Brian Lamb
Brian Lamb
Born	(1941-10-09) October 9, 1941 (age 70)[1] Lafayette, Indiana, United States
Alma mater	Purdue University
Occupation	CEO of C-SPAN
Spouse	Victoria Lamb (née Martin) (2005–present)

Brian Patrick Lamb (born October 9, 1941,^[2] in Lafayette, Indiana^[3]) is the founder, chairman, and CEO of C-SPAN, an American cable network which provides coverage of the U.S. House of Representatives and U.S. Senate as well as other public affairs events. Prior to launching C-SPAN in 1979, Lamb held various communications roles including White House telecommunications policy staffer and Washington bureau chief for Cablevision magazine. He also served in the United States Navy for four years. Lamb has conducted thousands of interviews in his lifetime, including those on C-SPAN's Booknotes and Q&A, and is known for his unique interview style, focusing on short, direct questions. Over the course of his career Lamb has received numerous honors and awards including the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the National Humanities Medal.

Early life and education[link]

Lamb was born in Lafayette, Indiana and lived there until he was twenty-two. Growing up, he wanted to be an entertainer and spent time as a disc jockey and as a drummer in multiple local bands.^[4][5] Lamb showed an early interest in television and radio: he started his first radio job at a local station in Lafayette, WASK (AM), at the age of 17,^[6][7] working as a disc jockey and selling advertisements.^[1] His job at the radio station gave him the opportunity to interview musicians including Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Nat King Cole, Count Basie, and The Kingston Trio, while he was still in high school.^[7][4] In 1961, during his junior year at college, he coordinated a television program titled Dance Date, similar to Dick Clark's ABC series, American Bandstand.^[5]

After graduation from Jefferson High School, Lamb attended Purdue University,^[6] where he was a member of Phi Gamma Delta^[8] and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in Speech in 1963.^[2][9]

Early career[link]

Navy career[link]

Following graduation from Purdue, Lamb was accepted into the United States Navy Officer Candidate School. Upon completion of his training, he served 18 months on the attack cargo ship USS Thuban, and then moved to the Pentagon where he served in the audio/visual office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs. Lamb took up this role mid-way through the Vietnam War and, in addition to handling queries from radio and television networks,^[10] he attended press briefings with Defense Secretary Robert McNamara.^[11] In July 1967, following riots in Detroit, Lamb was sent there and tasked with providing recordings of news conferences of Governor George W. Romney of Michigan for the White House Situation Room.^[5] He also served as a White House social aide to Lyndon B. Johnson, in which role he escorted Lady Bird Johnson down the aisle at the wedding of Chuck Robb and Lynda Johnson. He later recalled, "For five years after I got out of the Navy and went back part of the time to Indiana, the only thing I was known to have ever done in my life was to escort Mrs. Johnson down the aisle."^[5] Lamb spent a total of four years in the Navy and was a Lieutenant, junior grade at the time that he left.^[10] He later said that his time in the Navy "was probably the most important thing [he's] ever done".^[5]

Communications and journalism career[link]

In December 1967, following his Navy service, Lamb's interest in politics led him to interview for the role of personal aide to Richard Nixon during his campaign for the 1968 presidential election, but instead he returned to Indiana . In August 1968, after working at a local television station in Lafayette, he spent ten weeks working for a group called United Citizens for Nixon-Agnew.^[12] Following the campaign, he worked as a reporter for UPI Audio^[13] and in 1969 became press secretary for Senator Peter H. Dominick (R-Colo.),^[14] before becoming an assistant for media and congressional relations to the director of the White House Office of Telecommunications Policy.^{[13] [15]}

After the White House, Lamb returned to journalism as the editor of a biweekly newsletter titled "The Media Report".^[13][16] While editing "The Media Report", he also became the Washington bureau chief of trade magazine Cablevision^[17][18] for four years,^[19] covering telecommunications issues.^[20] During this time, he developed his idea of creating a public affairs-oriented cable network.^[21]

C-SPAN[link]

In 1977, Lamb submitted to cable television executives a proposal for a non-profit channel that would broadcast official proceedings of Congress.^[22] He later said, "The risks weren't very significant. No one knew who I was. If I failed, so what?"^[2] The idea was approved in December 1977 and the Cable Satellite Public Affairs Network was created as a private non-profit business with a board of cable-operating company executives, funded by affiliate fees from cable companies.^[23][24] At its launch the network had a staff of four employees, including Lamb, and an annual budget of US$450,000. The first broadcast occurred on March 19, 1979, with live coverage of the first televised House of Representatives floor debate.^[4][25]

By 2010, C-SPAN reached over 100 million households,^[24] and the network employed 275 individuals in Washington D.C. and at its archives in West Lafayette.^[23] Its coverage includes a variety of public affairs programming, including presidential press conferences and Senate hearings, in addition to its gavel-to-gavel coverage of the House and Senate.^[26] As of 2011^[update], C-SPAN consists of three networks: C-SPAN, C-SPAN2 and C-SPAN3 plus a radio station, with more than 170,000 hours of C-SPAN footage available online via the C-SPAN Video Library.^[3][27] Lamb is the chairman and chief executive officer, and has previously been president.^[4][28][29] He has described the network as "in every single way, the antithesis of commercial television".^[5]

Hosting and interview style[link]

On C-SPAN, Lamb has hosted Washington Journal, Booknotes and Q&A, and through these programs became known for his distinctive interview style.^[30] According to him, he learned the basics of broadcasting and interviewing from his high school broadcasting teacher, Bill Fraser,^[4][7] who taught him to "stay out of the way" while he conducted interviews.^[4] Lamb has never said his own name on air,^[11][30] and he does not discuss his own political views.^[31] According to The Advocate, his style of interviewing is "Spartan",^[32] and he has stated: "Too many interviewers intrude too much. … They try to make us think they're smarter than the person they're interviewing. Well, I assume I'm not smarter and if I am smarter I don't want the audience to find out."^[4]

In his 35 years at C-SPAN, Lamb has conducted thousands of interviews,^[3] including 801 editions of Booknotes, a weekly program he hosted focusing on non-fiction books.^[16][2][33] His first Booknotes interview was broadcast on April 2, 1989,^[28] and the final program aired on December 4, 2004.^[19] Over the course of the program, Lamb's interviewees included notable authors, politicians, and world leaders including George H. W. Bush, George W. Bush, Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton, Mikhail Gorbachev, Richard Nixon, Colin Powell, and Margaret Thatcher.^[34][28] The program's format was described in its tagline, "One author, one book, one hour",^[35] and Lamb has stated that he spent an average of 20 hours reading and preparing for each interview,^[2] though by some counts he spoke for less than five minutes over the course of each program.^[36] Lamb has also published five books based on Booknotes interviews, each a collection of essays written from transcripts of his interviews with authors.^[36][37] The books focus on writing, biographies of figures from American history, American history stories, "American character" and the life of Abraham Lincoln, respectively.^[19][38][37]

After Booknotes ended, Lamb began hosting a new program titled Q&A, featuring interviews with notable figures from politics, technology, education, and media, as well as authors.^[39][18][28] He also continued to host Washington Journal, C-SPAN's morning call-in program, until 2008.^[28][40]

In 2011, Lamb donated his collection of books from the Booknotes series, many containing his personal marginalia, to the rare books collection of George Mason University to create an academic archive.^[41]

Issues[link]

As CEO of C-SPAN, Lamb has been involved in issues related to ensuring public access to the proceedings of the federal government and also to increasing media access to legislative and judicial proceedings. Lamb opposed the "must-carry" provisions of the Cable Television Protection and Competition Act of 1992, which he later stated had led to 10 million Americans losing or experiencing reduced access to C-SPAN.^[42][43] In 1998, he wrote to the House Committee on Energy and Commerce and Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, arguing against digital must-carry legislation.^[44][44][40] During the impeachment of President Clinton, Lamb wrote to then-Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott, urging the Senate to "keep this process open to the public" and formally requesting permission for televised coverage of the Senate's deliberations.^[45] In addition, he has written to House Speakers of both parties in 1994, 2006 and 2010, requesting that independent media cameras be added to the House floor to allow a more complete view of debates.^[46][47] Lamb has also written to chief justices Rehnquist and Roberts requesting the televising of oral arguments before the Supreme Court of the United States^[48][49] and other federal courts.^[50][15]

Written works[link]

In addition to his five books based on Booknotes interviews, Lamb has written a book with Richard Norton Smith about the gravesites of American presidents, Who's Buried in Grant's Tomb? A Tour of Presidential Gravesites,^[51] and a companion book to a series of C-SPAN interviews with Supreme Court justices, The Supreme Court: A C-SPAN Book, Featuring the Justices in their Own Words.

A complete list of his published works:

• C-SPAN: America's Town Hall (1988) Brian Lamb and C-SPAN staff, Acropolis Books ISBN 0-87491-889-8
• Booknotes: America's Finest Authors on Reading, Writing, and the Power of Ideas (1998) Brian Lamb, Times Books ISBN 978-0-8129-3029-0
• Booknotes Life Stories: Notable Biographers on the People Who Shaped America (2000) Brian Lamb, Times Books ISBN 978-0-8129-3339-0
• Booknotes: Stories from American History (2002) Brian Lamb, PublicAffairs ISBN 978-0-14-200249-0
• Who's Buried in Grant's Tomb? A Tour of Presidential Gravesites (2003) Brian Lamb and Richard Norton Smith Johns Hopkins University Press ISBN 978-1-58648-178-0
• Booknotes: On American Character (2005) Brian Lamb PublicAffairs ISBN 978-1-58648-342-5
• Abraham Lincoln: Great American Historians on Our Sixteenth President (2008) Brian Lamb and Susan Swain, PublicAffairs, New York City ISBN 978-1-58648-676-1
• The Supreme Court: A C-SPAN Book, Featuring the Justices in their Own Words (2010) Brian Lamb and Susan Swain, PublicAffairs ISBN 1-58648-835-X

Honors and awards[link]

Lamb has received numerous honors and awards for his work at C-SPAN. He was the recipient of the National Press Club's Fourth Estate Award in 2002.^[52] The following year, he was awarded the National Humanities Medal,^[53][54] the Harry S. Truman Good Neighbor Award,^[11] and The Media Institute's Freedom of Speech Award.^[9]

In November 2007, Lamb received the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his work at C-SPAN.^[55][26] The medal is the highest civilian award in the United States, and the White House announcement stated that Lamb had received the award for his "dedication to a transparent political system and to the free flow of ideas".^[1][56] In September 2011, Lamb received The Lone Sailor award from the U.S. Navy Memorial, recognizing individuals who begin their careers in the Navy, but go on to have "exceptional civilian careers".^[10]

In addition, he has received a number of communications-related awards, including the Manship Prize for Exemplary Use of Media and Technology from Louisiana State University's Manship School of Mass Communication,^[32] and the Al Neuharth Award for Excellence in the Media.^[16] In 2011, he was awarded the Gaylord Prize for Excellence in Journalism sponsored by the Gaylord College of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Oklahoma,^[57][14] and was named as one of Library of American Broadcasting’s 2011 "Giants of Broadcasting".^[18]

Lamb has received numerous honorary doctorates, including one from his alma mater, Purdue University.^[58][9] Purdue also awarded him its Distinguished Alumni Award in 1987 and in 2011 its communications department was renamed as the Brian Lamb School of Communication.^[9][59]

Personal life[link]

Lamb has spent most of his life in Washington, D.C.^[19] and currently lives with his wife, Victoria, in Arlington, Virginia.^[16] He married Victoria Martin in September 2005.^[21] The couple met in grade school at St. Mary's Cathedral and had dated in Washington, D.C. in the 1970s, later restarting their relationship in 1998.^[7][60][30] Lamb has never been a member of a political party^[19] and is not registered as a Democrat or Republican. He has voted for candidates across the political spectrum during presidential elections.^[7][61] In an interview Lamb stated he has "been listening to both sides so long that I don't know what I think anymore."^[22]

See also[link]

	Biography portal
	Indiana portal
	United States Navy portal
	Washington, D.C. portal

• C-SPAN
• Washington Journal
• Booknotes
• Q&A
• Steve Scully

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Frantzich, Stephen E. (2008). Founding Father: How C-SPAN's Brian Lamb Changed Politics in America. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-5850-2. 

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George W. Bush
43rd President of the United States
In office January 20, 2001 – January 20, 2009
Vice President	Dick Cheney
Preceded by	Bill Clinton
Succeeded by	Barack Obama
46th Governor of Texas
In office January 17, 1995 – December 21, 2000
Lieutenant	Bob Bullock Rick Perry
Preceded by	Ann Richards
Succeeded by	Rick Perry
Personal details
Born	George Walker Bush (1946-07-06) July 6, 1946 (age 65) New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.
Political party	Republican
Spouse(s)	Laura Welch (1977–present)
Children	Barbara Jenna
Alma mater	Yale University Harvard Business School
Profession	Businessman (Oil, baseball)
Religion	Episcopal (Before 1977)[1] United Methodism (1977–present)[2][3]
Signature
Website	Bush Presidential Library Bush Presidential Center The White House Archived
Military service
Service/branch	Texas Air National Guard Alabama Air National Guard
Years of service	1968–1974
Rank	First Lieutenant
Unit	147th Reconnaissance Wing 187th Fighter Wing

George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is an American politician and businessman who was the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009 and the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000. The eldest son of Barbara Bush and George H. W. Bush, he was born in New Haven, Connecticut. After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975, Bush worked in oil businesses. He married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election. In a close and controversial election, Bush was elected President in 2000 as the Republican candidate, defeating Vice President Al Gore in the Electoral College. Bush is the second American president to have been the son of a former president.^[4] He is also the brother of Jeb Bush, former Governor of Florida.

Terrorist attacks occurred eight months into Bush's first term as president on September 11, 2001. In response, Bush announced the War on Terror, an international military campaign which included the war in Afghanistan launched in 2001 and the war in Iraq launched in 2003. In addition to national security issues, Bush promoted policies on the economy, health care, education, and social security reform. He signed into law broad tax cuts, the PATRIOT Act, the No Child Left Behind Act, the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act, and Medicare prescription drug benefits for seniors. His tenure saw national debates on immigration, Social Security, electronic surveillance, and enhanced interrogation techniques. His administration also withdrew the U.S. from a some international treaty processes, including the Kyoto Protocol on global warming.^[5]

Bush successfully ran for re-election against Democratic Senator John Kerry in 2004, in another relatively close election. After his re-election, Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the political spectrum.^[6][7][8] In 2005, the Bush Administration dealt with widespread criticism over its handling of Hurricane Katrina.^[9][10][11] Following this and other controversies, as well as the growing unpopularity of the Iraq War, Democrats won control of Congress in the 2006 elections. In December 2007, the United States entered its longest post–World War II recession, prompting the Bush Administration to enact multiple economic programs intended to preserve the country's financial system. Though Bush was popular in the U.S. for much of his first term,^[12] his popularity declined sharply during his second. He was a highly controversial figure internationally, with public protests occurring even during visits to close allies, such as the United Kingdom.^[13]

After leaving office, Bush returned to Texas and purchased a home in a suburban area of Dallas. He is currently a public speaker and has written a book about his life entitled Decision Points.^[14]

Childhood to mid-life[link]

George Walker Bush was born in New Haven, Connecticut at Grace-New Haven Hospital (now Yale – New Haven Hospital), on July 6, 1946,^[15] the first child of George H. W. Bush and Barbara Bush (née Pierce). He was raised in Midland and Houston, Texas, with four siblings, Jeb, Neil, Marvin and Dorothy. Another younger sister, Robin, died from leukemia at the age of three in 1953.^[16] Bush's grandfather, Prescott Bush, was a U.S. Senator from Connecticut.^[17] Bush's father, George H. W. Bush, was Vice President from 1981 to 1989 and President from 1989 to 1993. Bush is of primarily English descent and also more distant German, Dutch, Welsh, Irish, French, and Scottish ancestry.^[18]

Education[link]

Bush attended public schools in Midland, Texas until the family moved to Houston after he completed seventh grade. He then went to The Kinkaid School, a prep school in Houston, for two years.^[19]

Bush finished high school at Phillips Academy, a boarding school (then all-male) in Andover, Massachusetts, where he played baseball and during his senior year was the head cheerleader.^[20][21] Bush attended Yale University from 1964 to 1968, graduating with an A.B. in history.^[22] During this time, he was a cheerleader and a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon, being elected the fraternity's president during his senior year.^[23][24][25] Bush also became a member of the Skull and Bones society as a senior.^[26] Bush was a keen rugby union player and was on Yale's 1st XV.^[27] He characterized himself as an average student.^[28] His average during his first three years at Yale was 77 and he had a similar average under a nonnumeric rating system in his final year.^[29]

Beginning in the fall of 1973, Bush attended the Harvard Business School, where he earned a Master of Business Administration. He is the only U.S. President to have earned an M.B.A.^[30]

Texas Air National Guard[link]

Lt. George W. Bush while in the Texas Air National Guard

In May 1968, Bush was commissioned into the Texas Air National Guard.^[31] After two years of active-duty service while training,^[32] he was assigned to Houston, flying Convair F-102s with the 147th Reconnaissance Wing out of Ellington Field Joint Reserve Base.^[31][33] Critics, including former Democratic National Committee Chairman Terry McAuliffe, have alleged that Bush was favorably treated due to his father's political standing, citing his selection as a pilot despite his low pilot aptitude test scores and his irregular attendance.^[34] In June 2005, the United States Department of Defense released all the records of Bush's Texas Air National Guard service, which remain in its official archives.^[35]

In late 1972 and early 1973, he drilled with the 187th Fighter Wing of the Alabama Air National Guard, having moved to Montgomery, Alabama to work on the unsuccessful U.S. Senate campaign of Republican Winton M. Blount.^[36][37] In 1972, Bush was suspended from flying for failure to take a scheduled physical exam.^[38] He was honorably discharged from the Air Force Reserve on November 21, 1974.^[39]

Marriage, family, and personal life[link]

George and Laura Bush with their daughters Jenna and Barbara, 1990

At a backyard barbecue in 1977, friends introduced him to Laura Welch, a school teacher and librarian. Bush proposed to her after a three-month courtship, and they married on November 5 of that year.^[40] The couple settled in Midland, Texas. Bush left his family's Episcopal Church to join his wife's United Methodist Church.^[2] In 1981, Laura Bush gave birth to fraternal twin daughters, Jenna and Barbara;^[40] they graduated from high school in 2000 and from the University of Texas at Austin and Yale University, respectively, in 2004.

Prior to his marriage, Bush had multiple episodes of alcohol abuse.^[41] In one instance, on September 4, 1976, he was arrested near his family's summer home in Kennebunkport, Maine, for driving under the influence of alcohol. He pleaded guilty, was fined $150 and had his Maine driver's license suspended until 1978.^[42] Bush's alleged drug usage is less clear; when asked about alleged past illicit drug use, Bush has consistently refused to answer. He defended his refusal to answer in a publicized casual conversation with a friend, saying that he feared setting a bad example for the younger generation.^[43][44][45]

Bush says his wife has had a stabilizing effect on his life,^[40] and attributes to her influence his 1986 decision to give up alcohol.^[46] While Governor of Texas, Bush said of his wife, "I saw an elegant, beautiful woman who turned out not only to be elegant and beautiful, but very smart and willing to put up with my rough edges, and I must confess has smoothed them off over time."^[40]

Bush mostly reads "serious historical nonfiction" for pleasure. During his time as president, Bush read 14 Lincoln biographies and, during the last three years of his presidency, he reportedly read 186 books. A reporter recalls seeing "books by John Fowles, F. Scott Fitzgerald, James Joyce, and Gore Vidal lying about, as well as biographies of Willa Cather and Queen Victoria" in his home when Bush was a Texas oilman. Other hobbies include cigar smoking and golf.^[47]

Early career[link]

George W. Bush with his father outside the White House on April 29, 1992

In 1978, Bush ran for the House of Representatives from Texas's 19th congressional district. His opponent, Kent Hance, portrayed him as out of touch with rural Texans; Bush lost by 6,000 votes (6%) of the 103,000 votes cast.^[48] He returned to the oil industry and began a series of small, independent oil exploration companies.^[49] He created Arbusto Energy,^[50] and later changed the name to Bush Exploration. In 1984, his company merged with the larger Spectrum 7, and Bush became chairman.^[49] The company was hurt by decreased oil prices, and it folded into HKN, Inc.^[49][51] Bush served on the board of directors for HKN.^[49] Questions of possible insider trading involving HKN arose, but the Securities and Exchange Commission's (SEC) investigation concluded that the information Bush had at the time of his stock sale was not sufficient to constitute insider trading.^[49][52]

Bush moved his family to Washington, D.C. in 1988 to work on his father's campaign for the U.S. presidency.^[53][54] He served as a campaign adviser and liaison to the media;^[49] he assisted his father by campaigning across the country.^[49] Returning to Texas after the successful campaign, he purchased a share in the Texas Rangers baseball franchise in April 1989, where he served as managing general partner for five years.^[55] He actively led the team's projects and regularly attended its games, often choosing to sit in the open stands with fans.^[56] Bush's sale of his shares in the Rangers in 1998 brought him over $15 million from his initial $800,000 investment.^[57]

In December 1991, Bush was one of seven people named by his father to run his father's 1992 Presidential re-election campaign as "campaign advisor".^[58] The prior month, his father asked him to tell White House chief of staff John H. Sununu that he should resign.^[59]

Governor of Texas[link]

Governor Bush with wife, Laura, and father, George H. W. Bush

As Bush's brother, Jeb, sought the governorship of Florida, Bush declared his candidacy for the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election. His campaign focused on four themes: welfare reform, tort reform, crime reduction, and education improvement.^[49] Bush's campaign advisers were Karen Hughes, Joe Allbaugh, and Karl Rove.^[60]

After easily winning the Republican primary, Bush faced popular Democratic incumbent Governor Ann Richards.^[49][61] In the course of the campaign, Bush pledged to sign a bill allowing Texans to obtain permits to carry concealed weapons. Richards had vetoed the bill, but Bush signed it after he became governor.^[62] According to The Atlantic Monthly, the race "featured a rumor that she was a lesbian, along with a rare instance of such a tactic's making it into the public record – when a regional chairman of the Bush campaign allowed himself, perhaps inadvertently, to be quoted criticizing Richards for 'appointing avowed homosexual activists' to state jobs".^[63] The Atlantic, and others, connected the lesbian rumor to Karl Rove,^[64] but Rove denied being involved.^[65] Bush won the general election with 53.5% against Richards' 45.9%.^[66]

Bush used a budget surplus to push through Texas's largest tax-cut, $2 billion.^[60] He extended government funding for organizations providing education of the dangers of alcohol and drug use and abuse, and helping to reduce domestic violence.^[67] Critics contended that during his tenure, Texas ranked near the bottom in environmental evaluations, but supporters pointed to his efforts to raise the salaries of teachers and improved educational test scores.^[49]

In 1999, Bush also helped make Texas eventually the leading producer of wind powered electricity in the U.S.^[68][69][70] by signing a state law obliging electric retailers to buy a certain amount of energy from renewable sources (RPS).^[71][72][73]

In 1998, Bush won re-election with a record^[49] 69% of the vote.^[74] He became the first governor in Texas history to be elected to two consecutive four-year terms.^[49] For most of Texas history, governors served two-year terms; a constitutional amendment extended those terms to four years starting in 1975.^[75] In his second term, Bush promoted faith-based organizations and enjoyed high approval ratings.^[49] He proclaimed June 10, 2000 to be Jesus Day in Texas, a day on which he "urge[d] all Texans to answer the call to serve those in need".^[76]

Throughout Bush's first term, national attention focused on him as a potential future presidential candidate. Following his re-election, speculation soared.^[49] Within a year, he decided to seek the 2000 Republican presidential nomination.

Presidential campaigns[link]

2000 Presidential candidacy[link]

Bush in Concord, New Hampshire signing to be a candidate for president

Primary[link]

In June 1999, while Governor of Texas, Bush announced his candidacy for President of the United States. With no incumbent running, Bush entered a large field of candidates for the Republican Party presidential nomination consisting of John McCain, Alan Keyes, Steve Forbes, Gary Bauer, Orrin Hatch, Elizabeth Dole, Dan Quayle, Pat Buchanan, Lamar Alexander, John Kasich, and Robert C. Smith.

Bush portrayed himself as a compassionate conservative, implying he was more centrist than other Republicans. He campaigned on a platform that included increasing the size of the United States Armed Forces, cutting taxes, improving education, and aiding minorities.^[49] By early 2000, the race had centered on Bush and McCain.^[49]

Bush won the Iowa caucuses, but, although he was heavily favored to win the New Hampshire primary, he trailed McCain by 19% and lost that primary. Despite this, Bush regained momentum and, according to political observers, effectively became the front runner after the South Carolina primary, which according to The Boston Globe made history for his campaign's negativity; The New York Times described it as a smear campaign.^[77][78][79]

General election[link]

On July 25, 2000, Bush surprised some observers by asking Dick Cheney, a former White House Chief of Staff, U.S. Representative, and Secretary of Defense, to be his running mate. Cheney was then serving as head of Bush's Vice-Presidential search committee. Soon after, Cheney was officially nominated by the Republican Party at the 2000 Republican National Convention.

Bush continued to campaign across the country and touted his record as Governor of Texas.^[49] Bush's campaign criticized his Democratic opponent, incumbent Vice President Al Gore, over gun control and taxation.^[80]

When the election returns came in on November 7, Bush won 29 states, including Florida. The closeness of the Florida outcome led to a recount.^[49] The initial recount also went to Bush, but the outcome was tied up in courts for a month until reaching the U.S. Supreme Court.^[81] On December 9, in a controversial ruling^[82] the Bush v. Gore case the Court reversed a Florida Supreme Court decision ordering a third count, and stopped an ordered statewide hand recount based on the argument that the use of different standards among Florida's counties violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.^[49] The machine recount showed that Bush had won the Florida vote by a margin of 537 votes out of six million cast.^[83] Although he received 543,895 fewer individual votes than Gore nationwide, Bush won the election, receiving 271 electoral votes to Gore's 266.^[83]

2004 Presidential candidacy[link]

George W. Bush speaks at a campaign rally in 2004.

In 2004, Bush commanded broad support in the Republican Party and did not encounter a primary challenge. He appointed Ken Mehlman as campaign manager, with a political strategy devised by Karl Rove.^[84] Bush and the Republican platform included a strong commitment to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan,^[85] support for the USA PATRIOT Act,^[86] a renewed shift in policy for constitutional amendments banning abortion and same-sex marriage,^[85][87] reforming Social Security to create private investment accounts,^[85] creation of an ownership society,^[85] and opposing mandatory carbon emissions controls.^[88] Bush also called for the implementation of a guest worker program for immigrants,^[85] which was criticized by conservatives.^[89]

The Bush campaign advertised across the U.S. against Democratic candidates, including Bush's emerging opponent, Massachusetts Senator John Kerry. Kerry and other Democrats attacked Bush on the Iraq War, and accused him of failing to stimulate the economy and job growth. The Bush campaign portrayed Kerry as a staunch liberal who would raise taxes and increase the size of government. The Bush campaign continuously criticized Kerry's seemingly contradictory statements on the war in Iraq,^[49] and argued that Kerry lacked the decisiveness and vision necessary for success in the War on Terror.

In the election, Bush carried 31 of 50 states, receiving a total of 286 electoral votes. He won an outright majority of the popular vote (50.7% to his opponent's 48.3%).^[90] The previous President to win an outright majority of the popular vote was Bush's father in the 1988 election. Additionally, it was the first time since Herbert Hoover's election in 1928 that a Republican president was elected alongside re-elected Republican majorities in both Houses of Congress. Bush's 2.5% margin of victory was the narrowest ever for a victorious incumbent President, breaking Woodrow Wilson's 3.1% margin of victory against Charles Evans Hughes in the election of 1916.^[91][92]

Presidency[link]

Though Bush originally outlined an ambitious domestic agenda, his priorities were significantly altered following the September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001.^[93] Wars were waged in Afghanistan and Iraq with significant domestic debates regarding immigration, healthcare, Social Security, economic policy, and treatment of terrorist detainees. Over an eight year period, Bush's once-high approval ratings^[94] steadily declined, while his disapproval numbers increased significantly.^[95] In 2007, the administration prioritized dealing with the United States having entered into the longest post-World War II recession.^[96]

Domestic policy[link]

Economic policy[link]

During the George W. Bush administration, federal government spending was increased from $1789 billion to $2983 billion (70%) but the revenues were only increased from $2025 billion to $2524 billion (from 2000 to 2008). Individual income tax revenues were increased by 14%, corporate tax revenues by 50%, customs and duties by 40%. Discretionary defense spending was increased by 107%, discretionary domestic spending by 62%, Medicare spending by 131%, social security by 51%, and income security spending by 130%. Cyclically adjusted, revenues rose by 35% and spending by 65%.^[97]

Also proportionally Bush increased government spending more than any predecessor since Lyndon B. Johnson.^[98]

The number of economic regulation governmental workers was increased by 91,196, whereas Bill Clinton had cut down the number by 969.^[99]

In a February 28, 2001, message to the Congress, Bush estimated that there would be a $5.6 trillion surplus over the next ten years.^[100] Facing congressional opposition, Bush held town hall-style public meetings across the U.S. in 2001 to increase public support for his plan for a $1.35 trillion tax cut program—one of the largest tax cuts in U.S. history.^[49] Bush argued that unspent government funds should be returned to taxpayers, saying "the surplus is not the government’s money. The surplus is the people’s money."^[49] With reports of the threat of recession from Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan, Bush argued that such a tax cut would stimulate the economy and create jobs.^[101] Others, including the Treasury Secretary at the time Paul O'Neill, were opposed to some of the tax cuts on the basis that they would contribute to budget deficits and undermine Social Security.^[102] O'Neill disputes the claim made in Bush's book "Decision Points" that he never openly disagreed with him on planned tax cuts.^[103] By 2003, the economy showed signs of improvement, though job growth remained stagnant.^[49] Another tax cut program was passed that year.

Deficit and debt increases 2001–2009. Gross debt has increased over $500 billion each year since FY2003.

Under the Bush Administration, real GDP grew at an average annual rate of 2.5%,^[104] considerably below the average for business cycles from 1949 to 2000.^[105][106] Bush entered office with the Dow Jones Industrial Average at 10,587, and the average peaked in October 2007 at over 14,000. When Bush left office, the average was at 7,949, one of the lowest levels of his presidency.^[107] Unemployment originally rose from 4.2% in January 2001 to 6.3% in June 2003, but subsequently dropped to 4.5% as of July 2007.^[108] Adjusted for inflation, median household income dropped by $1,175 between 2000 and 2007,^[109] while Professor Ken Homa of Georgetown University has noted that "after-tax median household income increased by 2%"^[110] The poverty rate increased from 11.3% in 2000 to 12.3% in 2006 after peaking at 12.7% in 2004.^[111] By October 2008, due to increases in domestic and foreign spending,^[112] the national debt had risen to $11.3 trillion,^[113] an increase of over 100% from the start of the year 2000 when the debt was $5.6 trillion.^[114][115] Most debt was accumulated as a result of what became known as the "Bush tax cuts" and increased national security spending.^[116] By the end of Bush's presidency, unemployment climbed to 7.2%.^[117] The perception of Bush's effect on the economy is significantly affected by partisanship, which makes it difficult to determine who or what caused which problems.^[118]

President Bush signing a $1.35 trillion tax cut into law. June 7, 2001

In December 2007, the United States entered the longest post–World War II recession,^[119] which included a housing market correction, a subprime mortgage crisis, soaring oil prices, and a declining dollar value.^[120] In February, 63,000 jobs were lost, a five-year record.^[121][122] To aid with the situation, Bush signed a $170 billion economic stimulus package which was intended to improve the economic situation by sending tax rebate checks to many Americans and providing tax breaks for struggling businesses. The Bush administration pushed for significantly increased regulation of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac in 2003,^[123] and after two years, the regulations passed the House but died in the Senate. Many Republican senators, as well as influential members of the Bush Administration, feared that the agency created by these regulations would merely be mimicking the private sector’s risky practices.^[124][125] In September 2008, the crisis became much more serious beginning with the government takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac followed by the collapse of Lehman Brothers and a federal bailout of American International Group for $85 billion.^[126]

Many economists and world governments determined that the situation became the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression.^[127][128] Additional regulation over the housing market would have been beneficial, according to former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan.^[129] Bush, meanwhile, proposed a financial rescue plan to buy back a large portion of the U.S. mortgage market.^[130] Vince Reinhardt, a former Federal Reserve economist now at the American Enterprise Institute, said "it would have helped for the Bush administration to empower the folks at Treasury and the Federal Reserve and the comptroller of the currency and the FDIC to look at these issues more closely", and additionally, that it would have helped "for Congress to have held hearings".^[125]

In November 2008, over 500,000 jobs were lost, which marked the largest loss of jobs in the United States in 34 years.^[131] The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that in the last four months of 2008, 1.9 million jobs were lost.^[132] By the end of 2008, the U.S. had lost a total of 2.6 million jobs.^[133]

Education and health[link]

Bush undertook a number of educational priorities, such as increasing the funding for the National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health in his first years of office, and creating education programs to strengthen the grounding in science and mathematics for American high school students. Funding for the NIH was cut in 2006, the first such cut in 36 years, due to rising inflation.^[134]

Bush signs the No Child Left Behind Act into law, January 2002.

One of the administration's early major initiatives was the No Child Left Behind Act, which aimed to measure and close the gap between rich and poor student performance, provide options to parents with students in low-performing schools, and target more federal funding to low-income schools. This landmark education initiative passed with broad bipartisan support, including that of Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts.^[135] It was signed into law by Bush in early 2002.^[136] Many contend that the initiative has been successful, as cited by the fact that students in the U.S. have performed significantly better on state reading and math tests since Bush signed "No Child Left Behind" into law.^[137] Critics argue that it is underfunded^[138] and that NCLBA's focus on "high stakes testing" and quantitative outcomes is counterproductive.^[139]

After being re-elected, Bush signed into law a Medicare drug benefit program that, according to Jan Crawford Greenburg, resulted in "the greatest expansion in America's welfare state in forty years;" the bill's costs approached $7 trillion.^[140] In 2007, Bush opposed and vetoed State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) legislation, which was added by the Democrats onto a war funding bill and passed by Congress. The SCHIP legislation would have significantly expanded federally funded health care benefits and plans to children of some low-income families from about six million to ten million children. It was to be funded by an increase in the cigarette tax.^[141] Bush viewed the legislation as a move toward socialized health care, and asserted that the program could benefit families making as much as $83,000 per year who did not need the help.^[142]

Social services and Social Security[link]

Following Republican efforts to pass the Medicare Act of 2003, Bush signed the bill, which included major changes to the Medicare program by providing beneficiaries with some assistance in paying for prescription drugs, while relying on private insurance for the delivery of benefits.^[143] The retired persons lobby group AARP worked with the Bush Administration on the program and gave their endorsement. Bush said the law, estimated to cost $400 billion over the first ten years, would give the elderly "better choices and more control over their health care".^[144]

Bush speaks at the United States Coast Guard Academy commencement, May 2007.

Bush began his second term by outlining a major initiative to reform Social Security,^[145] which was facing record deficit projections beginning in 2005. Bush made it the centerpiece of his domestic agenda despite opposition from some in the U.S. Congress.^[145] In his 2005 State of the Union Address, Bush discussed the potential impending bankruptcy of the program and outlined his new program, which included partial privatization of the system, personal Social Security accounts, and options to permit Americans to divert a portion of their Social Security tax (FICA) into secured investments.^[145] Democrats opposed the proposal to partially privatize the system.^[145]

Bush embarked on a 60-day national tour, campaigning vigorously for his initiative in media events, known as the "Conversations on Social Security", in an attempt to gain support from the general public.^[146] Despite the energetic campaign, public support for the proposal declined^[147] and the House Republican leadership decided not to put Social Security reform on the priority list for the remainder of their 2005 legislative agenda.^[148] The proposal's legislative prospects were further diminished by the political fallout from the Hurricane Katrina in the fall of 2005.^[149] After the Democrats gained control of both houses of the Congress as a result of the 2006 midterm elections, the prospects of any further congressional action on the Bush proposal were dead for the remainder of his term in office.

Environmental and energy policies[link]

Upon taking office in 2001, Bush stated his opposition to the Kyoto Protocol, an amendment to the UN Convention on Climate Change which seeks to impose mandatory targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, citing that the treaty exempted 80% of the world's population^[150] and would have cost tens of billions of dollars per year.^[151] He also cited that the Senate had voted 95–0 in 1997 on a resolution expressing its disapproval of the protocol.

Bush delivers a statement on energy, urging Congress to end offshore oil drill ban, June 18, 2008.

In May 2001, Bush signed an executive order to create an inter-agency task force to streamline energy projects,^[152] and later signed two other executive orders to tackle environmental issues.^[153]

In 2002, Bush announced the Clear Skies Act of 2003,^[154] aimed at amending the Clean Air Act to reduce air pollution through the use of emissions trading programs. Many experts argued that this legislation would have weakened the original legislation by allowing higher emission rates of pollutants than were previously legal.^[155] The initiative was introduced to Congress, but failed to make it out of committee.

Bush has said that he believes that global warming is real^[156] and has noted that it is a serious problem, but he asserted there is a "debate over whether it's man-made or naturally caused".^[157] The Bush Administration's stance on global warming remained controversial in the scientific and environmental communities. Critics have alleged that the administration^[158] misinformed the public and did not do enough to reduce carbon emissions and deter global warming.^[159]

In his 2006 State of the Union Address, Bush declared, "America is addicted to oil" and announced his Advanced Energy Initiative to increase energy development research.^[160]

That same year, Bush declared the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands a national monument, creating the largest marine reserve to date. The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument comprises 84 million acres (340,000 km²) and is home to 7,000 species of fish, birds, and other marine animals, many of which are specific to only those islands.^[161] The move was hailed by conservationists for "its foresight and leadership in protecting this incredible area".^[162]

In his 2007 State of the Union Address, Bush renewed his pledge to work toward diminished reliance on foreign oil by reducing fossil fuel consumption and increasing alternative fuel production.^[163] Amid high gasoline prices in 2008, Bush lifted a ban on offshore drilling.^[164] However, the move was largely symbolic as there is still a federal law banning offshore drilling. Bush said, "This means that the only thing standing between the American people and these vast oil reserves is action from the U.S. Congress."^[164] Bush had said in June 2008, "In the long run, the solution is to reduce demand for oil by promoting alternative energy technologies. My administration has worked with Congress to invest in gas-saving technologies like advanced batteries and hydrogen fuel cells.... In the short run, the American economy will continue to rely largely on oil. And that means we need to increase supply, especially here at home. So my administration has repeatedly called on Congress to expand domestic oil production."^[165]

President Bush signing the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act, September 26, 2006

In his 2008 State of the Union Address, Bush announced that the U.S. would commit $2 billion over the next three years to a new international fund to promote clean energy technologies and fight climate change, saying, "Along with contributions from other countries, this fund will increase and accelerate the deployment of all forms of cleaner, more efficient technologies in developing nations like India and China, and help leverage substantial private-sector capital by making clean energy projects more financially attractive." He also announced plans to reaffirm the United States' commitment to work with major economies, and, through the UN, to complete an international agreement that will slow, stop, and eventually reverse the growth of greenhouse gases; he stated, "This agreement will be effective only if it includes commitments by every major economy and gives none a free ride."^[166]

Stem cell research and first use of veto power[link]

Federal funding for medical research involving the creation or destruction of human embryos through the Department of Health and Human Services and the National Institutes of Health has been forbidden by law since the passage in 1995 of the Dickey-Wicker Amendment by Congress and the signature of President Bill Clinton.^[167] Bush has said that he supports adult stem cell research and has supported federal legislation that finances adult stem cell research. However, Bush did not support embryonic stem cell research.^[168] On August 9, 2001, Bush signed an executive order lifting the ban on federal funding for the 71 existing "lines" of stem cells,^[169] but the ability of these existing lines to provide an adequate medium for testing has been questioned. Testing can only be done on 12 of the original lines, and all of the approved lines have been cultured in contact with mouse cells, which creates safety issues that complicate development and approval of therapies from these lines.^[170] On July 19, 2006, Bush used his veto power for the first time in his presidency to veto the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act. The bill would have repealed the Dickey-Wicker Amendment, thereby permitting federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of an embryo.^[171]

Immigration[link]

Bush discusses border security with Homeland Security Director Michael Chertoff near El Paso, November 2005.

In 2006, Bush urged Congress to allow more than 12 million illegal immigrants to work in the United States with the creation of a "temporary guest-worker program". Bush did not support amnesty for illegal immigrants,^[172] but argued that the lack of legal status denies the protections of U.S. laws to millions of people who face dangers of poverty and exploitation, and penalizes employers despite a demand for immigrant labor.^[173] Nearly 8 million immigrants came to the United States from 2000 to 2005, more than in any other five-year period in the nation's history.^[174] Almost half entered illegally.^[175]

Bush also urged Congress to provide additional funds for border security and committed to deploying 6,000 National Guard troops to the Mexico–United States border.^[176] In May–June 2007, Bush strongly supported the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007, which was written by a bipartisan group of Senators with the active participation of the Bush administration.^[177] The bill envisioned a legalization program for illegal immigrants, with an eventual path to citizenship; establishing a guest worker program; a series of border and work site enforcement measures; a reform of the green card application process and the introduction of a point-based "merit" system for green cards; elimination of "chain migration" and of the Diversity Immigrant Visa; and other measures. Bush contended that the proposed bill did not amount to amnesty.^[178]

A heated public debate followed, which resulted in a substantial rift within the Republican Party, most conservatives opposed it because of its legalization or amnesty provisions.^[179] The bill was eventually defeated in the Senate on June 28, 2007, when a cloture motion failed on a 46–53 vote.^[180] Bush expressed disappointment upon the defeat of one of his signature domestic initiatives.^[181] The Bush administration later proposed a series of immigration enforcement measures that do not require a change in law.^[182]

On September 19, 2010, former Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert said that Bush offered to accept 100,000 Palestinian refugees as American citizens if a permanent settlement had been reached between Israel and the Palestinian Authority.^[183]

Hurricane Katrina[link]

Hurricane Katrina, which was one of the worst natural disasters in U.S. history, struck early in Bush’s second term. Katrina formed in late August during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season and devastated much of the north-central Gulf Coast of the United States, particularly New Orleans.^[184]

Bush shakes hands with New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin on September 2, 2005, after viewing the devastation of Hurricane Katrina.

Bush declared a state of emergency in Louisiana on August 27,^[185] and in Mississippi and Alabama the following day;^[186] he authorized the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to manage the disaster, but his announcement failed to spur these agencies to action.^[187] The eye of the hurricane made landfall on August 29, and New Orleans began to flood due to levee breaches; later that day, Bush declared that a major disaster existed in Louisiana,^[188] officially authorizing FEMA to start using federal funds to assist in the recovery effort. On August 30, DHS Secretary Michael Chertoff declared it "an incident of national significance",^[189] triggering the first use of the newly created National Response Plan. Three days later, on September 2, National Guard troops first entered the city of New Orleans.^[190] The same day, Bush toured parts of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama and declared that the success of the recovery effort up to that point was "not enough".^[191]

As the disaster in New Orleans intensified, critics charged that Bush was misrepresenting his administration's role in what they saw as a flawed response. Leaders attacked Bush for having appointed apparently incompetent leaders to positions of power at FEMA, notably Michael D. Brown;^[192] it was also argued that the federal response was limited as a result of the Iraq War^[193] and Bush himself did not act upon warnings of floods.^{[194][195][196]} Bush responded to mounting criticism by accepting full responsibility for the federal government's failures in its handling of the emergency.^[190] It has been argued that with Katrina, Bush passed a political tipping point from which he would not recover.^[197]

Midterm dismissal of U.S. attorneys[link]

During Bush's second term, a controversy arose over the Justice Department's midterm dismissal of seven United States Attorneys.^[198] The White House maintained that the U.S. attorneys were fired for poor performance.^[199] Attorney General Alberto Gonzales would later resign over the issue, along with other senior members of the Justice Department.^[200][201] The House Judiciary Committee issued subpoenas for advisers Harriet Miers and Josh Bolten to testify regarding this matter, but Bush directed Miers and Bolten to not comply with those subpoenas, invoking his right of executive privilege. Bush has maintained that all of his advisers are protected under a broad executive privilege protection to receive candid advice. The Justice Department has determined that the President's order was legal.^[202]

Although Congressional investigations have focused on whether the Justice Department and the White House were using the U.S. Attorney positions for political advantage, no official findings have been released. On March 10, 2008, the Congress filed a federal lawsuit to enforce their issued subpoenas.^[203] On July 31, 2008, a United States district court judge ruled that Bush's top advisers were not immune from Congressional subpoenas.^[204]

In August 2009, Karl Rove and Harriet Miers testified before the House Judiciary Committee. A Justice Department inquiry into the firing of U.S. attorneys concluded that political considerations played a part in as many as four of the dismissals.^[205] In July 2010, the Justice Department prosecutors closed the two-year investigation without filing charges after determining that the firings were inappropriately political, but not criminal. According to the prosecutors, "Evidence did not demonstrate that any prosecutable criminal offense was committed with regard to the removal of David Iglesias. The investigative team also determined that the evidence did not warrant expanding the scope of the investigation beyond the removal of Iglesias."^[206]

Foreign policy[link]

Bush presents the Presidential Medal of Freedom to Pope John Paul II during a visit to the Vatican, June 2004.

In July 2001 Bush visited the pope at Castel Gandolfo.^[207] During his Presidential campaign, Bush's foreign policy platform included support for a stronger economic and political relationship with Latin America, especially Mexico, and a reduction of involvement in "nation-building" and other small-scale military engagements. The administration pursued a national missile defense.^[208] Bush was an advocate of China's entry into the World Trade Organization.^[209] He said free trade was a force for democratization in China.^[210]

After the September 11 attacks, Bush launched the War on Terror, in which the United States military and an international coalition invaded Afghanistan. In 2003, Bush launched the invasion of Iraq, which he described as being part of the War on Terrorism.^[211]

Those invasions led to the toppling of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan and the removal of Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq as well as the deaths of many Iraqis, with surveys indicating between four hundred thousand to over one million dead, excluding the tens of thousands of civilians in Afghanistan.^{[212][213][214]}

Countries visited by President George W. Bush during his terms in office

Bush began his second term with an emphasis on improving strained relations with European nations. He appointed long-time adviser Karen Hughes to oversee a global public relations campaign. Bush lauded the pro-democracy struggles in Georgia and Ukraine.

In March 2006, a visit to India led to renewed ties between the two countries, reversing decades of U.S. policy.^[215] The visit focused particularly on areas of nuclear energy and counter-terrorism cooperation, discussions that would lead eventually to the U.S.-India Civil Nuclear Agreement.^[216][217] This is in stark contrast to the stance taken by his predecessor, Clinton, whose approach and response to India after the 1998 nuclear tests was that of sanctions and hectoring. The relationship between India and the United States was one that dramatically improved during Bush's tenure.^[218]

Midway through Bush's second term, it was questioned whether Bush was retreating from his freedom and democracy agenda, highlighted in policy changes toward some oil-rich former Soviet republics in central Asia.^[219]

In an address before both Houses of Congress on September 20, 2001, Bush thanked the nations of the world for their support following the September 11 attacks. He specifically thanked British Prime Minister Tony Blair for traveling to the Washington to show "unity of purpose with America", and said "America has no truer friend than Great Britain."^[220]

September 11, 2001[link]

Bush, standing with firefighter Bob Beckwith, addresses rescue workers at Ground Zero in New York, September 14, 2001.

The September 11 terrorist attacks were a major turning point in Bush's presidency. That evening, he addressed the nation from the Oval Office, promising a strong response to the attacks. He also emphasized the need for the nation to come together and comfort the families of the victims. On September 14, he visited Ground Zero, meeting with Mayor Rudy Giuliani, firefighters, police officers, and volunteers. Bush addressed the gathering via a megaphone while standing on a heap of rubble, to much applause: "I can hear you. The rest of the world hears you. And the people who knocked these buildings down will hear all of us soon."^[221]

	President Bush Declares "Freedom at War with Fear", September 20, 2001
Problems listening to this file? See media help.

In a September 20 speech, Bush condemned Osama bin Laden and Al-Qaeda, and issued an ultimatum to the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, where bin Laden was operating, to "hand over the terrorists, or ... share in their fate".^[222]

War on Terrorism[link]

Bush presents then UK Prime Minister Tony Blair with the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

After September 11, Bush announced a global War on Terror. The Afghan Taliban regime was not forthcoming with Osama bin Laden, so Bush ordered the invasion of Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban regime.^[223] In his January 29, 2002 State of the Union Address, he asserted that an "axis of evil" consisting of North Korea, Iran, and Iraq was "arming to threaten the peace of the world" and "pose[d] a grave and growing danger".^[224] The Bush Administration proceeded to assert a right and intention to engage in preemptive war, also called preventive war, in response to perceived threats.^[225] This would form a basis for what became known as the Bush Doctrine. The broader "War on Terror", allegations of an "axis of evil", and, in particular, the doctrine of preemptive war, began to weaken the unprecedented levels of international and domestic support for Bush and United States action against al-Qaeda following the September 11 attacks.^[226]

Some national leaders alleged abuse by U.S. troops and called for the U.S. to shut down the Guantanamo Bay detention camp and other such facilities. Dissent from, and criticism of, Bush's leadership in the War on Terror increased as the war in Iraq expanded.^{[227][228][229]} In 2006, a National Intelligence Estimate expressed the combined opinion of the United States' own intelligence agencies, concluding that the Iraq War had become the "cause célèbre for jihadists" and that the jihad movement was growing.^[230][231]

Afghanistan[link]

Bush and President Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan appear together in 2006 at a joint news conference in Kabul.

On October 7, 2001, U.S. and British forces initiated bombing campaigns that led to the arrival of Northern Alliance troops in Kabul on November 13. The main goals of the war were to defeat the Taliban, drive al-Qaeda out of Afghanistan, and capture key al-Qaeda leaders. In December 2001, the Pentagon reported that the Taliban had been defeated,^[232] but cautioned that the war would go on to continue weakening Taliban and al-Qaeda leaders.^[232] Later that month the UN had installed the Afghan Transitional Administration chaired by Hamid Karzai.^[233][234]

Efforts to kill or capture al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden failed as he escaped a battle in December 2001 in the mountainous region of Tora Bora, which the Bush Administration later acknowledged to have resulted from a failure to commit enough U.S. ground troops.^[235] On March 13, 2002, Bush stated that "I truly am not that concerned about him" when asked about bin Laden, brushing him off as "a person who has now been marginalized", despite declaring that he was wanted "Dead or Alive" shortly after 9/11, and statements from U.S. commanders that bin Laden was "still a threat in the new Afghanistan".^[236] It was not until May 2011, two years after Bush left office, that bin Laden was killed by U.S. forces. Bin Laden's successor, Ayman al-Zawahiri, as well as the leader of the Taliban, Mohammed Omar, remain at large.

Despite the initial success in driving the Taliban from power in Kabul, by early 2003 the Taliban was regrouping, amassing new funds and recruits.^[237] In 2006, the Taliban insurgency appeared larger, fiercer and better organized than expected, with large-scale allied offensives such as Operation Mountain Thrust attaining limited success.^{[238][239][240]} As a result, Bush commissioned 3,500 additional troops to the country in March 2007.^[241]

Iraq[link]

Bush, with Naval Flight Officer Lieutenant Ryan Philips, in the flight suit he wore for his televised arrival and speech in 2003

Beginning with his January 29, 2002 State of the Union address, Bush began publicly focusing attention on Iraq, which he labeled as part of an "axis of evil" allied with terrorists and posing "a grave and growing danger" to U.S. interests through possession of weapons of mass destruction.^[224][242]

In the latter half of 2002, CIA reports contained assertions of Saddam Hussein's intent of reconstituting nuclear weapons programs, not properly accounting for Iraqi biological and chemical weapons, and that some Iraqi missiles had a range greater than allowed by the UN sanctions.^[243][244] Contentions that the Bush Administration manipulated or exaggerated the threat and evidence of Iraq's weapons of mass destruction capabilities would eventually become a major point of criticism for the president.^[245][246]

In late 2002 and early 2003, Bush urged the United Nations to enforce Iraqi disarmament mandates, precipitating a diplomatic crisis. In November 2002, Hans Blix and Mohamed ElBaradei led UN weapons inspectors in Iraq, but were advised by the U.S. to depart the country four days prior to the U.S. invasion, despite their requests for more time to complete their tasks.^[247] The U.S. initially sought a UN Security Council resolution authorizing the use of military force but dropped the bid for UN approval due to vigorous opposition from several countries.^[248]

More than 20 nations (most notably the United Kingdom), designated the "coalition of the willing" joined the United States^[249] in invading Iraq. They launched the invasion on March 20, 2003. The Iraqi military was quickly defeated. The capital, Baghdad, fell on April 9, 2003. On May 1, Bush declared the end of major combat operations in Iraq. The initial success of U.S. operations increased his popularity, but the U.S. and allied forces faced a growing insurgency led by sectarian groups; Bush's "Mission Accomplished" speech was later criticized as premature.^[250] From 2004 until 2007, the situation in Iraq deteriorated further, with some observers arguing that there was a full scale civil war in Iraq.^[251] Bush's policies met with criticism, including demands domestically to set a timetable to withdraw troops from Iraq. The 2006 report of the bipartisan Iraq Study Group, led by James Baker, concluded that the situation in Iraq was "grave and deteriorating". While Bush admitted that there were strategic mistakes made in regards to the stability of Iraq,^[252] he maintained he would not change the overall Iraq strategy.^[253][254]

Bush shakes hands with Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki.

In January 2005, free, democratic elections were held in Iraq for the first time in 50 years.^[255] According to Iraqi National Security Advisor Mowaffak al-Rubaie, "This is the greatest day in the history of this country."^[255] Bush praised the event as well, saying that the Iraqis "have taken rightful control of their country's destiny".^[255] This led to the election of Jalal Talabani as President and Nouri al-Maliki as Prime Minister of Iraq. A referendum to approve a constitution in Iraq was held in October 2005, supported by most Shiites and many Kurds.^[256]

On January 10, 2007, Bush addressed the nation regarding the situation in Iraq. In this speech, he announced a surge of 21,500 more troops for Iraq, as well as a job program for Iraqis, more reconstruction proposals, and $1.2 billion for these programs.^[257] On May 1, 2007, Bush used his veto for only the second time in his presidency, rejecting a congressional bill setting a deadline for the withdrawal of U.S. troops.^[258] Five years after the invasion, Bush called the debate over the conflict "understandable" but insisted that a continued U.S. presence there was crucial.^[259]

In March 2008, Bush praised the Iraqi government's "bold decision" to launch the Battle of Basra against the Mahdi Army, calling it "a defining moment in the history of a free Iraq".^[260] He said he would carefully weigh recommendations from his commanding General David Petraeus and Ambassador Ryan Crocker about how to proceed after the end of the military buildup in the summer of 2008. He also praised the Iraqis' legislative achievements, including a pension law, a revised de-Baathification law, a new budget, an amnesty law, and a provincial powers measure that, he said, set the stage for the Iraqi elections.^[261]

On July 31, 2008, Bush announced that with the end of July, American troop deaths had reached their lowest number—thirteen—since the war began in 2003.^[262] Due to increased stability in Iraq, Bush announced the withdrawal of additional American forces.^[262] This reflected an emerging consensus between the White House and the Pentagon that the war has "turned a corner".^[262] He also described what he saw as the success of the 2007 troop surge.^[262]

Surveillance[link]

Following the events of September 11, Bush issued an executive order authorizing the President's Surveillance Program which included allowing the NSA to monitor communications between suspected terrorists outside the U.S and parties within the U.S. without obtaining a warrant as required by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act.^[263] As of 2009, the other provisions of program remained highly classified.^[264]) Once the Department of Justice Office of Legal Counsel questioned its original legal opinion that FISA did not apply in a time of war, the program was subsequently re-authorized by the President on the basis that the warrant requirements of FISA were implicitly superseded by the subsequent passage of the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists.^[265] The program proved to be controversial, as critics of the administration, as well as organizations such as the American Bar Association, argued that it was illegal.^[266] In August 2006, a U.S. district court judge ruled that the NSA electronic surveillance program was unconstitutional,^[267] but on July 6, 2007, that ruling was vacated by the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit on the grounds that the plaintiffs lacked standing.^[268] On January 17, 2007, Attorney General Alberto Gonzales informed U.S. Senate leaders that the program would not be reauthorized by the President, but would be subjected to judicial oversight.^[269]

At the military parade celebrating the sixtieth anniversary of victory in World War II, Red Square, Moscow

Interrogation policies[link]

Bush authorized the CIA to use waterboarding as one of several enhanced interrogation techniques.^{[270][271][272]} Between 2002 and 2003 the CIA considered certain enhanced interrogation techniques, such as waterboarding, to be legal based on a secret Justice Department legal opinion arguing that terror detainees were not protected by the Geneva Conventions' ban on torture.^[273] The CIA had exercised the technique on certain key terrorist suspects under authority given to it in the Bybee Memo from the Attorney General, though that memo was later withdrawn.^[274] While not permitted by the U.S. Army Field Manuals which assert "that harsh interrogation tactics elicit unreliable information",^[273] the Bush administration believed these enhanced interrogations "provided critical information" to preserve American lives.^[275] Critics, such as former CIA officer Bob Baer, have stated that information was suspect, "you can get anyone to confess to anything if the torture's bad enough."^[276]

On October 17, 2006, Bush signed into law the Military Commissions Act of 2006,^[277] a law enacted in the wake of the Supreme Court's decision on Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557 (2006),^[278] which allows the U.S. government to prosecute unlawful enemy combatants by military commission rather than a standard trial. The law also denies them access to habeas corpus and bars the torture of detainees, but allows the president to determine what constitutes torture.^[277]

On March 8, 2008, Bush vetoed H.R. 2082,^[279] a bill that would have expanded congressional oversight over the intelligence community and banned the use of waterboarding as well as other forms of interrogation not permitted under the United States Army Field Manual on Human Intelligence Collector Operations, saying that "the bill Congress sent me would take away one of the most valuable tools in the war on terror".^[280] In April 2009, the ACLU sued and won release of the secret memos that had authorized the Bush administration's interrogation tactics.^[281] One memo detailed specific interrogation tactics including a footnote that described waterboarding as torture as well as that the form of waterboarding used by the CIA was far more intense than authorized by the Justice Department.^[282]

Bush with China's President and Communist party leader Hu Jintao in 2006

North Korea[link]

Bush publicly condemned Kim Jong-il of North Korea, naming North Korea one of three states in an "axis of evil", and saying that "the United States of America will not permit the world's most dangerous regimes to threaten us with the world's most destructive weapons."^[224] Within months, "both countries had walked away from their respective commitments under the U.S.-DPRK Agreed Framework of October 1994."^[283] North Korea's October 9, 2006, detonation of a nuclear device further complicated Bush's foreign policy, which centered for both terms of his presidency on "[preventing] the terrorists and regimes who seek chemical, biological, or nuclear weapons from threatening the United States and the world".^[224] Bush condemned North Korea's position, reaffirmed his commitment to "a nuclear-free Korean Peninsula", and stated that "transfer of nuclear weapons or material by North Korea to states or non-state entities would be considered a grave threat to the United States", for which North Korea would be held accountable.^[284] On May 7, 2007, North Korea agreed to shut down its nuclear reactors immediately pending the release of frozen funds held in a foreign bank account. This was a result of a series of three-way talks initiated by the United States and including China.^[285] On September 2, 2007, North Korea agreed to disclose and dismantle all of its nuclear programs by the end of 2007.^[286] By May 2009, North Korea had restarted its nuclear program and threatened to attack South Korea.^[287]

Syria[link]

Bush with Russian president Vladimir Putin, Shanghai, October 21, 2001

Bush expanded economic sanctions on Syria.^[288] In early 2007, the Treasury Department, acting on a June 2005 executive order, froze American bank accounts of Syria's Higher Institute of Applied Science and Technology, Electronics Institute, and National Standards and Calibration Laboratory. Bush's order prohibits Americans from doing business with these institutions suspected of helping spread weapons of mass destruction^[289] and being supportive of terrorism.^[290] Under separate executive orders signed by Bush in 2004 and later 2007, the Treasury Department froze the assets of two Lebanese and two Syrians, accusing them of activities to "undermine the legitimate political process in Lebanon" in November 2007. Those designated included: Assaad Halim Hardan, a member of Lebanon's parliament and current leader of the Syrian Socialist National Party; Wi'am Wahhab, a former member of Lebanon's government (Minister of the Environment) under Prime Minister Omar Karami (2004–2005); Hafiz Makhluf, a colonel and senior official in the Syrian General Intelligence Directorate and a cousin of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad; and Muhammad Nasif Khayrbik, identified as a close adviser to Assad.^[291]

Assassination attempt[link]

On May 10, 2005, Vladimir Arutyunian, a native Georgian who was born to a family of ethnic Armenians, threw a live hand grenade toward a podium where Bush was speaking at Freedom Square in Tbilisi, Georgia. Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili was seated nearby. It landed in the crowd about 65 feet (20 m) from the podium after hitting a girl, but it did not detonate. Arutyunian was arrested in July 2005, confessed, was convicted and was given a life sentence in January 2006.^[292]

Other issues[link]

Bush, Mahmoud Abbas, and Ariel Sharon meet at the Red Sea Summit in Aqaba, Jordan, June 4, 2003.

Bush withdrew U.S. support for several international agreements, including the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) with Russia. Bush emphasized a careful approach to the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians; he denounced Palestine Liberation Organization leader Yasser Arafat for his support of violence, but sponsored dialogues between Prime Minister Ariel Sharon and Palestinian National Authority President Mahmoud Abbas. Bush supported Sharon's unilateral disengagement plan, and lauded the democratic elections held in Palestine after Arafat's death.

Bush also expressed U.S. support for the defense of Taiwan following the stand-off in April 2001 with the People's Republic of China over the Hainan Island incident, when an EP-3E Aries II surveillance aircraft collided with a People's Liberation Army Air Force jet, leading to the detention of U.S. personnel. In 2003–2004, Bush authorized U.S. military intervention in Haiti and Liberia to protect U.S. interests. Bush condemned the militia attacks Darfur and denounced the killings in Sudan as genocide.^[293] Bush said that an international peacekeeping presence was critical in Darfur, but opposed referring the situation to the International Criminal Court.

Ukrainian Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko meeting with Bush on April 1, 2008

In his State of the Union address in January 2003, Bush outlined a five-year strategy for global emergency AIDS relief, the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief. Bush announced $15 billion for this effort^[294] which directly supported life-saving antiretroviral treatment for more than 3.2 million men, women and children worldwide.^[295]

On June 10, 2007, he met with Albanian Prime Minister Sali Berisha and became the first president to visit Albania.^[296] Bush has voiced his support for the independence of Kosovo.^[297]

Bush opened the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City. Departing from previous practice, he stood among a group of U.S. athletes rather than from a ceremonial stand or box, saying: "On behalf of a proud, determined, and grateful nation, I declare open the Games of Salt Lake City, celebrating the Olympic Winter Games."^[298] In 2008, in the course of a good-will trip to Asia, he attended the Summer Olympics in Beijing.^[299]

Judicial appointments[link]

Supreme Court[link]

Following the announcement of Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor's retirement on July 1, 2005, Bush nominated John Roberts to succeed her. On September 5, following the death of Chief Justice William Rehnquist, this nomination was withdrawn and Bush instead nominated Roberts for Chief Justice to succeed Rehnquist. Roberts was confirmed by the Senate as the 17th Chief Justice on September 29, 2005.

On October 3, 2005, Bush nominated White House Counsel Harriet Miers for O'Connor's position; after facing significant opposition, she asked that her name be withdrawn on October 27. Four days later, on October 31, Bush nominated federal appellate judge Samuel Alito for the position and he was confirmed as the 110th Supreme Court Justice on January 31, 2006.

Other courts[link]

In addition to his two Supreme Court appointments, Bush appointed 61 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals and 261 judges to the United States district courts. Each of these numbers, along with his total of 324 judicial appointments, is third in American history, behind both Ronald Reagan and Bill Clinton. Bush experienced a number of judicial appointment controversies, as 39 people nominated to 27 federal appellate judgeships were blocked by the Senate Democrats either in the Senate Judiciary Committee or on the Senate floor using a filibuster.^[300]

Public image and perception[link]

Domestic[link]

  approve

  disapprove

  unsure

Gallup/USA Today Bush public opinion polling from February 2001 to January 2009. Blue denotes approve, red disapprove and green unsure.

Image[link]

Bush's upbringing in West Texas, his accent, his vacations on his Texas ranch, and his penchant for country metaphors contribute to his folksy, American cowboy image.^[301][302] "I think people look at him and think John Wayne", says Piers Morgan, editor of the British Daily Mirror.^[303] It has been suggested that Bush's accent was an active choice, as a way of distinguishing himself from Northeastern intellectuals and anchoring himself to his Texas roots.^[304] Both supporters and detractors have pointed to his country persona as reasons for their support or criticism.^[302]

Bush's intelligence has been satirized by the media,^[305] comedians, and other politicians.^[306][307] Detractors tended to cite linguistic errors made by Bush during his public speeches, which are colloquially termed as Bushisms.^[308] Editorials in Harper's Magazine, Rolling Stone, The Washington Post, Common Dreams NewsCenter, and The Nation have referred to Bush as "the worst president ever".^{[309][310][311][312][313]} In contrast to his father, who was perceived as having troubles with an overarching unifying theme, Bush embraced larger visions and was seen as a man of larger ideas and associated huge risks.^[314] Tony Blair wrote in 2010 that the caricature of Bush as being dumb is "ludicrous" and that Bush is "very smart".^[315]

Approval[link]

Bush's popularity was highly variable during his two terms. He began his presidency with approval ratings near 50%.^[316] After the September 11 attacks, Bush gained an approval rating of 90%,^[317] maintaining 80–90% approval for four months after the attacks. It remained over 50% during most of his first term.^[12]

In 2000 and again in 2004, Time magazine named George W. Bush as its Person of the Year, a title awarded to someone who the editors believe "has done the most to influence the events of the year".^[318] In May 2004, Gallup reported that 89% of the Republican electorate approved of Bush.^[319] However, the support waned due mostly to a minority of Republicans' frustration with him on issues of spending, illegal immigration, and Middle Eastern affairs.^[320]

Bush pays a surprise visit to Baghdad International Airport, November 27, 2003. Bush's popularity was still relatively high at that time.

Within the United States armed forces, according to an unscientific survey, the president was strongly supported in the 2004 presidential elections.^[321] While 73% of military personnel said that they would vote for Bush, 18% preferred his Democratic rival, John Kerry.^[321] According to Peter Feaver, a Duke University political scientist who has studied the political leanings of the U.S. military, members of the armed services supported Bush because they found him more likely than Kerry to complete the War in Iraq.^[321]

Bush's approval rating went below the 50% mark in AP-Ipsos polling in December 2004.^[322] Thereafter, his approval ratings and approval of his handling of domestic and foreign policy issues steadily dropped. Bush received heavy criticism for his handling of the Iraq War, his response to Hurricane Katrina and to the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse, NSA warrantless surveillance, the Plame affair, and Guantanamo Bay detention camp controversies.^[323]

Polls conducted in 2006 showed an average of 37% approval ratings for Bush,^[324] the lowest for any second-term president at that point of his term since Harry S. Truman in March 1951, when Truman's approval rating was 28%,^[322][325] which contributed to what Bush called the "thumping" of the Republican Party in the 2006 mid-term elections.^[326] Throughout 2007, Bush's approval rating hovered in the mid-thirties,^[327] although in an October 17, 2007, Reuters poll, Bush received a lower approval rating of 24%,^[328] the lowest point of his presidency.^[329]

Bush approval rating with key events marked 2001–2006

By April 2008, Bush's disapproval ratings were the highest ever recorded in the 70-year history of the Gallup poll for any president, with 69% of those polled disapproving of the job Bush was doing as president and 28% approving.^[330] In September 2008, in polls performed by various agencies, Bush's approval rating ranged from 19%—the lowest ever^[331]—to 34%.^[332][333] and his disapproval rating stood at 69%.^{[94][95][332][334][335]} Bush left the White House as one of the most unpopular American presidents, second in unpopularity only to Richard Nixon.^[336][337]

In response to his poll numbers and "worst president" accusations,^[338][339] Bush said, "I frankly don't give a damn about the polls.... To assume that historians can figure out the effect of the Bush administration before the Bush administration has ended is ... in my mind ... not an accurate reflection upon how history works."^[340]

In 2006, 744 professional historians surveyed by Siena College regarded Bush's presidency as follows: Great: 2%; Near Great: 5%; Average: 11%; Below Average: 24%; Failure: 58%.^[341] Thomas Kelly, professor emeritus of American studies at Siena College, said that "In this case, current public opinion polls actually seem to cut the President more slack than the experts do."^[341] Similar outcomes were retrieved by two informal surveys done by the History News Network in 2004^[342] and 2008.^[343]

A March 13, 2008, poll by the Pew Research Center for the People and the Press reported that 53% of Americans believe that "the U.S. will ultimately succeed in achieving its goals" in Iraq.^[344] That figure was up from 42% in September 2007 and the highest since 2006.^[344]

A 2010 Siena College poll of 238 Presidential scholars found that Bush was ranked 39th out of 43, with poor ratings in handling of the economy, communication, ability to compromise, foreign policy accomplishments and intelligence.^[345]

Calls for Bush's impeachment were made, though most polls showed a plurality of Americans did not support the president's impeachment.^[346] The reasoning behind impeachment usually centered on the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy,^[347] the Bush administration's justification for the war in Iraq,^[348] and alleged violations of the Geneva Conventions.^[349] Representative Dennis Kucinich, a Democrat from Ohio, introduced 35 articles of impeachment on the floor of the House of Representatives against Bush on June 9, 2008, but Speaker Nancy Pelosi declared that impeachment was "off the table".^[350]

Foreign perceptions[link]

Bush with President Pervez Musharraf of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan in late 2006

Bush has been criticized internationally and targeted by the global anti-war and anti-globalization campaigns, particularly for his administration's foreign policy.^[351][352] Views of him within the international community are more negative than previous American Presidents, with France largely opposed to what he advocated.^[353]

Bush was described as having especially close personal relationships with Tony Blair and Vicente Fox, although formal relations were sometimes strained.^{[354][355][356]} Other leaders, such as Afghan president Hamid Karzai,^[357] Ugandan president Yoweri Museveni,^[358] Spanish prime minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero,^[359] and Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez,^[360] have openly criticized the president. Later in Bush's presidency, tensions arose between himself and Vladimir Putin, which has led to a cooling of their relationship.^[361]

Anti-war demonstration against a visit by George W. Bush to London in 2008

In 2006, most respondents in 18 of 21 countries surveyed around the world were found to hold an unfavorable opinion of Bush. Respondents indicated that they judged his administration as negative for world security.^[362][363] In 2007, the Pew Global Attitudes Project reported that during the Bush presidency, attitudes towards the United States and the American people became less favorable around the world.^[364]

A March 2007 survey of Arab opinion conducted by Zogby International and the University of Maryland found that Bush was the most disliked leader in the Arab world.^[365]

The Pew Research Center's 2007 Global Attitudes poll found that out of 47 countries, in only nine countries did most respondents express "a lot of confidence" or "some confidence" in Bush: Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Israel, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Mali, Nigeria, and Uganda.^[366]

During a June 2007 visit to the predominantly Muslim^[367] Eastern European nation of Albania, Bush was greeted enthusiastically. Albania has a population of 3.6 million, has troops in both Iraq and Afghanistan, and the country's government is highly supportive of American foreign policy.^[368] A huge image of the President was hung in the middle of the capital city of Tirana flanked by Albanian and American flags while a local street was named after him.^[369][370] A shirt-sleeved statue of Bush was unveiled in Fushe-Kruje, a few kilometers northwest of Tirana.^[371] The Bush administration's support for the independence of Albanian-majority Kosovo, while endearing him to the Albanians, has troubled U.S. relations with Serbia, leading to the February 2008 torching of the U.S. embassy in Belgrade.^[372]

Acknowledgements[link]

On May 7, 2005 at an official state visit in Latvia, George W. Bush was awarded the Order of the Three Stars presented to him by president Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga.^[373]

Post-presidency[link]

Official White House portrait of George W. Bush.

George and Laura Bush wave to a crowd of 1000 at Andrews Air Force Base before their final departure to Texas, January 20, 2009.

Following the inauguration of Barack Obama, Bush and his family flew from Andrews Air Force Base to a homecoming celebration in Midland, Texas, following which they returned to their ranch in Crawford, Texas.^[374] They bought a home in the Preston Hollow neighborhood of Dallas, Texas, where they settled down.^[375]

Since leaving office, Bush has kept a relatively low profile^[376] though he has made public appearances, most notably after the release of his memoirs in 2010 and for the 10th anniversary of the September 11 attacks in 2011. He makes regular appearances at various events throughout the Dallas/Fort Worth area, most notably when he conducted the opening coin toss at the Dallas Cowboys first game in the team's new stadium in Arlington^[377] and an April 2009 visit to a Texas Rangers game, where he thanked the people of Dallas for helping him settle in and was met with a standing ovation.^[378]

In 2009, he delivered a speech in Calgary, Alberta,^[379][380] appeared via video on The Colbert Report during which he praised U.S. troops for earning a "special place in American history,"^[381] and attended the funeral of Senator Ted Kennedy.^[382] Bush made his debut as a motivational speaker on October 26 at the "Get Motivated" seminar in Dallas.^[383] In the aftermath of the Fort Hood shooting that took place on November 5, 2009 in Texas, the Bushes paid an undisclosed visit to the survivors and victims' families the day following the shooting, having contacted the base commander requesting that the visit be private and not involve press coverage.^[384] They spent one to two hours at the base.

Bush, Obama, and Clinton, January 2010

Bush released his memoirs, Decision Points, on November 9, 2010. During a pre-release appearance promoting the book, Bush said he considered his biggest accomplishment to be keeping "the country safe amid a real danger," and his greatest failure to be his inability to secure the passage of Social Security reform.^[385] At President Obama's request, Bush and Bill Clinton established the Clinton Bush Haiti Fund to raise contributions for relief and recovery efforts following the 2010 Haiti earthquake earlier in January.^[386] He also made news defending his administration's enhanced interrogation techniques, specifically the waterboarding of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, saying, "I'd do it again to save lives."^[387] He also attended every home playoff game for the Texas Rangers 2010 season and, accompanied by his father, threw out the ceremonial first pitch at Rangers Ballpark in Arlington for Game 4 of the 2010 World Series on October 31, 2010.^[388]

In February 2011, Bush scrapped a planned visit to Switzerland amid threats of protest at a speech he intended to give at a dinner in Geneva; human rights groups have claimed the cancellation was due to fears of arrest by Swiss authorities based on his acknowledgement that he ordered the waterboarding of detainees.^[389][390] Human rights groups, including the Center for Constitutional Rights, filed papers with Swiss authorities demanding his criminal prosecution pursuant to the Convention on Torture, an international treaty that requires authorities of all countries that have ratified the treaty to open an investigation of people suspected to torturing.^[390][391] On May 2, 2011, President Obama called Bush, who was at a restaurant with his wife, to inform him that Osama bin Laden had been killed.^[392] The Bushes joined the Obamas in New York City to mark the tenth anniversary of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. At the Ground Zero memorial, Bush read a letter that President Abraham Lincoln wrote to a widow who lost five sons during the Civil War.^[393]

See also[link]

	Biography portal
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	Book: George W. Bush
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References[link]