Cross-dressing is the wearing of clothing and other accoutrement commonly associated with a gender within a particular society that is seen as different than the one usually presented by the dresser. Cross-dressing has been used for disguise, performance art and as a literary trope in modern times and throughout history.

Nearly every human society throughout history has made distinctions between male and female gender by the style, color, or type of clothing they are expected to wear, and likewise most societies have had a set of norms, views, guidelines, or even laws defining what type of clothing is appropriate for each gender. Cross-dressing runs significantly counter to those norms and, therefore, can be seen as a type of transgender behavior. It does not, however, necessarily indicate transgender identity; a person who cross-dresses does not always identify as being of a gender other than their assigned gender.

The term cross-dress''ing'' denotes an action or a behavior without attributing or proposing causes for that behavior. Some people automatically connect cross-dressing behavior to transgender identity or sexual, fetishist, and homosexual behavior, but the term ''cross-dressing'' itself does not imply any motives.

History of crossdressing

Crossdressing has existed throughout much of recorded history. There are many examples in Greek, Norse, and Hindu mythology. A reasonable number of historical figures are known to have crossdressed to varying degrees and for a variety of reasons. There is a rich history of crossdressing found in folklore, literature, theater, and music.

Varieties of cross-dressing

There are many different kinds of cross-dressing and many different reasons why an individual might engage in cross-dressing behaviour. Some people cross-dress as a matter of comfort or style. They may prefer clothing associated with the opposite sex. In this case, a person's cross-dressing may or may not be apparent to other people. Some people cross-dress to shock others or challenge social norms.

Both men and women may cross-dress to disguise their physical sex. Historically, some women have cross-dressed to take up male-dominated or male-exclusive professions, such as military service. Conversely, some men have cross-dressed to escape from mandatory military service or as a disguise to assist in political or social protest, as men did in the Rebecca Riots.

Single-sex theatrical troupes often have some performers cross-dress to play roles written for members of the opposite sex. Cross-dressing, particularly the depiction of males wearing dresses, is often used for comic effect onstage and onscreen.

Drag is a special form of performance art based on cross-dressing. A drag queen is usually a male-bodied person who performs as an exaggeratedly feminine character, in heightened costuming sometimes consisting of a showy dress, high-heeled shoes, obvious makeup, and wig. A drag queen may imitate famous female film or pop-music stars. A faux queen is a female-bodied person employing the same techniques.

A drag king is a counterpart of the drag queen but usually for much different audiences. A female-bodied person who adopt a masculine persona in performance or imitates a male film or pop-music star. Some female-bodied people undergoing gender reassignment therapy also self-identify as ''drag kings'' although this use of "drag king" would generally be considered inaccurate.

Transgender people who are undergoing or have undergone gender reassignment therapy are usually not regarded as cross-dressing. Namely, a transsexual who has completed gender reassignment surgery is certainly not considered cross-dressing, unless they were to wear clothes of the gender opposite of what they have transitioned to. Pre-operative transsexuals may be considered similarly.

A transvestic fetishist is a person (typically a heterosexual male) who cross-dresses as part of a sexual fetish.

The term ''underdressing'' is used by male cross-dressers to describe wearing female undergarments under their male clothes. The famous low-budget filmmaker Edward D. Wood, Jr. said he often wore women's underwear under his military uniform during World War II.

Some people who cross-dress may endeavor to project a complete impression of belonging to another gender, down to mannerisms, speech patterns, and emulation of sexual characteristics. This is referred to as passing or "trying to pass" depending how successful the person is. An observer who sees through the cross-dresser's attempt to pass is said to have ''read'' or ''clocked'' them. There are videos, books, and magazines on how a man may look more like a woman.

Sometimes either person of a heterosexual couple will wear it to arouse the other. For example, the male would wear skirts or lingerie and/or the female will wear boxers or other male clothing. (See also forced feminization)

Others may choose to take a mixed approach, adopting some feminine traits and some masculine traits in their appearance. For instance, a man might wear both a dress and a beard. This is sometimes known as ''genderfuck''.

Utilitarian purposes also bring about forms of crossdressing, such as support hose for men with bad circulation in their legs, or the wearing of bras for men with gynecomastia (male breasts).

Clothes

The actual determination of cross-dressing is largely socially constructed. For example, in Western society, trousers have been adopted for wear by women, and is not regarded as cross-dressing. In cultures where men have traditionally worn skirt-like garments such as the kilt or sarong these are not seen as female clothing, and wearing them is not seen as cross-dressing for men. As societies are becoming more global in nature, both men and women are adopting styles of dress associated with other cultures.

It was once taboo in Western society for women to wear clothes traditionally associated with men, excepting certain circumstances, such as for necessity (as per St. Thomas Aquinas's guidelines in Summa Theologiae II)

While this prohibition remained in force in general throughout the middle and early modern ages, this is no longer the case and Western women are often seen wearing trousers, ties, and men's hats. Nevertheless, many cultures around the world still prohibit women from wearing trousers or other traditionally male clothing.

Cosplaying may also involve cross-dressing, for some females may wish to dress as a male, and vice versa (see Crossplay). Breast binding (for females) is not uncommon and is most likely needed to cosplay a male character.

In most parts of the world it remains socially frowned upon for men to wear clothes traditionally associated with women. Attempts are occasionally made, e.g. by fashion designers, to promote the acceptance of skirts as everyday wear for men. Cross-dressers have complained that society permits women to wear pants or jeans and other masculine clothing, while condemning any man who wants to wear clothing sold for women.

While most male cross-dressers utilize clothing associated with modern women, there are some who are involved in subcultures that involve dressing as little girls or in vintage clothing. Some such men have written that they enjoy dressing as feminine as possible, so they will wear frilly dresses with lace and ribbons, as well as multiple petticoats, corsets, girdles and/or garter belts with nylon stockings.

Social issues

Cross-dressers may begin wearing their opposite sex's clothing as children, using the clothes of a sibling, parent, or friend. Some parents have said they allowed their children to cross-dress and, in many cases, the child stopped when they became older. The same pattern often continues into adulthood, where there may be confrontations with a spouse. Married cross-dressers experience considerable anxiety and guilt if their spouse objects to their behaviour. Some cross-dressers have periodically disposed of all their clothing, a practice called "purging", only to start another collection later.

Analyses

The historical associations of maleness with power and femaleness with submission and frivolity mean that in the present time a woman dressing in men's clothing and a man dressing in women's clothing evoke two very different responses. A man dressing in women's clothing is symbolically castrating himself of his phallic privilege. A woman dressing in men's clothing is symbolically laying claim to the power of masculinity, a marginally more acceptable activity. Feminist advocacy for social change has done much to relax the constrictions of gender roles on men and women, but they are still heavily policed. The reason it is so hard to have statistics for female-bodied crossdressers is that the line where non-crossdressing stops and crossdressing begins has become blurred, whereas the same line for men is just as defined. This is one of the many issues being addressed by third wave feminism as well as the modern-day masculist movement.

Some psychoanalysts today do not regard cross-dressing by itself a psychological problem, unless it interferes with the functioning of a person's life. "For instance," said Dr. Joseph Merlino, Senior Editor of the book ''Freud at 150: 21st Century Essays on a Man of Genius'', "[suppose that]...I'm a cross-dresser and I don't want to keep it confined to my circle of friends, or my party circle, and I want to take that to my wife and I don't understand why she doesn't accept it, or I take it to my office and I don't understand why they don't accept it, then it's become a problem because it's interfering with my relationships and environment."

See also

Autogynephilia

Breeches role

Breeching (boys) – Young boys in the Western world wore gowns or dresses until an age that varied between two and eight.

Cogender

Cross-dressing in film and television

En femme

Female masking

Feminization

Sissy (transgender)

Hijra (South Asia)

Kathoey

List of transgender-related topics

List of wartime crossdressers

Passing (gender)

Sexual Orientation Hypothesis

Transvestism

Tri-Ess

Two-spirit

References

Further reading

Helen Boyd, ''My Husband Betty'', Thunder's Mouth Press, 2003

Lucy Chesser, ''Parting With my Sex: Cross-dressing, Inversion and Sexuality in Australian Cultural Life'', Sydney University Press, Sydney, 2008. ISBN 978-1-920898-31-1.

Rudolf M. Dekker, Lotte C. Van De Pol, Lotte C. Van De Pol, ''The Tradition of Female Transvestism in Early Modern Europe'', 1989, ISBN 0-312-17334-2.

Peggy J. Rudd, ''Crossdressing With Dignity: The Case For Transcending Gender Lines'', PM Publishers, Inc., 1999. ISBN 0-9626762-6-8.

Charles Anders, ''The Lazy Crossdresser'', Greenery Press, 2002. ISBN 1-890159-37-9.

Lacey Leigh, ''Out & About: The Emancipated Crossdresser'', Double Star Press, 2002. ISBN 0-9716680-0-0.

Roscoe, Will, ''The Zuni Man-Woman'', University of New Mexico Press, 1991. ISBN 0-8263-1253-5.

Richard J. Novic, ''Alice in genderland: a crossdresser comes of age'', iUniverse, 2005, ISBN 0595315623

ar:شهوة الملابس المغايرة cs:Crossdressing de:Cross-Dressing fa:مبدل‌پوشی fr:Travestissement ko:크로스드레싱 is:Klæðskiptingur it:Crossdressing he:קרוס-דרסר hu:Cross-dressing mk:Cross-dressing nl:Crossdressing ja:女装 pt:Cross-dressing ru:Трансвестизм двойной роли sv:Crossdressing zh:變裝

Coordinates	41°52′55″N87°37′40″N
birthname	Daniel Wroughton Craig
birth date	March 02, 1968
birth place	Chester, Cheshire, England
occupation	Actor
yearsactive	1992–present
spouse
domesticpartner	Heike Makatsch (1994–2001)Satsuki Mitchell (2004–2010)
children	Ella Craig
signature	}}

Daniel Wroughton Craig (born 2 March 1968) is an English actor. His early film roles include ''Elizabeth'', ''The Power of One'', ''A Kid in King Arthur's Court'' and the television episodes ''Sharpe's Eagle'', ''Zorro'' and ''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles: Daredevils of the Desert''. His breakthrough performances were in the films ''Lara Croft: Tomb Raider'', ''Road to Perdition'', ''Layer Cake'', ''Munich'', and ''The Golden Compass''.

Craig became well known internationally after he was cast as the sixth actor to portray fictional secret agent James Bond in the film series. He made his début as the character in the 2006 film, ''Casino Royale''. He was critically acclaimed, and was nominated for a BAFTA award, for his portrayal in the film. He grew into other roles in films such as ''Defiance'', ''Cowboys and Aliens'', the upcoming English-language adaptation of ''The Girl With the Dragon Tattoo'', and ''The Adventures of Tintin: Secret of the Unicorn''.

Early life

Craig was born in Chester, Cheshire, England. His mother, Carol Olivia (née Williams), was an art teacher, and his father, Timothy John Wroughton Craig, was the landlord of the pubs "Ring o' Bells" (in Frodsham) and "The Boot Inn", and also served as a midshipman in the Merchant Navy. Both of Craig's parents were of half Welsh descent. He was brought up on the Wirral Peninsula, and attended a primary school in Frodsham and Hoylake called Holy Trinity Primary School. He attended Hilbre High School in later years. He began acting in school plays at age six.

Craig moved to London when he was sixteen to join the National Youth Theatre after a stay at Calday. He and his older sister, Lea, attended Hilbre High School and Calday Grange Grammar School in West Kirby. He played for Hoylake Rugby Club. He attended the Guildhall School of Music and Drama at the Barbican and graduated in 1991 after three years of study under Colin McCormack.

Career

Craig appeared as Joe in the Royal National Theatre's production of Tony Kushner's ''Angels in America'' in November 1993. An early starring role was as 'Geordie' in the BBC's 1996 drama ''Our Friends in the North'', with early film roles being as Angelina Jolie's rival and love interest in ''Lara Croft: Tomb Raider'' (2001), before appearing in Sam Mendes's movie ''Road to Perdition'' (2002), with Tom Hanks and Paul Newman. Other leading film roles include ''Sword of Honour'' (2001), ''The Mother'' (2003) with Anne Reid, ''Sylvia'' (2003) with Gwyneth Paltrow, ''Layer Cake'' (2004) with Sienna Miller, ''Enduring Love'' (2004) with Rhys Ifans, Steven Spielberg's ''Munich'' (2005) with Eric Bana, ''Infamous'' (2006), ''The Golden Compass'' (2007) and ''Defiance'' (2008).

James Bond: 2005–present

In 2005, Craig was contracted by EON Productions to portray James Bond. He stated that he "was aware of the challenges" of the James Bond franchise which he considers "a big machine" that "makes a lot of money". He aimed at bringing more "emotional depth" to the character. Being born in 1968, Craig is the first actor to portray James Bond to have been born after the Bond series already started, and Ian Fleming, the novels' writer, had died.

Numerous actors publicly voiced their support of Craig's casting. Most notably, four of the five actors who had previously portrayed Bond – Pierce Brosnan, Timothy Dalton, Sean Connery, and Roger Moore – called his casting a good decision. Clive Owen, who had been linked to the role, also spoke in defence of Craig.

The first film, ''Casino Royale'', premièred on 14 November 2006 and grossed a total of US$594,239,066 worldwide, which makes the film the highest grossing Bond film to date. After the film was released, Craig's performance was highly acclaimed.

As production of ''Casino Royale'' reached its conclusion, producers Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli announced that pre-production work had already begun on the 22nd Bond film. After several months of speculation as to the release date, Wilson and Broccoli officially announced on 20 July 2006 that the follow-up film, ''Quantum of Solace'', was to be released on 7 November 2008 and that Craig plays Bond with an option for a third film. On 25 October 2007, MGM CEO Harry Sloan revealed at the Forbes Meet II Conference that Craig had signed on for four more Bond films, through to ''Bond 25''.

In 2006, Craig was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.

On 12 June 2008, Craig sliced the top of one of his fingers off while filming ''Quantum of Solace''. The accident was the latest in a string of incidents surrounding the shoot, including a fire at one of the sets in Pinewood Studios, UK; a car crash that left the stunt driver in a serious condition; and an Aston Martin skidding off the roads in heavy rains while being transported to the set in northern Italy and plunging into Lake Garda.

Craig describes his portrayal of Bond as an anti-hero: “The question I keep asking myself while playing the role is, ‘Am I the good guy or just a bad guy who works for the good side?’ Bond’s role, after all, is that of an assassin when you come down to it. I have never played a role in which someone’s dark side shouldn’t be explored. I don’t think it should be confusing by the end of the movie, but during the movie you should be questioning who he is.” Craig also states that his favourite previous Bond actor was Sean Connery, but says, "I'd never copy somebody else. I would never do an impression of anybody else or try and improve on what they did. That would be a pointless exercise for me". His favourite Bond film is ''From Russia with Love''. On a James Bond-centric episode of ''The South Bank Show'', Connery divulged his thoughts on Craig's casting as Bond, whom he described as "fantastic, marvelous in the part." When he was told that Craig had taken particular note of his performances, Connery said that he was "flattered," and that Craig "really gets" the 'danger element' to Bond's character.

On 19 April 2010, Craig's expected third Bond film (the 23rd overall in the series) was announced to have been suspended indefinitely due to the crippling debt and uncertain future of MGM. However, both Craig and Sam Mendes hoped to resume work on the film soon. The film has since resumed and Craig will return as Bond once again, with the film due for release on 9 November 2012.

Other projects

In 1999, Craig starred as Richard in a TV drama called ''Shockers: The Visitor''. In 2007, he portrayed Lord Asriel in ''The Golden Compass'', the film adaptation of Philip Pullman's novel. Eva Green, who played Bond girl Vesper Lynd in ''Casino Royale'', also starred in the film, although she did not appear in any scenes with Craig. In a stage version of the book, Asriel had previously been played by Timothy Dalton, one of Craig's predecessors in the role of James Bond.

In early 2001, Craig expressed an interest in being a part of the ''Star Trek'' franchise, professing his love of the series to the World Entertainment News Network and a desire to have a "stint in the TV show or a film. It's been a secret ambition of mine for years." On 16 March 2007, Craig made a cameo appearance as himself in a sketch with Catherine Tate who appeared in the guise of her character Elaine Figgis from ''The Catherine Tate Show''. The sketch was made for the BBC Red Nose Day 2007 fundraising programme.

In 2008's ''Defiance'', he played Tuvia Bielski, a Jewish resistance fighter in the woods of Belarus during World War II who saved 1,200 people.

The shot in ''Casino Royale'' of Craig sporting swimming trunks has often topped many sexiest male celebrity polls, and in 2009 Del Monte Foods launched an ice pop moulded to resemble Craig emerging from the sea.

Craig co-starred with Hugh Jackman, in a limited engagement of the play ''A Steady Rain'', on Broadway at the Schoenfeld Theatre, which opened in previews on 10 September 2009 and closed on 6 December 2009.

Craig lent his voice and likeness as James Bond for both the Wii game ''GoldenEye 007'', an enhanced remake of the 1997 game for the Nintendo 64, and ''Blood Stone'', an original game for Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Nintendo DS, and Microsoft Windows.

As of August 2010, Craig has been cast as crusading journalist Mikael Blomkvist in David Fincher's adaptation of Stieg Larsson's novel ''The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo''.

Craig co-starred with Harrison Ford and Olivia Wilde in Cowboys & Aliens, an American science fiction Western film, based on Scott Mitchell Rosenberg's 2006 graphic novel Cowboys & Aliens.

Personal life

In 1992, Craig married Scottish actress Fiona Loudon, with whom he has a daughter, Ella. However, the marriage ended in divorce in 1994.

After his divorce, he was in a seven-year relationship with German actress Heike Makatsch, ending in 2001. He subsequently dated film producer Satsuki Mitchell from 2004 until 2010.

Craig and actress Rachel Weisz began dating in December 2010. Craig and Weisz married on 22 June 2011 in a private New York ceremony, with only four guests in attendance, including Craig's 18-year-old daughter Ella, and Weisz's four-year-old son Henry. Craig and Weisz had been friends for many years and had worked together on the movie Dream House (film) shortly before they began dating in late 2010.

In October 2008, Craig paid £4 million for an apartment near Regent's Park, London. He is a Liverpool F.C. supporter.

Filmography

''Zorro (1990 TV series) ''Sharpe's Eagle (TV programme) '''' ''Kiss And Tell'' '''' ''Our Friends in the North'' ''Obsession – Besessene Seelen'' '''' '''' ''Love Is the Devil: Study for a Portrait of Francis Bacon'' ''Love and Rage (film) ''Elizabeth (film) '''' '''' ''Some Voices (film) ''Hotel Splendide (film) ''I Dreamed of Africa'' ''Lara Croft: Tomb Raider'' ''Sword of Honour'' ''Copenhagen (play) ''Ten Minutes Older: The Cello'' ''Road to Perdition'' ''Sylvia (2003 film) '''' ''[[Layer Cake (film) ''[[Enduring Love (film) ''[[Munich (film) ''Archangel (Robert Harris novel) ''Fateless (film) '''' ''Casino Royale (2006 film) ''[[Renaissance (film) ''Infamous (film) '''' '''' ''Flashbacks of a Fool'' ''Defiance (2008 film) ''Cowboys & Aliens (film) ''Dream House (film) ''Bond 23''

+ Film and television
Year	! Title	! Role	Notes
1992	''''	Sgt. Botha, a.k.a. The Judge
1993	Zorro'' ||	Lt Hidalgo	Two episodes of a US TV series filmed in Madrid.
1993	Sharpe's Eagle'' ||	Lt. Berry	Television drama
1995	|	Master Kane
1996	|	Matt Kearney	TV film
1996	|	James "Jemmy" Seagrave	Television drama
1996	|	George "Geordie" Peacock	Television drama: 8 episodes
1997	|	John McHale
1997	|	D.S. Andy McLoughlin	TV mystery/drama from the novel by Minette Walters
1997	|
1998	|	George Dyer	Edinburgh International Film Festival>Edinburgh International Film Festival Award for Best British Performance
1998	Love and Rage'' ||	James Lynchehaun
1998	Elizabeth'' ||	John Ballard
1999	|	Sgt. Telford Winter	Nominated – British Independent Film Award for Best Actor
1999	|	Schiller
2000	Some Voices'' ||	Ray	British Independent Film Award for Best Actor
2000	Hotel Splendide'' ||	Ronald Blanche
2000	|	Declan Fielding
2001	|	Alex West
2001	|	Guy Crouchback
2002	Copenhagen'' ||	Werner Heisenberg	Television drama (stage adaptation)
2002	|	Cecil
2002	|	Connor Rooney
2003	Sylvia'' ||	Ted Hughes
2003	|	Darren	Nominated—British Independent Film Award
2004	Layer Cake'' ||	Mr. X	Sony Ericsson Empire Awards>Empire Award for Best ActorNominated—European Film Awards
2004	Enduring Love'' ||	Joe	Nominated – British Independent Film Award for Best ActorNominated – European Film Awards
2005	Munich'' ||	Steve
2005	Archangel'' ||	Christopher Kelso	Television drama
2005	Fateless'' ||	American Soldier
2005	|	Rudy Mackenzie
2006	Casino Royale'' ||	James Bond (character)>James Bond	Sony Ericsson Empire Awards>Empire Award for Best ActorEvening Standard British Film Awards
2006	Renaissance'' ||	Barthélémy Karas	Voice role
2006	Infamous ||	Perry Smith (murderer)>Perry Smith	Nominated—Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Male
2007	|	Lord Asriel
2007	|	Ben Driscoll
2008	|	Joe Scot	Also Executive Producer
2008	Quantum of Solace'' >
2008	Defiance ||	Tuvie Bielski>Tuvia Bielski
2011	Cowboys & Aliens'' ||	Jake Lonergan
2011	Dream House'' ||	Will Attenton	''Post-production''
2011	''''
2011	''''
2012	|	James Bond	''Pre-production''

Video games

''GoldenEye 007 (2010 video game) ''James Bond 007: Blood Stone''

+ Film and television
Year	! Title	! Role	Notes
2008	Quantum of Solace (video game)>Quantum of Solace''	James Bond
2010	GoldenEye 007'' ||	James Bond	voice-over
2010	|	James Bond	voice-over

Further reading

References

External links

A very detailed biography from Tiscali Film & TV

Personal interview on "being Bond", Parade Magazine 26 Oct 2008

Category:Alumni of the Guildhall School of Music and Drama Category:English actors Category:English film actors Category:English male models Category:English people of Welsh descent Category:English radio actors Category:English stage actors Category:English television actors Category:James Bond Category:Living people Category:People from Chester Category:Royal National Theatre Company members Category:1968 births Category:People educated at Calday Grange Grammar School

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