| State of Japan
日本国
Nippon-koku
Nihon-koku
|
|
|
Anthem:
Kimigayo
(君が代)
|
Government Seal of Japan
五七桐 (Go-Shichi no Kiri?) |
|
|
Capital
(and largest city) |
Tokyo (de facto)
35°41′N 139°46′E / 35.683°N 139.767°E / 35.683; 139.767 |
| Official language(s) |
None[1] |
| Recognised regional languages |
Aynu itak, Ryukyuan languages, Eastern Japanese, Western Japanese, and several other Japanese dialects |
| National language |
Japanese |
| Ethnic groups |
98.5% Japanese, 0.5% Korean, 0.4% Chinese, 0.6% other[2] |
| Demonym |
Japanese |
| Government |
Unitary parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy |
| - |
Emperor |
Akihito |
| - |
Prime Minister |
Yoshihiko Noda |
| Legislature |
Diet |
| - |
Upper house |
House of Councillors |
| - |
Lower house |
House of Representatives |
| Formation |
| - |
National Foundation Day |
11 February 660 BC[3] |
| - |
Meiji Constitution |
29 November 1890 |
| - |
Current constitution |
3 May 1947 |
| - |
Treaty of
San Francisco |
28 April 1952 |
| Area |
| - |
Total |
377,944 km2 [4](62nd)
145,925 sq mi |
| - |
Water (%) |
0.8 |
| Population |
| - |
2011 estimate |
127,799,000[5] (10th) |
| - |
2010 census |
128,056,026[6] |
| - |
Density |
337.1/km2 (36th)
873.1/sq mi |
| GDP (PPP) |
2011 estimate |
| - |
Total |
$4.440 trillion[7] (4th) |
| - |
Per capita |
$34,739[7] (25th) |
| GDP (nominal) |
2011 estimate |
| - |
Total |
$5.869 trillion[7] (3rd) |
| - |
Per capita |
$45,920[7] (18th) |
| Gini |
37.6 (2008)[8] |
| HDI (2011) |
 0.901[9] (very high) (12th) |
| Currency |
Yen (¥) / En (円 or 圓) (JPY) |
| Time zone |
JST (UTC+9) |
| - |
Summer (DST) |
not observed (UTC+9) |
| Date formats |
yyyy-mm-dd
yyyy年m月d日
Era yy年m月d日 (CE−1988) |
| Drives on the |
left |
| ISO 3166 code |
JP |
| Internet TLD |
.jp |
| Calling code |
81 |
Japan 
i/dʒəˈpæn/ (Japanese: 日本 Nihon or Nippon; formally 日本国 
Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku, literally the State of Japan) is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. The characters that make up Japan's name mean "sun-origin", which is why Japan is sometimes referred to as the "Land of the Rising Sun".
Japan is an archipelago of 6,852 islands. The four largest islands are Honshū, Hokkaidō, Kyūshū and Shikoku, together accounting for ninety-seven percent of Japan's land area. Japan has the world's tenth-largest population, with over 127 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes the de facto capital city of Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 30 million residents.
Archaeological research indicates that people lived in Japan as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other nations followed by long periods of isolation has characterized Japan's history. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, victory in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Russo-Japanese War and World War I allowed Japan to expand its empire during a period of increasing militarism. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Since adopting its revised constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament called the Diet.
A major economic power,[2] Japan has the world's third-largest economy by nominal GDP and fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the world's fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer. Although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military force in self-defense and peacekeeping roles. After Singapore, Japan has the lowest homicide rate (including attempted homicide) in the world.[10] According to both UN and WHO estimates, Japan has the longest life expectancy of any country in the world. According to the UN, it has the third lowest infant mortality rate.[11][12]
Main article:
Names of JapanThe English word Japan is an exonym. The Japanese names for Japan are Nippon (にっぽん?) listen (help·info) and Nihon (にほん?) listen (help·info); both names are written using the kanji 日本. The Japanese name Nippon is used for most official purposes, including on Japanese yen, postage stamps, and for many international sporting events. Nihon is a more casual term and is used in contemporary speech.
Japanese people refer to themselves as Nihonjin (日本人?) and to their language as Nihongo (日本語?). Both Nippon and Nihon mean "sun-origin" and are often translated as Land of the Rising Sun. This nomenclature comes from Japanese missions to Imperial China and refers to Japan's eastward position relative to China. Before Nihon came into official use, Japan was known as Wa (倭?) or Wakoku (倭国?).[13]
The English word for Japan came to the West via early trade routes. The early Mandarin or possibly Wu Chinese (吳語) word for Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as Cipangu. In modern Shanghainese, a Wu dialect, the pronunciation of characters 日本 'Japan' is Zeppen [zəʔpən]. The old Malay word for Japan, Jepang, was borrowed from a Chinese language – Jih'pen'kuo[14]—, and this Malay word was encountered by Portuguese traders in Malacca in the 16th century. Portuguese traders were the first to bring the word to Europe.[15] It was first recorded in English in a 1565 letter, spelled Giapan.[16]
A Paleolithic culture around 30,000 BC constitutes the first known habitation of the Japanese archipelago. This was followed from around 14,000 BC (the start of the Jōmon period) by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture, who include ancestors of both the contemporary Ainu people and Yamato people,[17][18] characterized by pit dwelling and rudimentary agriculture.[19] Decorated clay vessels from this period are some of the oldest surviving examples of pottery in the world. Around 300 BC, the Yayoi people began to enter the Japanese islands, intermingling with the Jōmon.[20] The Yayoi period, starting around 500 BC, saw the introduction of practices like wet-rice farming,[21] a new style of pottery,[22] and metallurgy, introduced from China and Korea.[23]
Japan first appears in written history in the Chinese Book of Han.[24] According to the Records of the Three Kingdoms, the most powerful kingdom on the archipelago during the 3rd century was called Yamataikoku. Buddhism was first introduced to Japan from Baekje of Korea, but the subsequent development of Japanese Buddhism was primarily influenced by China.[25] Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class and gained widespread acceptance beginning in the Asuka period (592–710).[26]
The Nara period (710–784) of the 8th century marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state, centered on an imperial court in Heijō-kyō (modern Nara). The Nara period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent literature as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired art and architecture.[27] The smallpox epidemic of 735–737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of Japan's population.[28] In 784, Emperor Kammu moved the capital from Nara to Nagaoka-kyō before relocating it to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto) in 794.
This marked the beginning of the Heian period (794–1185), during which a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged, noted for its art, poetry and prose. Lady Murasaki's The Tale of Genji and the lyrics of Japan's national anthem Kimigayo were written during this time.[29]
Buddhism began to spread during the Heian era chiefly through two major sects, Tendai by Saichō, and Shingon by Kūkai. Pure Land Buddhism greatly becomes popular in the latter half of the 11th century.
Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence and dominance of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai. In 1185, following the defeat of the Taira clan, sung in the epic Tale of Heike, samurai Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed shogun and established a base of power in Kamakura. After his death, the Hōjō clan came to power as regents for the shoguns. The Zen school of Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakura period (1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class.[30] The Kamakura shogunate repelled Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, but was eventually overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo. Go-Daigo was himself defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336.
Ashikaga Takauji establishes the shogunate in Muromachi, Kyoto. It is a start of Muromachi Period (1336–1573). The Ashikaga shogunate receives glory in the age of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, and the culture based on Zen Buddhism (art of Miyabi) has prospered. It evolves to Higashiyama Culture, and has prospered until the 16th century. On the other hand, the succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords (daimyo), and a civil war (the Ōnin War) began in 1467, opening the century-long Sengoku period ("Warring States").[31]
During the 16th century, traders and Jesuit missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating direct commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West. Oda Nobunaga conquered many other daimyo using European technology and firearms; after he was assassinated in 1582, his successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi unified the nation in 1590. Hideyoshi invaded Korea twice, but following defeats by Korean and Ming Chinese forces and Hideyoshi's death, Japanese troops were withdrawn in 1598.[32] This age is called Azuchi-Momoyama Period (1573–1603).
Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son and used his position to gain political and military support. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed shogun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo).[33] The Tokugawa shogunate enacted measures including buke shohatto, as a code of conduct to control the autonomous daimyo;[34] and in 1639, the isolationist sakoku ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period (1603–1868).[35] The study of Western sciences, known as rangaku, continued through contact with the Dutch enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The Edo period also gave rise to kokugaku ("national studies"), the study of Japan by the Japanese.[36]
On 31 March 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the "Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the outside world with the Convention of Kanagawa. Subsequent similar treaties with Western countries in the Bakumatsu period brought economic and political crises. The resignation of the shogun led to the Boshin War and the establishment of a centralized state nominally unified under the Emperor (the Meiji Restoration).[37]
Adopting Western political, judicial and military institutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council, introduced the Meiji Constitution, and assembled the Imperial Diet. The Meiji Restoration transformed the Empire of Japan into an industrialized world power that pursued military conflict to expand its sphere of influence. After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea, and the southern half of Sakhalin.[38] Japan's population grew from 35 million in 1873 to 70 million in 1935.[39]
The early 20th century saw a brief period of "Taishō democracy" overshadowed by increasing expansionism and militarization. World War I enabled Japan, on the side of the victorious Allies, to widen its influence and territorial holdings. It continued its expansionist policy by occupying Manchuria in 1931; as a result of international condemnation of this occupation, Japan resigned from the League of Nations two years later. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany, and the 1940 Tripartite Pact made it one of the Axis Powers.[40] In 1941, Japan negotiated the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact.[41]
The Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). In 1940, the Empire then invaded French Indochina, after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan.[42] On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbor and declared war, bringing the US into World War II.[43][44] After the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to an unconditional surrender on 15 August.[45] The war cost Japan and the rest of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere millions of lives and left much of the nation's industry and infrastructure destroyed. The Allies (led by the US) repatriated millions of ethnic Japanese from colonies and military camps throughout Asia, largely eliminating the Japanese empire and restoring the independence of its conquered territories.[46] The Allies also convened the International Military Tribunal for the Far East on May 3, 1946 to prosecute some Japanese leaders for war crimes. However, the bacteriological research units and members of the imperial family involved in the war were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by the Supreme Allied Commander despite calls for trials for both groups.[47]
In 1947, Japan adopted a new constitution emphasizing liberal democratic practices. The Allied occupation ended with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952[48] and Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. Japan later achieved rapid growth to become the second-largest economy in the world, until surpassed by China in 2010. This ended in the mid-1990s when Japan suffered a major recession. In the beginning of the 21st century, positive growth has signaled a gradual economic recovery.[49] On 11 March 2011, Japan suffered the strongest earthquake in its recorded history; this triggered the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, one of the worst disasters in the history of nuclear power.[50]
Japan is a constitutional monarchy where the power of the Emperor is very limited. As a ceremonial figurehead, he is defined by the constitution as "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people". Power is held chiefly by the Prime Minister of Japan and other elected members of the Diet, while sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people.[51] Akihito is the current Emperor of Japan; Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan, stands as next in line to the throne.
Japan's legislative organ is the National Diet, a bicameral parliament. The Diet consists of a House of Representatives with 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and a House of Councillors of 242 seats, whose popularly elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal suffrage for adults over 20 years of age,[2] with a secret ballot for all elected offices.[51] In 2009, the social liberal Democratic Party of Japan took power after 54 years of the liberal conservative Liberal Democratic Party's rule.[52]
The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government and is appointed by the Emperor after being designated by the Diet from among its members. The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet and appoints and dismisses the Ministers of State. Naoto Kan was designated by the Diet to replace Yukio Hatoyama as the Prime Minister of Japan on June 2, 2010.[53] Although the Prime Minister is formally appointed by the Emperor, the Constitution of Japan explicitly requires the Emperor to appoint whoever is designated by the Diet. Emperor Akihito formally appointed Kan as the country's 94th Prime Minister on 8 June.[54]
Historically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki.[55] However, since the late 19th century the judicial system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably Germany. For example, in 1896, the Japanese government established a civil code based on a draft of the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch; with post–World War II modifications, the code remains in effect.[56] Statutory law originates in Japan's legislature and has the rubber stamp of the Emperor. The Constitution requires that the Emperor promulgate legislation passed by the Diet, without specifically giving him the power to oppose legislation.[51] Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts.[57] The main body of Japanese statutory law is called the Six Codes.[58]
Japan is a member of the G8, APEC, and "ASEAN Plus Three", and is a participant in the East Asia Summit. Japan signed a security pact with Australia in March 2007[59] and with India in October 2008.[60] It is the world's third largest donor of official development assistance after the United States and France, donating US$9.48 billion in 2009.[61]
Japan has close economic and military relations with the United States; the US-Japan security alliance acts as the cornerstone of the nation's foreign policy.[62] A member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan has served as a non-permanent Security Council member for a total of 19 years, most recently for 2009 and 2010. It is one of the G4 nations seeking permanent membership in the Security Council.[63]
Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors: with Russia over the South Kuril Islands, with South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks, with China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands, and with China over the EEZ around Okinotorishima.[64] Japan also faces an ongoing dispute with North Korea over the latter's abduction of Japanese citizens and its nuclear weapons and missile program (see also Six-party talks).[65]
Japan maintains one of the largest military budgets of any country in the world.[66] Japan contributed non-combatant troops to the Iraq War but subsequently withdrew its forces.[67] The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force is a regular participant in RIMPAC maritime exercises.[68]
Japan's military is restricted by Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military force in international disputes. Japan's military is governed by the Ministry of Defense, and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF). The forces have been recently used in peacekeeping operations; the deployment of troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of Japan's military since World War II.[67] Nippon Keidanren has called on the government to lift the ban on arms exports so that Japan can join multinational projects such as the Joint Strike Fighter.[69]
Japan consists of forty-seven prefectures, each overseen by an elected governor, legislature and administrative bureaucracy. Each prefecture is further divided into cities, towns and villages.[70] The nation is currently undergoing administrative reorganization by merging many of the cities, towns and villages with each other. This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative regions and is expected to cut administrative costs.[71]
Japan has a total of 6,852 islands extending along the Pacific coast of East Asia.[72][73] The country, including all of the islands it controls, lies between latitudes 24° and 46°N, and longitudes 122° and 146°E. The main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaidō, Honshū, Shikoku and Kyūshū. The Ryūkyū Islands, including Okinawa, are a chain to the south of Kyūshū. Together they are often known as the Japanese Archipelago.[74]
About 73 percent of Japan is forested, mountainous, and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use.[2][75] As a result, the habitable zones, mainly located in coastal areas, have extremely high population densities. Japan is one of the most densely populated countries in the world.[76]
The islands of Japan are located in a volcanic zone on the Pacific Ring of Fire. They are primarily the result of large oceanic movements occurring over hundreds of millions of years from the mid-Silurian to the Pleistocene as a result of the subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the continental Amurian Plate and Okinawa Plate to the south, and subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Okhotsk Plate to the north. Japan was originally attached to the eastern coast of the Eurasian continent. The subducting plates pulled Japan eastward, opening the Sea of Japan around 15 million years ago.[77]
Japan has 108 active volcanoes. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunami, occur several times each century.[78] The 1923 Tokyo earthquake killed over 140,000 people.[79] More recent major quakes are the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, a 9.0-magnitude[80] quake which hit Japan on 11 March 2011, and triggered a large tsunami.[50] On 24 May 2012, 6.1 magnitude earthquake struck off the coast of northearstern Japan.No tsunami is expected though.[81]
The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate, but varies greatly from north to south. Japan's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones: Hokkaidō, Sea of Japan, Central Highland, Seto Inland Sea, Pacific Ocean, and Ryūkyū Islands. The northernmost zone, Hokkaido, has a humid continental climate with long, cold winters and very warm to cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snowbanks in the winter.[82]
In the Sea of Japan zone on Honshū's west coast, northwest winter winds bring heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures because of the foehn wind. The Central Highland has a typical inland humid continental climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night; precipitation is light, though winters are usually snowy. The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the Seto Inland Sea from seasonal winds, bringing mild weather year-round.[83]
The Pacific coast features a humid subtropical climate that experiences milder winters with occasional snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind. The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. The generally humid, temperate climate exhibits marked seasonal variation such as the blooming of the spring cherry blossoms, the calls of the summer cicada and fall foliage colors that are celebrated in art and literature.[84]
The average winter temperature in Japan is 5.1 °C (41.2 °F) and the average summer temperature is 25.2 °C (77.4 °F).[85] The highest temperature ever measured in Japan—40.9 °C (105.6 °F)—was recorded on 16 August 2007.[86] The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the rain front gradually moves north until reaching Hokkaidō in late July. In most of Honshū, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.[87]
Japan has nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin Islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.[88] Japan has over 90,000 species of wildlife, including the brown bear, the Japanese macaque, the Japanese raccoon dog, and the Japanese giant salamander.[89] A large network of national parks has been established to protect important areas of flora and fauna as well as thirty-seven Ramsar wetland sites.[90][91]
In the period of rapid economic growth after World War II, environmental policies were downplayed by the government and industrial corporations; as a result, environmental pollution was widespread in the 1950s and 1960s. Responding to rising concern about the problem, the government introduced several environmental protection laws in 1970.[92] The oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of energy due to Japan's lack of natural resources.[93] Current environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter, and toxics), waste management, water eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change, chemical management and international co-operation for conservation.[94]
Japan is one of the world's leaders in the development of new environment-friendly technologies, and is ranked 20th best in the world in the 2010 Environmental Performance Index.[95] As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol, and host of the 1997 conference which created it, Japan is under treaty obligation to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate change.[96]
Some of the structural features for Japan's economic growth developed in the Edo period, such as the network of transport routes, by road and water, and the futures contracts, banking and insurance of the Osaka rice brokers.[98] During the Meiji period from 1868, Japan expanded economically with the embrace of the market economy.[99] Many of today's enterprises were founded at the time, and Japan emerged as the most developed nation in Asia.[100] The period of overall real economic growth from the 1960s to the 1980s has been called the Japanese post-war economic miracle: it averaged 7.5 percent in the 1960s and 1970s, and 3.2 percent in the 1980s and early 1990s.[101]
Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s during what the Japanese call the Lost Decade, largely because of the after-effects of the Japanese asset price bubble and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth met with little success and were further hampered by the global slowdown in 2000.[2] The economy showed strong signs of recovery after 2005; GDP growth for that year was 2.8 percent, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European Union during the same period.[102]
As of 2011[update], Japan is the third largest national economy in the world, after the United States and China, in terms of nominal GDP,[103] and the fourth largest national economy in the world, after the United States, China and India in terms of purchasing power parity.[7] As of January 2011[update], Japan's public debt was more than 200 percent of its annual gross domestic product, the largest of any nation in the world. In August 2011, Moody's rating has cut Japan's long-term sovereign debt rating one notch from Aa3 to Aa2 inline with the size of the country's deficit and borrowing level. The large budget deficits and government debt since the 2009 global recession and followed by earthquake and tsunami in March 2011 made the rating downgrade.[104] The service sector accounts for three quarters of the gross domestic product.[105]
Japan has a large industrial capacity, and is home to some of the largest and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, electronics, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemical substances, textiles, and processed foods. Agricultural businesses in Japan cultivate 13 percent of Japan's land, and Japan accounts for nearly 15 percent of the global fish catch, second only to China.[2] As of 2010, Japan's labor force consisted of some 65.9 million workers.[106] Japan has a low unemployment rate of around four percent. Almost one in six Japanese, or 20 million people, lived in poverty in 2007.[107] Housing in Japan is characterized by limited land supply in urban areas.[108]
A plug-in
hybrid car manufactured by
Toyota, one of the world's largest carmakers. Japan is the second-largest producer of automobiles in the world.
[109]
Japan's exports amounted to US$4,210 per capita in 2005. Japan's main export markets are China (18.88 percent), the United States (16.42 percent), South Korea (8.13 percent), Taiwan (6.27 percent) and Hong Kong (5.49 percent) as of 2009. Its main exports are transportation equipment, motor vehicles, electronics, electrical machinery and chemicals.[2] Japan's main import markets as of 2009 are China (22.2 percent), the US (10.96 percent), Australia (6.29 percent), Saudi Arabia (5.29 percent), United Arab Emirates (4.12 percent), South Korea (3.98 percent) and Indonesia (3.95 percent).[110]
Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs (in particular beef), chemicals, textiles and raw materials for its industries.[111] By market share measures, domestic markets are the least open of any OECD country.[112] Junichiro Koizumi's administration began some pro-competition reforms, and foreign investment in Japan has soared.[113]
Japan ranks 12th of 178 countries in the 2008 Ease of Doing Business Index and has one of the smallest tax revenues of the developed world. The Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features: keiretsu enterprises are influential, and lifetime employment and seniority-based career advancement are relatively common in the Japanese work environment.[112][114] Japanese companies are known for management methods like "The Toyota Way", and shareholder activism is rare.[115]
Some of the largest enterprises in Japan include Toyota, Nintendo, NTT DoCoMo, Canon, Honda, Takeda Pharmaceutical, Sony, Panasonic, Toshiba, Sharp, Nippon Steel, Nippon Oil, and Seven & I Holdings Co.[116] It has some of the world's largest banks, and the Tokyo Stock Exchange (known for its Nikkei 225 and Topix indices) stands as the second largest in the world by market capitalization.[117] Japan is home to 326 companies from the Forbes Global 2000 or 16.3 percent (as of 2006).[118]
Japan is a leading nation in scientific research, particularly technology, machinery and biomedical research. Nearly 700,000 researchers share a US$130 billion research and development budget, the third largest in the world.[119] Japan is a world leader in fundamental scientific research, having produced fifteen Nobel laureates in either physics, chemistry or medicine,[120] three Fields medalists,[121] and one Gauss Prize laureate.[122] Some of Japan's more prominent technological contributions are in the fields of electronics, automobiles, machinery, earthquake engineering, industrial robotics, optics, chemicals, semiconductors and metals. Japan leads the world in robotics production and use, possessing more than half (402,200 of 742,500) of the world's industrial robots.[123]
The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is Japan's space agency; it conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and leads development of rockets and satellites. It is a participant in the International Space Station: the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) was added to the station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2008.[124] Japan's plans in space exploration include: launching a space probe to Venus, Akatsuki;[125][126] developing the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter to be launched in 2013;[127][128] and building a moon base by 2030.[129]
On 14 September 2007, it launched lunar explorer "SELENE" (Selenological and Engineering Explorer) on an H-IIA (Model H2A2022) carrier rocket from Tanegashima Space Center. SELENE is also known as Kaguya, after the lunar princess of The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter.[130] Kaguya is the largest lunar mission since the Apollo program. Its purpose is to gather data on the moon's origin and evolution. It entered a lunar orbit on 4 October,[131][132] flying at an altitude of about 100 km (62 mi).[133] The probe's mission was ended when it was deliberately crashed by JAXA into the Moon on 11 June 2009.[134]
As of 2008, 46.4 percent of energy in Japan is produced from petroleum, 21.4 percent from coal, 16.7 percent from natural gas, 9.7 percent from nuclear power, and 2.9 percent from hydro power. Nuclear power produced 25.1 percent of Japan's electricity, as of 2009.[136] However, as of May 5, 2012, all of the countries nuclear power plants had been taken offline due to ongoing public opposition following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, though government officials have been continuing to try to sway public opinion in favor of returning at least some of Japan's 50 nuclear reactors to service.[137] Given its heavy dependence on imported energy,[138] Japan has aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy efficiency.[139]
Japan's road spending has been extensive.[140] Its 1.2 million kilometers of paved road are the main means of transportation.[141] A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities and is operated by toll-collecting enterprises. New and used cars are inexpensive; car ownership fees and fuel levies are used to promote energy efficiency. However, at just 50 percent of all distance traveled, car usage is the lowest of all G8 countries.[142]
Dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; major companies include seven JR enterprises, Kintetsu Corporation, Seibu Railway and Keio Corporation. Some 250 high-speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities and Japanese trains are known for their safety and punctuality.[143][144] Proposals for a new Maglev route between Tokyo and Osaka are at an advanced stage.[145] There are 173 airports in Japan; the largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport, is Asia's second-busiest airport.[146] The largest international gateways are Narita International Airport, Kansai International Airport and Chūbu Centrair International Airport.[147] Nagoya Port is the country's largest and busiest port, accounting for 10 percent of Japan's trade value.[148]
Ainu, an ethnic minority people from Japan.
Japan's population is estimated at around 127.3 million.[2] Japanese society is linguistically and culturally homogeneous,[149] composed of 98.5% ethnic Japanese,[150] with small populations of foreign workers.[149] Zainichi Koreans,[151] Zainichi Chinese, Filipinos, Brazilians mostly of Japanese descent,[152] and Peruvians mostly of Japanese descent are among the small minority groups in Japan.[153] In 2003, there were about 134,700 non-Latin American Western and 345,500 Latin American expatriates, 274,700 of whom were Brazilians (said to be primarily Japanese descendants, or nikkeijin, along with their spouses),[152] the largest community of Westerners.[154]
The most dominant native ethnic group is the Yamato people; primary minority groups include the indigenous Ainu[155] and Ryukyuan peoples, as well as social minority groups like the burakumin.[156] There are persons of mixed ancestry incorporated among the 'ethnic Japanese' or Yamato, such as those from Ogasawara Archipelago where roughly one-tenth of the Japanese population can have European, American, Micronesian and/or Polynesian backgrounds, with some families going back up to seven generations.[157] In spite of the widespread belief that Japan is ethnically homogeneous (in 2009, foreign-born non-naturalized workers made up only 1.7% of the total population),[158] also due to the absence of ethnicity and/or race statistics for Japanese nationals, at least one analysis describes Japan as a multiethnic society, for example, John Lie.[159]
Japan has the longest overall life expectancy at birth of any country in the world: 83.5 years for persons born in the period 2010–2015.[11][12] The Japanese population is rapidly aging as a result of a post–World War II baby boom followed by a decrease in birth rates. In 2009, about 22.7 percent of the population was over 65, by 2050 almost 40 percent of the population will be aged 65 and over, as projected in December 2006.[160]
The changes in demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in workforce population and increase in the cost of social security benefits like the public pension plan. A growing number of younger Japanese are preferring not to marry or have families.[161] In 2011, Japan's population dropped for a fifth year, falling by 204,000 people to 126.24 million people. This is the greatest decline since at least 1947, the first year for which government data is available. The 1.26 million deaths included 15,844 people killed and 3,451 left missing by the tsunami.[162]
Japan's population is expected to drop to 95 million by 2050,[160][163] demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.[161] Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population.[164][165] Japan accepts a steady flow of 15,000 new Japanese citizens by naturalization (帰化) per year.[166] According to the UNHCR, in 2007 Japan accepted just 41 refugees for resettlement, while the US took in 50,000.[167]
Japan suffers from a high suicide rate.[168][169] In 2009, the number of suicides exceeded 30,000 for the twelfth straight year.[170] Suicide is the leading cause of death for people under 30.[171]
Largest cities or towns of Japan
2010 Census[172] |
|
Rank |
City name |
Prefecture |
Pop. |
Rank |
City name |
Prefecture |
Pop. |
|
Tokyo
Yokohama
|
1 |
Tokyo |
Tokyo |
8,949,447 |
11 |
Hiroshima |
Hiroshima |
1,174,209 |
Osaka
Nagoya
|
| 2 |
Yokohama |
Kanagawa |
3,689,603 |
12 |
Sendai |
Miyagi |
1,045,903 |
| 3 |
Osaka |
Osaka |
2,666,371 |
13 |
Kitakyūshū |
Fukuoka |
977,288 |
| 4 |
Nagoya |
Aichi |
2,263,907 |
14 |
Chiba |
Chiba |
962,130 |
| 5 |
Sapporo |
Hokkaidō |
1,914,434 |
15 |
Sakai |
Osaka |
842,134 |
| 6 |
Kōbe |
Hyōgo |
1,544,873 |
16 |
Niigata |
Niigata |
812,192 |
| 7 |
Kyōto |
Kyōto |
1,474,473 |
17 |
Hamamatsu |
Shizuoka |
800,912 |
| 8 |
Fukuoka |
Fukuoka |
1,463,826 |
18 |
Kumamoto |
Kumamoto |
734,294 |
| 9 |
Kawasaki |
Kanagawa |
1,425,678 |
19 |
Sagamihara |
Kanagawa |
717,561 |
| 10 |
Saitama |
Saitama |
1,222,910 |
20 |
Shizuoka |
Shizuoka |
716,328 |
Upper estimates suggest that 84–96 percent of the Japanese population subscribe to Buddhism or Shinto, including a large number of followers of a syncretism of both religions.[2][173] However, these estimates are based on people affiliated with a temple, rather than the number of true believers. Other studies have suggested that only 30 percent of the population identify themselves as belonging to a religion.[174]
Nevertheless the level of participation remains high, especially during festivals and occasions such as the first shrine visit of the New Year. Taoism and Confucianism from China have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs.[175] Fewer than one percent of Japanese are Christian.[176] In addition, since the mid-19th century numerous new religious movements have emerged in Japan.[177]
More than 99 percent of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.[2] It is an agglutinative language distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary indicating the relative status of speaker and listener. Japanese writing uses kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on simplified Chinese characters), as well as the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals.[178]
Besides Japanese, the Ryukyuan languages, also part of the Japonic language family, are spoken in Okinawa; however, few children learn these languages.[179] The Ainu language, which has no proven relationship to Japanese or any other language, is moribund, with only a few elderly native speakers remaining in Hokkaido.[180] Most public and private schools require students to take courses in both Japanese and English.[181]
Primary schools, secondary schools and universities were introduced in 1872 as a result of the Meiji Restoration.[182] Since 1947, compulsory education in Japan comprises elementary and middle school, which together last for nine years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school, and, according to the MEXT, as of 2005 about 75.9 percent of high school graduates attend a university, junior college, trade school, or other higher education institution.[183]
The two top-ranking universities in Japan are the University of Tokyo and Kyoto University.[184][185] The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of Japanese 15-year-olds as sixth best in the world.[186]
In Japan, health care is provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance.[187] Patients are free to select the physicians or facilities of their choice.[188]
Japanese culture has evolved greatly from its origins. Contemporary culture combines influences from Asia, Europe and North America. Traditional Japanese arts include crafts such as ceramics, textiles, lacquerware, swords and dolls; performances of bunraku, kabuki, noh, dance, and rakugo; and other practices, the tea ceremony, ikebana, martial arts, calligraphy, origami, onsen, Geisha and games. Japan has a developed system for the protection and promotion of both tangible and intangible Cultural Properties and National Treasures.[189] Sixteen sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.[190]
The Shrines of Ise have been celebrated as the prototype of Japanese architecture.[191] Largely of wood, traditional housing and many temple buildings see the use of tatami mats and sliding doors that break down the distinction between rooms and indoor and outdoor space.[192] Japanese sculpture, largely of wood, and Japanese painting are among the oldest of the Japanese arts, with early figurative paintings dating back to at least 300 BC. The history of Japanese painting exhibits synthesis and competition between native Japanese aesthetics and adaptation of imported ideas.[193]
The interaction between Japanese and European art has been significant: for example ukiyo-e prints, which began to be exported in the 19th century in the movement known as Japonism, had a significant influence on the development of modern art in the West, most notably on post-Impressionism.[194] Famous ukiyo-e artists include Hokusai and Hiroshige. The fusion of traditional woodblock printing and Western art led to the creation of manga, a comic book format that is now popular within and outside Japan.[195] Manga-influenced animation for television and film is called anime. Japanese-made video game consoles have been popular since the 1980s.[196]
Main article:
Music of JapanJapanese music is eclectic and diverse. Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the 9th and 10th centuries. The accompanied recitative of the Noh drama dates from the 14th century and the popular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, from the sixteenth.[197] Western classical music, introduced in the late 19th century, now forms an integral part of Japanese culture. The imperial court ensemble Gagaku has influenced the work of some modern Western composers.[198]
Notable classical composers from Japan include Toru Takemitsu and Rentarō Taki. Popular music in post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European trends, which has led to the evolution of J-pop, or Japanese popular music.[199] Karaoke is the most widely practiced cultural activity in Japan. A 1993 survey by the Cultural Affairs Agency found that more Japanese had sung karaoke that year than had participated in traditional pursuits such as flower arranging (ikebana) or tea ceremonies.[200]
The earliest works of Japanese literature include the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles and the Man'yōshū poetry anthology, all from the 8th century and written in Chinese characters.[201][202] In the early Heian period, the system of phonograms known as kana (Hiragana and Katakana) was developed. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.[203] An account of Heian court life is given in The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon, while The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu is often described as the world's first novel.[204][205]
During the Edo period, the chōnin ("townspeople") overtook the samurai aristocracy as producers and consumers of literature. The popularity of the works of Saikaku, for example, reveals this change in readership and authorship, while Bashō revivified the poetic tradition of the Kokinshū with his haikai (haiku) and wrote the poetic travelogue Oku no Hosomichi.[206] The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms as Japanese literature integrated Western influences. Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ōgai were the first "modern" novelists of Japan, followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Yasunari Kawabata, Yukio Mishima and, more recently, Haruki Murakami. Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors—Yasunari Kawabata (1968) and Kenzaburō Ōe (1994).[203]
Japanese cuisine is based on combining staple foods, typically Japanese rice or noodles, with a soup and okazu — dishes made from fish, vegetable, tofu and the like – to add flavor to the staple food. In the early modern era ingredients such as red meats that had previously not been widely used in Japan were introduced. Japanese cuisine is known for its emphasis on seasonality of food,[207] quality of ingredients and presentation. Japanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties that use traditional recipes and local ingredients. The Michelin Guide has awarded Japanese cities more Michelin stars than the rest of the world combined.[208]
Main article:
Sport in Japan
Sumo wrestlers form around the referee during the ring-entering ceremony
Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport.[209] Japanese martial arts such as judo, karate and kendo are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spectators in the country. After the Meiji Restoration, many Western sports were introduced in Japan and began to spread through the education system.[210] Japan hosted the Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964. Japan has hosted the Winter Olympics twice: Sapporo in 1972 and Nagano in 1998.[211]
Baseball is currently the most popular spectator sport in the country. Japan's top professional league, Nippon Professional Baseball, was established in 1936.[212]
Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League in 1992, association football has also gained a wide following.[213] Japan was a venue of the Intercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004 and co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea.[214] Japan has one of the most successful football teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup four times.[215] Also, Japan recently won the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2011.[216]
Golf is also popular in Japan,[217] as are forms of auto racing like the Super GT series and Formula Nippon.[218] The country has produced one NBA player, Yuta Tabuse.[219]
- ↑ "法制執務コラム集「法律と国語・日本語」" (in Japanese). Legislative Bureau of the House of Councillors. http://houseikyoku.sangiin.go.jp/column/column068.htm. Retrieved 19 January 2009.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 "World Factbook: Japan". CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
- ↑ According to legend, Japan was founded on this date by Emperor Jimmu, the country's first emperor.
- ↑ "Japan Statistical Yearbook 2010". Statistics Bureau. p. 17. http://www.stat.go.jp/data/nenkan/pdf/yhyou01.pdf. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
- ↑ "Official Japan Statistics Bureau estimate". Statistics Bureau. http://www.mysinchew.com/node/72649?tid=37. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
- ↑ "Preliminary Counts of the Population and Households". Statistics Bureau. http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/ListE.do?bid=000001029548&cycode=0. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 "Japan". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=82&pr.y=17&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=158&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
- ↑ "World Factbook: Gini Index". CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html. Retrieved 11 May 2011.
- ↑ "Human Development Report 2011". UN. 2011. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ↑ "Ninth United Nations survey of crime trends and operations of criminal justice systems". UN Office on Drugs and Crime. pp. 1–9. http://www.unodc.org/pdf/research/9th_survey/CTS9ByIndicatorExtract.pdf. Retrieved 1 December 2006.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 "WHO: Life expectancy in Israel among highest in the world". Haaretz. May 2009. http://www.haaretz.com/news/who-life-expectancy-in-israel-among-highest-in-the-world-1.276618. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 "Table A.17". United Nations World Population Prospects, 2006 revision. UN. http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/WPP2006_Highlights_rev.pdf. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
- ↑ Piggott, Joan R. (1997). The emergence of Japanese kingship. Stanford University Press. pp. 143–144. ISBN 0-8047-2832-1.
- ↑ C. R. Boxer, The Christian Century In Japan 1549–1650, University of California Press, 1951, pages 1 and 14, ISBN 1-85754-035-2
- ↑ C. R. Boxer, The Christian Century In Japan 1549–1650, University of California Press, 1951p. 11, 28—36, 49—51, ISBN 1-85754-035-2
- ↑ Mancall, Peter C. (2006). "Of the Ilande of Giapan, 1565". Travel narratives from the age of discovery: an anthology. Oxford University Press. pp. 156–157.
- ↑ Matsumara, Hirofumi; Dodo, Yukio; Dodo, Yukio (2009). "Dental characteristics of Tohoku residents in Japan: implications for biological affinity with ancient Emishi". Anthropological Science 117 (2): 95–105. DOI:10.1537/ase.080325. http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase/117/2/117_95/_article.
- ↑ Hammer, Michael F., et al; Karafet, TM; Park, H; Omoto, K; Harihara, S; Stoneking, M; Horai, S (2006). "Dual origins of the Japanese: common ground for hunter-gatherer and farmer Y chromosomes". Journal of Human Genetics 51 (1): 47–58. DOI:10.1007/s10038-005-0322-0. PMID 16328082. http://www.nature.com/jhg/journal/v51/n1/abs/jhg20068a.html.
- ↑ Travis, John. "Jomon Genes". University of Pittsburgh. http://www.pitt.edu/~annj/courses/notes/jomon_genes.html. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
- ↑ Denoon, Donald; Hudson, Mark (2001). Multicultural Japan: palaeolithic to postmodern. Cambridge University Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 0-521-00362-8.
- ↑ "Road of rice plant". National Science Museum of Japan. http://www.kahaku.go.jp/special/past/japanese/ipix/5/5-25.html. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
- ↑ "Kofun Period". Metropolitan Museum of Art. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kofu/hd_kofu.htm. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
- ↑ "Yayoi Culture". Metropolitan Museum of Art. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/yayo/hd_yayo.htm. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
- ↑ Takashi, Okazaki; Goodwin, Janet (1993). "Japan and the continent". The Cambridge history of Japan, Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 275. ISBN 0-521-22352-0.
- ↑ Brown, Delmer M., ed. (1993). The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge University Press. pp. 140–149.
- ↑ Beasley, William Gerald (1999). The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan. University of California Press. p. 42. ISBN 0-520-22560-0.
- ↑ Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell. pp. 64–79. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
- ↑ Hays, J.N. (2005). Epidemics and pandemics: their impacts on human history. ABC-CLIO. p. 31. ISBN 1-85109-658-2.
- ↑ Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell. pp. 79–87, 122–123. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
- ↑ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 106–112. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1.
- ↑ Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan: 1334–1615. Stanford University Press. pp. 42, 217. ISBN 0-8047-0525-9.
- ↑ Turnbull, Stephen (2002). Samurai Invasion: Japan's Korean War. Cassel. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-304-35948-6.
- ↑ Turnbull, Stephen (2010). Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Osprey Publishing. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-84603-960-7.
- ↑ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 142–143. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1.
- ↑ Toby, Ronald P. (1977). "Reopening the Question of Sakoku: Diplomacy in the Legitimation of the Tokugawa Bakufu". Journal of Japanese Studies 3 (2): 323–363. DOI:10.2307/132115.
- ↑ Ohtsu, M.; Ohtsu, Makoto (1999). "Japanese National Values and Confucianism". Japanese Economy 27 (2): 45–59. DOI:10.2753/JES1097-203X270245.
- ↑ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 289–296. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1.
- ↑ Matsusaka, Y. Tak (2009). "The Japanese Empire". In Tsutsui, William M.. Companion to Japanese History. Blackwell. pp. 224–241. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/978-1-5051-1690-9|978-1-5051-1690-9]].
- ↑ Hiroshi, Shimizu; Hitoshi, Hirakawa (1999). Japan and Singapore in the world economy : Japan's economic advance into Singapore, 1870–1965. Routledge. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-415-19236-1.
- ↑ "The Axis Alliance". iBiblio. http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/pre-war/361125a.html#3. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
- ↑ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. p. 442. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1.
- ↑ Worth, Roland H., Jr. (1995). No Choice But War: the United States Embargo Against Japan and the Eruption of War in the Pacific. McFarland. pp. 56, 86. ISBN 0-7864-0141-9.
- ↑ "インドネシア独立運動と日本とスカルノ（２）" (in Japanese). 馬 樹禮. 産経新聞社. April 2005. http://www.sankei.co.jp/seiron/koukoku/2005/0504/ronbun3-2.html. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
- ↑ "The Kingdom of the Netherlands Declares War with Japan". iBiblio. http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1941/411208c.html. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
- ↑ Pape, Robert A. (1993). "Why Japan Surrendered". International Security 18 (2): 154–201. DOI:10.2307/2539100.
- ↑ Watt, Lori (2010). When Empire Comes Home: Repatriation and Reintegration in Postwar Japan. Harvard University Press. pp. 1–4. ISBN 978-0-674-05598-8.
- ↑ Thomas, J.E. (1996). Modern Japan. Longman. pp. 284–287. ISBN 0-582-25962-2.
- ↑ Coleman, Joseph (6 March 2006). "'52 coup plot bid to rearm Japan: CIA". The Japan Times. http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20070306f3.html. Retrieved 3 April 2006.
- ↑ "Japan scraps zero interest rates". BBC News. 14 July 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/5178822.stm. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
- ↑ 50.0 50.1 Fackler, Martin; Drew, Kevin (11 March 2011). "Devastation as Tsunami Crashes Into Japan". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/12/world/asia/12japan.html?ref=world. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
- ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 "The Constitution of Japan". House of Councillors of the National Diet of Japan. 3 November 1946. http://www.sangiin.go.jp/eng/law/index.htm. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
- ↑ Harden, Blaine (31 August 2009). "Ruling Party Is Routed In Japan". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/30/AR2009083000854.html. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ↑ "Diet votes in Kan as prime minister". Japan Times. 4 June 2010. http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100604x1.html. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
- ↑ Fackler, Martin (8 June 2010). "Focusing on Future, Premier in Japan Unveils Cabinet". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/09/world/asia/09japan.html. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ↑ Dean, Meryll (2002). Japanese legal system: text, cases & materials (2nd ed.). Cavendish. pp. 55–58. ISBN 978-1-85941-673-0.
- ↑ Kanamori, Shigenari (1 January 1999). "German influences on Japanese Pre-War Constitution and Civil Code". European Journal of Law and Economics 7 (1): 93–95. DOI:10.1023/A:1008688209052.
- ↑ "The Japanese Judicial System". Office of the Prime Minister of Japan. http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/judiciary/0620system.html. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
- ↑ Dean, Meryll (2002). Japanese legal system: text, cases & materials (2nd ed.). Cavendish. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-85941-673-0.
- ↑ "Japan-Australia Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/australia/joint0703.html. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ↑ "Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation between Japan and India". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 22 October 2008. http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/india/pmv0810/joint_d.html. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ↑ "Net Official Development Assistance in 2009". OECD. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/17/9/44981892.pdf. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
- ↑ Michael Green. "Japan Is Back: Why Tokyo's New Assertiveness Is Good for Washington". Real Clear Politics. http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2007/03/japan_is_back_why_tokyos_new_a.html. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
- ↑ "UK backs Japan for UNSC bid". Central Chronicle. Archived from the original on 21 February 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070221044357/http://www.centralchronicle.com/20070111/1101194.htm. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
- ↑ Schoenbaum, Thomas J., ed. (2008). Peace in Northeast Asia. Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. pp. 26–29.
- ↑ Chanlett-Avery, Emma. "North Korea's Abduction of Japanese Citizens and the Six-Party Talks". CRS Report for Congress. Federation of American Scientists. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS22845.pdf. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ↑ "The 15 countries with the highest military expenditure in 2009". Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/milex/resultoutput/milex_15. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
- ↑ 67.0 67.1 "Tokyo says it will bring troops home from Iraq". International Herald Tribune. 20 June 2006. http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/06/20/news/japan.php. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
- ↑ "About RIMPAC". Government of Singapore. http://www.mindef.gov.sg/imindef/mindef_websites/topics/exrimpac/abt_rimpac.html. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ↑ "Japan business lobby wants weapon export ban eased". Reuters. 13 July 2010. http://in.reuters.com/article/2010/07/13/idINIndia-50097320100713. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
- ↑ McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan. Macmillan. pp. 84–85. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/0-333-71002-2|0-333-71002-2]].
- ↑ Mabuchi, Masaru (May 2001). "Municipal Amalgamation in Japan". World Bank. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/WBI/Resources/wbi37175.pdf. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
- ↑ "Facts and Figures of Japan 2007 01: Land". Foreign Press Center Japan. http://fpcj.jp/old/e/mres/publication/ff/pdf_07/01_land.pdf. Retrieved 4 July 2007.
- ↑ "Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications". UN Statistics Division. 1 April 2010. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#asia. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
- ↑ McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan. Macmillan. pp. 8–11. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/0-333-71002-2|0-333-71002-2]].
- ↑ "Japan". US Department of State. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/4142.htm. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
- ↑ "World Population Prospects". UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Archived from the original on 21 March 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070321013235/http://esa.un.org/unpp/. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
- ↑ Barnes, Gina L. (2003). "Origins of the Japanese Islands". University of Durham. http://shinku.nichibun.ac.jp/jpub/pdf/jr/IJ1501.pdf. Retrieved 11 August 2009.
- ↑ "Tectonics and Volcanoes of Japan". Oregon State University. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070204064754/http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/north_asia/japan_tec.html. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
- ↑ James, C.D. (2002). "The 1923 Tokyo Earthquake and Fire". University of California Berkeley. http://nisee.berkeley.edu/kanto/tokyo1923.pdf. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
- ↑ "USGS analysis as of 2011-03-12". Earthquake.usgs.gov. 23 June 2011. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2011/usc0001xgp/neic_c0001xgp_wmt.php. Retrieved 9 November 2011.
- ↑ "6.1 magnitude earthquake shakes northeastern Japan". http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/6-1-magnitude-earthquake-shakes-northeastern-Japan/articleshow/13418798.cms. Retrieved 24 May 2012.
- ↑ Karan, Pradyumna Prasad; Gilbreath, Dick (2005). Japan in the 21st century. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 18–21, 41. ISBN 0-8131-2342-9.
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- ↑ "Hoop Dreams – Yuta Tabuse, "The Jordan of Japan"". Consulate General of Japan in New York. December 2004/January 2005. http://www.ny.us.emb-japan.go.jp/en/c/vol_12-4/title_04.html. Retrieved 19 January 2009.
- Further reading
- Flath, The Japanese Economy, Oxford University Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-19-877503-2)
- Henshall, A History of Japan, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001 (ISBN 0-312-23370-1)
- Iwabuchi, Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism, Duke University Press, 2002 (ISBN 0-8223-2891-7)
- Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, Belknap, 2000 (ISBN 0-674-00334-9)
- Kato et al., A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'Yoshu to Modern Times, Japan Library, 1997 (ISBN 1-873410-48-4)
- Samuels, Securing Japan: Tokyo's Grand Strategy and the Future of East Asia, Cornell University Press, 2008 (ISBN 0-8014-7490-6)
- Silverberg, Erotic Grotesque Nonsense: The Mass Culture of Japanese Modern Times, University of California Press, 2007 (ISBN 0-520-22273-3)
- Sugimoto et al., An Introduction to Japanese Society, Cambridge University Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-521-52925-5)
- Varley, Japanese Culture, University of Hawaii Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-8248-2152-1)
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lez:Япония
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