]

On November 1, 2007 he and his mother were inducted posthumously to the Oklahoma Music Hall of Fame in Muskogee, Oklahoma.^[7][8]

Discography[link]

Albums[link]

Singles[link]

Selective list of songs[link]

Among his best-known compositions (or co-writing credits) are:

• "Oh I'm a Good Old Rebel"
• "Greenback Dollar" covered by The Kingston Trio
• "The Pusher", covered by Steppenwolf on their debut album in 1968. This version was also used in the soundtrack of the classic 1969 motion picture "Easy Rider"
• "No-No Song", which became a #3 hit for Ringo Starr in March 1975
• "Never Been To Spain", covered by Three Dog Night, Waylon Jennings, and Elvis Presley
• "Joy to the World", the Three Dog Night hit from April 1971 which held US #1 for six weeks
• "Snowblind Friend" (1971), covered by Steppenwolf
• "Lightning Bar Blues" (1973), covered by Brownsville Station and Arlo Guthrie (also a big hit for the Finnish band Hanoi Rocks in the '80s)
• "Sweet Misery" (1974), covered by John Denver
• "The Morning Is Here" (1974)
• "Boney Fingers" (1974)
• "Della and the Dealer" (1979) (Reached the top 20 of the Billboard Country charts in the USA and the top 50 of the British pop charts)
• "Hotel Ritz" (1979)
• "Rusty Ol' Halo" (1979)
• "Hangnail In My Life" Snowblind Album (1977)

"Della and the Dealer" and "Hotel Ritz" both became minor hit singles in the UK after extensive playing by the British D.J. Terry Wogan on his BBC Radio 2 breakfast programme of the time.

Movies and television appearances[link]

Movie appearances[link]

• Smoky
• The Black Stallion
• Heart Like a Wheel
• Gremlins
• Cloud Dancer
• Season of Change 1994
• Disorganized Crime
• We're No Angels
• The Junkman
• Deadline Auto Theft
• Buried Alive
• Buried Alive II
• Dixie Lanes

• Liar's Moon
• Christmas Comes to Willow Creek
• Endangered Species
• Kingfish
• Harmony Cats

Axton also wrote and performed the theme song that plays over the closing credits of the movie Mitchell.

Television appearances[link]

• The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson
• McCloud
• Hootenanny (US TV series)
• I Dream of Jeannie
• Domestic Life
• Dukes of Hazzard
• Bonanza
• Skinflint: A Country Christmas Carolhttp://www.imdb.com/title/tt0326163/
• WKRP in Cincinnati (performed "Della and the Dealer" and "Jealous Man")
• Flo
• Diff'rent Strokes (as fictional country/western impresario "Wes McKinney")
• Murder, She Wrote
• Growing Pains
• Faerie Tale Theatre - "Goldilocks and the Three Bears"
• The Bionic Woman - "Road to Nashville"
• The Rousters
• Dallas, The Early Years

Axton also composed and sang the theme song to the short-lived television sitcom Flo. Several songs for the 1977 film Outlaw Blues was composed by Axton and sung by Peter Fonda.^[10]

The Rousters was a short-lived television sitcom (1983) with Axton as 'Cactus' Jack Slade. The show starred Chad Everett as Wyatt Earp III, the grandson of the legendary Wyatt Earp, and Jim Varney as his dim-witted brother, Evan.

In the mid '90s, Axton was chosen to host and narrate the profile series The Life and Times on The Nashville Network, in which a different country music figure was spotlighted each hour. His voice was heard throughout and he was seen on-camera doing the introduction and closing of each show in which he participated.

Axton also showed up as the narrator for two documentaries of the Western States 100 Mile Endurance Race in 1982 and 1983 called Desperate Dreams.

References[link]

External links[link]

• Hoyt Axton at the Internet Movie Database
• Hoyt Axton at AllRovi
• "Hoyt Axton". Find a Grave. http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=11855. Retrieved 2008-03-27. 
• The Official Hoyt Axton Web site (Archive)
• Hoyt Axton's Oklahoma Country Music Hall of Fame Page
• Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture - Axton, Hoyt