The closing stages of a men's 400 m race.

The 400 metres, or 400 metre dash, is a common sprinting event in track and field competitions. It has been featured in the athletics programme at the Summer Olympics since 1896 (1964 for women). On a standard outdoor running track, it is exactly one lap around the track. Runners start in staggered positions and race in separate lanes for the entire course. In many countries, athletes previously competed in the 440 yard dash (402.336 m)—also referred to as the 'quarter-mile'—instead of the 400 m, though this distance is now obsolete. An athlete who competes in the 400 m may still be referred to as 'quarter-miler'.

Maximum sprint speed capability is a significant contributing factor to success in the event, but athletes also require substantial speed-endurance and the ability to cope well with high amounts of lactic acid to sustain a fast speed over a whole lap. Whilst considered to be predominantly an anaerobic event, there is some aerobic involvement and the degree of aerobic training required for 400 metre athletes is open to debate.^{[citation needed]}

The United States men have historically dominated this event. The current men's world record is held by American Michael Johnson, with a time of 43.18 seconds. The world indoor record holder is Kerron Clement, in 44.57 seconds. The current women's world record is held by Marita Koch, with a time of 47.60 seconds. Kirani James and Amantle Montsho are the reigning men's and women's world champions respectively, while LaShawn Merritt and Christine Ohuruogu hold the men's and women's Olympic titles respectively. The men's Paralympic world record of 45.07 seconds is held by Oscar Pistorius. Michael Johnson has run the fastest 4×400 metres relay split—a 42.93 in the 1993 World Championships.^[1] see the video

An Olympic double of 200 metres and 400 m was first achieved by Valerie Brisco-Hooks in 1984, and later by Michael Johnson from the United States and Marie-José Pérec of France both in 1996. Alberto Juantorena of Cuba at the 1976 Summer Olympics became the first and so far the only athlete to win both the 400 m and 800 m Olympic titles.

Fastest 400 m runners[link]

Men[link]

• Updated April 2010

Rank	Time	Athlete	Nation	Date	Location
1.	43.18	Michael Johnson	United States	26 August 1999	Seville
2.	43.29	Harry 'Butch' Reynolds	United States	17 August 1988	Zürich
3.	43.45	Jeremy Wariner	United States	31 August 2007	Osaka
4.	43.50	Quincy Watts	United States	5 August 1992	Barcelona
5.	43.75	LaShawn Merritt	United States	21 August 2008	Beijing
6.	43.81	Danny Everett	United States	26 June 1992	New Orleans
7.	43.86	Lee Evans	United States	18 October 1968	Mexico City
8.	43.87	Steve Lewis	United States	28 September 1988	Seoul
9.	43.97	Larry James	United States	18 October 1968	Mexico City
10.	44.05	Angelo Taylor	United States	23 June 2007	Indianapolis

Women[link]

• Updated April 2010

Rank	Time	Athlete	Nation	Date	Location
1.	47.60	Marita Koch	East Germany	6 October 1985	Canberra
2.	47.99	Jarmila Kratochvílová	Czechoslovakia	10 August 1983	Helsinki
3.	48.25	Marie-José Pérec	France	29 July 1996	Atlanta
4.	48.27	Olga Vladykina-Bryzgina	Soviet Union	6 October 1985	Canberra
5.	48.59	Taťána Kocembová	Czechoslovakia	10 August 1983	Helsinki
6.	48.63	Cathy Freeman	Australia	29 July 1996	Atlanta
7.	48.70	Sanya Richards	United States	16 September 2006	Athens
8.	48.83	Valerie Brisco-Hooks	United States	6 August 1984	Los Angeles
9.	48.89	Ana Guevara	Mexico	27 August 2003	Paris Saint-Denis
10.	49.05	Chandra Cheeseborough	United States	6 August 1984	Los Angeles

• Allyson Felix ran a 48 second split during a 4x400m relay in the 2007 Athletics World Championships in Osaka, Japan.

See also[link]

• World record progression 400 metres men

References[link]

External links[link]

• All-time Masters men's 400 m list
• All-time Masters women's 400 m list

Oscar Pistorius

Pistorius taking part in the Landsmót ungmennafélags Íslands in Kópavogur, Iceland, the largest sporting event in the country, on 8 July 2007
Personal information
Nickname(s)	Blade Runner; the fastest man on no legs; "Oz" Pistorius[1]
Born	(1986-11-22) 22 November 1986 (age 25) Sandton, Johannesburg, Transvaal Province (now Gauteng Province), South Africa
Height	1.86 m (6 ft 1 1⁄4 in) in prosthetics[2]
Weight	80.5 kg (177 lb) (2007)[3]
Website	www.oscarpistorius.com
Sport
Country	South Africa
Sport	Running
Event(s)	Sprints (100, 200, 400 m)
Achievements and titles
World finals	2005 Paralympic World Cup: 100 m (T44) – Gold; 200 m (T44) – Gold
National finals	2007 South African Senior Athletics Championships: 400 m (T44) – Gold
Paralympic finals	2008 Summer Paralympics: 100 m (T44) – Gold, 200 m (T44) – Gold; 400 m (T44) – Gold 2004 Summer Paralympics: 100 m (T44) – Bronze; 200 m (T44) – Gold
Highest world ranking	100 m: 1st (2008)[4] 200 m: 1st (2008)[5] 400 m: 1st (2008)[6]
Personal best(s)	100 m (T44): 10.91 s (2007, WR) 200 m (T44): 21.41 s (2010, WR) [7] 400 m (T44): 45.07
Medal record Men's athletics Competitor for  South Africa World Championships Silver 2011 Daegu 4 × 400 m relay Paralympic Games Gold 2004 Athens 200 metres (T44) Gold 2008 Beijing 100 metres (T44) Gold 2008 Beijing 200 metres (T44) Gold 2008 Beijing 400 metres (T44) Bronze 2004 Athens 100 metres (T44)
Updated on 14 September 2008.

Oscar Leonard Carl Pistorius (born 22 November 1986) is a South African sprint runner. Known as the "Blade Runner" and "the fastest man on no legs", Pistorius, who has a double amputation, is the world record holder in the 100, 200 and 400 metres (sport class T44) events and runs with the aid of Cheetah Flex-Foot carbon fibre transtibial artificial limbs by Ossur.

In 2007, Pistorius took part in his first international competitions for able-bodied athletes. However, his artificial lower legs, while enabling him to compete, have generated claims that he has an unfair advantage over able-bodied runners. The same year, the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) amended its competition rules to ban the use of "any technical device that incorporates springs, wheels or any other element that provides a user with an advantage over another athlete not using such a device". The federation claimed that the amendment was not specifically aimed at Pistorius. After monitoring his track performances and carrying out tests, scientists took the view that Pistorius enjoyed considerable advantages over athletes without prosthetic limbs. On the strength of these findings, on 14 January 2008 the IAAF ruled him ineligible for competitions conducted under its rules, including the 2008 Summer Olympics. This decision was reversed by the Court of Arbitration for Sport on 16 May 2008, the Court ruling overall there was no evidence that Pistorius had any net advantage over able-bodied athletes.

Although eligible to compete in the 2008 Summer Olympic Games in Beijing, Pistorius did not qualify for the South African team. Despite achieving third place and a personal best time of 46.25 seconds in the 400 metres in Lucerne, Switzerland, on 16 July 2008, this was short of the Olympic qualification time of 45.55 seconds. He was also not selected by the South African Olympic Committee for the 4 × 400 metres relay team as there were four other runners who had achieved better times. At the 2008 Summer Paralympics, he took the gold medals in the 100, 200 and 400 metres (T44) sprints.

With his 400 m time of 45.07 on 19 July 2011, he achieved the "A" qualifying standard for the 2011 World Championships and 2012 Olympics. He participated in the 400m sprint and 4x400m relay, being eliminated in the semi-final of the 400m sprint (finishing last with a time of 46.19secs) and being part of South Africa's silver medal winning relay team, making him the first amputee to win an able-bodied world track medal, although he was not selected for the final.

Early years and education[link]

Oscar Pistorius was born to Henke and Sheila Pistorius on 22 November 1986 in Sandton, Johannesburg, in what was then Transvaal Province (now Gauteng Province) of South Africa,^[1] with congenital absence of the fibula in both legs. When he was 11 months old, his legs were amputated halfway between his knees and ankles.^[3] He attended Constantia Kloof Primary^[8] and Pretoria Boys High School^[1][9] where, between the ages of 11 and 13, he played rugby union in the school's third XV team, water polo and tennis. He also played water polo and tennis at provincial level. In addition, Pistorius took part in club Olympic wrestling.^[2][10][11] After a serious rugby knee injury in June 2003, he was introduced to running in January 2004 while undergoing rehabilitation, and "never looked back".^[10]

Pistorius is studying for a Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.)^[12] in business management with sports science at the University of Pretoria;^[2][10] in a June 2008 interview for his University's website, he joked: "I won't graduate soon. With all the training I have had to cut down on my subjects. Hopefully I'll finish by the time I'm 30!"^[12] His sporting motto is: "You're not disabled by the disabilities you have, you are able by the abilities you have."^[10]

Sporting career[link]

Known as the "Blade Runner"^[13] and "the fastest man on no legs",^[14][15] he took part in the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens and came third overall in the T44 (one leg amputated below the knee)^[11] 100-metre event.^[16] Despite falling in the preliminary round for the 200 metres, he qualified for the final.^[17] He went on to win the final with a world record time of 21.97 seconds, beating American runners with a single amputation Marlon Shirley and Brian Frasure.^[16]

In 2005, Pistorius finished sixth in the able-bodied South African Championships over 400 metres with a world-record time of 47.34 seconds,^[11] and at the Paralympic World Cup in the same year he won gold in the 100 metres and 200 metres, beating his previous 200-metre world record.^[18][19] At the 2006 Paralympic Athletics World Championships, Pistorius won gold in the 100, 200 and 400-metre events, breaking the world record over 200 metres.^[20] On 17 March 2007, he set a disability sports world record for the 400 metres (46.56 seconds) at the South African Senior Athletics Championships in Durban,^[21] and at the Nedbank Championships for the Physically Disabled held in Johannesburg in April 2007, he became the world record holder of the 100 and 200-metre events with times of 10.91 and 21.58 seconds respectively.^[22][23]

Pistorius was invited by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) to take part in what would have been his first international able-bodied event, the 400-metre race at the IAAF Grand Prix in Helsinki, Finland, in July 2005. He was unable to attend, however, because of school commitments.^[24] On 13 July 2007, Pistorius ran in the 400-metre race at Rome's Golden Gala and finished second in run B with a time of 46.90 seconds, behind Stefano Braciola who ran 46.72 seconds.^[25] This was a warm-up for his appearance at the 400 metres at the Norwich Union British Grand Prix at the Don Valley Stadium in Sheffield on 15 July 2007.^[26] As American Olympic champion Jeremy Wariner stumbled at the start of the race and stopped running, Pistorius took seventh place in a field of eight in wet conditions with a time of 47.65 seconds. However, he was later disqualified for running outside his lane. The race was won by American Angelo Taylor with a time of 45.25 seconds.^[27][28] Pistorius has ambitions of competing in other able-bodied events. In particular, he had set his sights on competing at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China,^[29] but was ultimately not selected by the South African Olympic Committee (see below).

Pistorius's autobiography, Dream Runner, was published in Italian in 2008 by Gianni Merlo, a journalist with La Gazzetta dello Sport.^[30] An English version entitled Blade Runner was released in 2009.^[31]

Dispute over prosthetics[link]

The South African newspaper The Citizen announcing the IAAF's decision to bar Pistorius from its competitions – photographed in Johannesburg on 16 January 2008.

Pistorius has been the subject of criticism because of claims that his artificial limbs give him an advantage over runners with natural ankles and feet. He runs with J-shaped carbon-fibre prosthetics called the "Cheetah Flex-Foot" manufactured by Icelandic company Ossur.^[11]

On 26 March 2007, the IAAF amended its competition rules to include a ban on the use of "any technical device that incorporates springs, wheels or any other element that provides a user with an advantage over another athlete not using such a device".^[32] It claimed that the amendment was not specifically aimed at Pistorius. To decide if he is running with an unfair advantage, the IAAF monitored his track performances using high-definition cameras to film his race against Italian club runners in Rome on 13 July, and his 400 metres in Sheffield on 15 July 2007,^[14][33] at which he placed last.^[28]

In November 2007, Oscar was invited to take part in a series of scientific tests at the Cologne Sports University under the guidance of Professor of Biomechanics Dr Peter Brüggemann in conjunction with Mr Elio Locatelli, who was responsible with the IAAF of all technical issues. After two days of tests Brüggemann reported on his findings on behalf of the IAAF. The report claimed that Pistorius's limbs used 25% less energy than runners with complete natural legs to run at the same speed, and that they led to less vertical motion combined with 30% less mechanical work for lifting the body.^[34] In December, Brüggemann told Die Welt newspaper that Pistorius "has considerable advantages over athletes without prosthetic limbs who were tested by us. It was more than just a few percentage points. I did not expect it to be so clear."^[35] Based on these findings, on 14 January 2008 the IAAF ruled Pistorius's prostheses ineligible for use in competitions conducted under the IAAF rules, including the 2008 Summer Olympics.^[36] Pistorius called the decision "premature and highly subjective" and pledged to continue fighting for his dream. His manager Peet van Zyl said his appeal would be based on advice from United States experts who had said that the report "did not take enough variables into consideration".^[37]

In February 2008, Pistorius employed the services of law firm Dewey & LeBoeuf to challenge the ruling via an appeal and later that month, travelled to America to take part in a series of further tests carried out at Rice University in Houston by a team of scientists including Hugh Herr, PhD and Rodger Kram, PhD

Pistorius subsequently appealed against the adverse decision to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) in Lausanne, Switzerland, and appeared before the tribunal at the end of April 2008.^[38]

After a two day hearing, on 16 May 2008 the Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld Oscar’s appeal and the IAAF council decision was revoked with immediate effect. The CAS panel unanimously determined that Dr. Brüggemann only tested Oscar’s biomechanics at full-speed when he was running in a straight line (unlike a real 400m race), that the report did not consider the disadvantages that Oscar suffers at the start and acceleration phases of the race, that Dr. Brüggemann did not consider disadvantages that Oscar suffers, and that overall there was no evidence that Oscar had any net advantage over able-bodied athletes.^[39] In response to the announcement, Pistorius said: "My focus throughout this appeal has been to ensure that disabled athletes be given the chance to compete and compete fairly with able-bodied athletes. I look forward to continuing my quest to qualify for the Olympics."^[40]

Attempts to qualify for 2008 Summer Olympics[link]

To have a chance of representing South Africa at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing in the individual 400-metre race, Pistorius had to attain the Olympic "A" standard time of 45.55 seconds; the "B" qualifying time of 45.95 seconds if no other athlete from his country achieved the faster time did not apply. Each national athletics federation is permitted to enter three athletes in an event if the "A" standard is met, and only one athlete if the "B" standard is met.^[41] However, he was eligible for selection as a member of the relay squad without qualifying.^[42] His best chance was to try for a time of close to 46 seconds to make the 4 × 400-metre relay team. However, he said: "If I make the team I don't want to be the reserve for the relay, I want to be in the top four. I want to bring something to the race and make the relay stronger." To give him a chance of making the South African Olympic team, selectors delayed naming the team until 17 July.^[43]

On 2 July 2008, Pistorius competed in the 400 metres in the B race of the Notturna International in Milan but was "disappointed"^[43][44] when he failed to achieve the minimum Olympic qualification time, completing the race in fourth place in 47.78 seconds.^[43][45] His performance on 11 July 2008 at the Rome Golden Gala was an improvement of more than a second, though his sixth-place time of 46.62 seconds in the B race was still short of the Olympic qualification time. Nonetheless, he was pleased with his performance, commenting that he felt he could improve on it.^[46]

On 15 July 2008, IAAF general secretary Pierre Weiss commented that the world athletics body preferred that the South African Olympic Committee did not select Pistorius for its 4 × 400 metres relay team "for reasons of safety", saying that Pistorius could cause "serious damage" and risk the physical safety of himself and other athletes if he ran in the main pack of the relay.^[47] Pistorius branded this as the IAAF's "last desperate attempt" to get him not to qualify,^[48] and threatened legal action if the Federation did not confirm that it had no objections to his participation in the relay.^[49] The IAAF responded by issuing a statement saying that Pistorius was welcome to seek qualification for the Olympics and future competitions under IAAF rules: "The IAAF fully respects the recent CAS decision regarding the eligibility of Oscar Pistorius to compete in IAAF competitions, and certainly has no wish to influence the South African Olympic Committee, who has full authority to select a men's 4x400m relay team for the Beijing Olympics."^[50][51]

Despite coming third and running a personal best time of 46.25 seconds at the Spitzen Leichtathletik meeting in Lucerne on 16 July 2008, Pistorius failed in his final opportunity to qualify for the 400 metres at the 2008 Summer Olympics by 0.70 seconds. Athletics South Africa later announced that he would also not be selected for the 4 × 400 metres relay team as four other runners had better times.^[50][52] If Pistorius had been picked, he would have become the first runner with a leg amputation to participate in the Olympic Games.^[53] Asked about the possibility of the IAAF offering him a wild card to take part in the Olympics, Pistorius responded, "I do not believe that I would accept. If I have to take part in the Beijing Games I should do it because I qualified." Instead, he expressed a preference for focusing on getting into the 2012 Summer Olympics in London,^[44] noting that it was a more realistic target as "[s]printers usually reach their peak between 26 and 29. I will be 25 in London and I'll also have two, three years' preparation."^[45]

2008 Summer Paralympics[link]

Pistorius participated in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing in the 100, 200 and 400 metres (T44). On 9 September, in the heats of the 100 metres, he set a Paralympic record with his time of 11.16 seconds.^[54] Later, following a slow start, he rallied to snatch gold from the United States' Jerome Singleton in the 100 metres in a time of 11.17 seconds, 0.03 seconds ahead of the silver medallist.^[55] Four days later, on 13 September, the defending Paralympic champion in the 200 metres sprint^[56] won his second gold in the event in a time of 21.67 seconds,^[57] setting another Paralympic record.^[54] He completed a hat-trick by winning gold in the 400 metres in a world-record time of 47.49 seconds on 16 September,^[58] calling it "a memory that will stay with me for the rest of my life".^[59]

2011 and qualification for 2012 Summer Olympics[link]

Pistorius during the 2011 World Athletics Championships in Daegu.

In January 2011, a slimmer, trimmer Pistorius won three IPC Athletics World titles in New Zealand but was beaten for the first time in seven years in the 100m by American Jerome Singleton.^[60] He subsequently won the T44 400m in 47.28s and the 100m in 11.04s at the BT Paralympic World Cup in May to reassert himself as the world’s leading Paralympic sprinter.^[61]

Pistorius competed across a number of able-bodied races in the summer of 2011 and posted three times under 46 seconds but it was in Lignano, Italy, on 19 July that he set a personal best of 45.07s in the 400m, attaining the World Championships and Olympic Games ‘A’ standard qualification mark.^[62]

On 8 August 2011 it was announced that he had been included in the South African team for the World Championships in Daegu and had been selected for the 400m and the 4 × 400 metre relay squad.

To be selected for the South African team to compete at the Olympic Games in London, Oscar must again run inside the 400m ‘A’ standard of 45.25 seconds between January and June 2012.

In the heats of the 400 metre in the 2011 World Championships in Daegu, Oscar Pistorius ran a 45.39 and qualified for the semi-final. However, in the semi-final, Pistorius ran 46.19 and was eliminated.^[63] Had he run the 45.39 in the semi-final, that time would have qualified him for the final.^[64] In the heats of the 4 × 400m relay, Oscar ran the opening leg as South Africa advanced to the finals with a national record time of 2 minutes, 59.21 seconds. However, Pistorius was excluded from the finals. He still won the silver medal because he ran in the heats. Reflecting on his World Championship debut, Pistorius said: "I really enjoyed the whole experience. I ran my second fastest time ever in the heats and was really pleased to have reached the semi-finals. In the relay I was unbelievably chuffed to have broken the South African record, and hopefully my name will stay on that for a long time to come."^[65]

Medals[link]

Disability sports events[link]

Able-bodied sports events[link]

Time comparisons[link]

The following tables show comparisons between Pistorius's best times at official events and the Olympic and World record winning times as at 20 August 2009 over the same distance:

100 m[link]

200 m[link]

400 m[link]

Other awards and accolades[link]

In 2006, Pistorius was conferred the Order of Ikhamanga in Bronze (OIB) by the President of South Africa for outstanding achievement in sports.^[1] On 9 December 2007, Pistorius was awarded the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Helen Rollason Award, which is conferred for outstanding courage and achievement in the face of adversity.^[77]

In May 2008, Pistorius made the "2008 TIME 100" – Time magazine's annual list of the world's most influential people – appearing third in the "Heroes & Pioneers" section. Erik Weihenmayer, the first blind person to climb Mount Everest, wrote in an essay that Pistorius was "on the cusp of a paradigm shift in which disability becomes ability, disadvantage becomes advantage. Yet we mustn't lose sight of what makes an athlete great. It's too easy to credit Pistorius' success to technology. Through birth or circumstance, some are given certain gifts, but it's what one does with those gifts, the hours devoted to training, the desire to be the best, that is at the true heart of a champion."^[78]

In February 2012 Pistorius was awarded the Laureus World Sports Award for Sportsperson of the Year with a Disability for 2012.^[79] He is the third South African to receive this award after Ernst van Dyk in 2006 and Natalie du Toit in 2010.

Personal life[link]

Pistorius has distant Italian ancestry – his mother's grandfather was an Italian emigrant to Kenya.^[80][81] He has an elder brother, Carl, and a younger sister, Aimée.^[12][82]

Pistorius is a dedicated supporter of Italian Serie A club Lazio. This is because his best friend is Italian and also a fan of the club.^[81]

In 2008, Pistorius collaborated in the release of a music CD called Olympic Dream. Produced in Italy, it consists of disco remixes of music pieces that Pistorius finds inspirational, and two tracks written for him, "Olympic Dream" and "Run Boy Run", which he provided voiceovers for. Part of the CD's proceeds of sale will go to charity.^[83]

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Davies, Gareth A. [interviewer] (23 May 2007), "My sport: Oscar Pistorius", The Daily Telegraph, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/main.jhtml?xml=/sport/2007/05/09/somysp09.xml ^{[dead link]}.
• Knight, Tom (11 July 2007]), "Pistorius is no novelty sprinter", The Daily Telegraph (Sport): S12, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/main.jhtml?xml=/sport/2007/07/11/soaths111.xml ^{[dead link]}.
• "Mr. Oscar "Oz" PISTORIUS", Who's Who of Southern Africa (24.com), http://www.whoswhosa.co.za/Pages/profilefull.aspx?IndID=5404, retrieved 18 May 2007 ^{[dead link]}.
• Oscar Pistorius, Ossur, http://www.ossur.com/?PageID=3364, retrieved 22 March 2008 .
• Oscar Pistorius competitive highlights, Ossur, http://www.ossur.com/?PageID=3364#Highlights, retrieved 8 March 2008 .

Further reading[link]

Articles[link]

• Camporesi, Silvia (14 July 2008), "Oscar Pistorius, Enhancement and Post-humans", Journal of Medical Ethics 34 (9): 639, DOI:10.1136/jme.2008.026674, PMID 18757629 .
• Charlish, Peter; Riley, Stephen (2008), "Should Oscar Run?" (PDF), Fordham Intellectual Property, Media and Entertainment Law Journal 18: 929–957, http://shura.shu.ac.uk/681/1/fulltext.pdf .
• Cole, C.L. (February 2009), "Oscar Pistorius's Aftermath", Journal of Sport and Social Issues 1 (1): 3–4, DOI:10.1177/0193723508330751 .
• Edwards, S.D. (2008), "Should Oscar Pistorius be Excluded from the 2008 Olympic Games?", Sport, Ethics and Philosophy 2 (2): 112–125, DOI:10.1080/17511320802221802 .
• Hood, M. (June 2005), "Running against the Wind [Sports Prosthetics]", IEEE Spectrum 42 (6): 13–14, DOI:10.1109/MSPEC.2005.1436991 .
• Jones, Carwyn; Wilson, Cassie (March 2009), "Defining Advantage and Athletic Performance: The Case of Oscar Pistorius", European Journal of Sport Science 9 (2): 125–131, DOI:10.1080/17461390802635483 .
• Kram, R.; Grabowski, A.M.; McGowan, C.P.; Brown, M.B.; McDermott, W.J.; Beale, M.T.; Herr, H.M. (2010), "Counterpoint: Artificial Legs Do Not Make Artificially Fast Running Speeds Possible", Journal of Applied Physiology 108 (4): 1012–1014, DOI:10.1152/japplphysiol.01238.2009a, PMID 20368386 .
• Lechler, Knut; Lilja, Magnus (4 December 2008), "Lower Extremity Leg Amputation: An Advantage in Running?", Sports Technology 1 (4–5): 229–234, DOI:10.1002/jst.57 .
• Lippi, Giuseppe; Mattiuzzi, Camilla (2008), "Pistorius Ineligible for the Olympic Games: The Right Decision", British Journal of Sports Medicine 42 (3): 160–161, DOI:10.1136/bjsm.2008.046730, PMID 18334623 .
• McArdle, David (August 2008), "'Just One of the Challenges of 21st-Century Life': Oscar Pistorius in the Court of Arbitration for Sport" (PDF), SCRIPTed 5 (2): 404–413, DOI:10.2966/scrip.050208.404, http://www.law.ed.ac.uk/ahrc/script-ed/vol5-2/mcardle.pdf .
• Van Hilvoorde, Ivo; Landeweerd, Laurens (2008), "Disability or Extraordinary Talent – Francesco Lentini (Three Legs) versus Oscar Pistorius (No Legs)", Sport, Ethics and Philosophy 2 (2): 97–111, DOI:10.1080/17511320802221778 .
• Swartz, Leslie; Watermeyer, Brian (2008), "Cyborg Anxiety: Oscar Pistorius and the Boundaries of what it Means to be Human", Disability and Society 23 (2): 187–190, DOI:10.1080/09687590701841232 .
• Weyand, Peter G.; Bundle, M.W.; McGowan, C.P.; Grabowski, A.; Brown, M.B.; Kram, R.; Herr, H. (18 June 2009), "The Fastest Runner on Artificial Legs: Different Limbs, Similar Function?" (PDF), Journal of Applied Physiology 107 (3): 903–911, DOI:10.1152/japplphysiol.00174.2009, PMID 19541739, http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/reprint/00174.2009v1 .
• Wolbring, Gregor (2008), "Oscar Pistorius and the Future Nature of Olympic, Paralympic and other Sports" (PDF), SCRIPTed 5 (1): 139–160, DOI:10.2966/scrip.050108.139, http://www.law.ed.ac.uk/ahrc/script-ed/vol5-1/wolbring.pdf .

News reports[link]

• Balding, Clare (5 May 2005), "Disabled star runs into speed trap", The Observer (London), http://observer.guardian.co.uk/sport/story/0,,1484189,00.html .
• Knight, Tom (14 July 2007), "Examiners probe the Blade Runner", The Daily Telegraph (London), http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/main.jhtml?xml=/sport/2007/07/14/soaths214.xml ^{[dead link]}.
• Hart, Simon (15 July 2007), "Oscar Pistorius fired up for the 400", The Daily Telegraph (London), http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/main.jhtml?xml=/sport/2007/07/15/sohart115.xml ^{[dead link]}.
• Buckley, Will (15 July 2007), "Pistorius runs spring-heeled into a court case waiting to happen", The Guardian (London), http://observer.guardian.co.uk/sport/story/0,,2126684,00.html .
• Phillips, Michael (16 July 2007), "Furious Pistorius Blade Runner slams IAAF", The Guardian (London), http://sport.guardian.co.uk/athletics/story/0,,2127322,00.html .
• Phillips, Michael (16 July 2007), "Pistorius leaves crowd wondering what fuss was about", The Guardian (London), http://sport.guardian.co.uk/athletics/story/0,,2127323,00.html .
• Tucker, Ross (17 July 2007), Analysis of Oscar Pistorius' Rome debut race, The Science of Sport, http://scienceofsport.blogspot.com/2007/07/oscar-pistorius-debut-scientific-facts_17.html, retrieved 15 January 2008 .
• Caple, Jim (2 July 2008), No easy answer to question that won't be going away any time soon, ESPN, http://sports.espn.go.com/oly/trackandfield/columns/story?columnist=caple_jim&id=3470827 .
• Davies, Gareth A. (2 July 2008), "Olympics: Oscar Pistorius has spring in step", The Daily Telegraph (London), http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=A1YourView&xml=/sport/2008/07/02/sbosca102.xml ^{[dead link]}.
• Pachal, Peter (7 August 2008), SHIFT: Why the Olympics should say no to cyborgs like Oscar Pistorius, Dvice, http://dvice.com/archives/2008/08/shift_why_the_o.php, retrieved 22 August 2008 .
• Hart, Simon (9 September 2008), "Oscar Pistorius tramples over notions of equality in Beijing", The Daily Telegraph (London), http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/paralympicsport/2707170/Oscar-Pistorius-tramples-over-notions-of-equality-in-Beijing---Paralympics.html .
• Garside, Kevin (28 August 2010), "Tough of the track puts the Games on an equal footing: Oscar Pistorius is determined to carry the Paralympic standard on to the Olympic stage", The Daily Telegraph (Sport) (London): 4–5 .
• Armour, Nancy (10 August 2011), "No reason 'Blade Runner' shouldn't race at worlds", Sports Illustrated (New York), http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2011/track_field/wires/08/10/2080.ap.ath.nancy.armour.081011.0993/ .
• Rowbottom, Mike (16 August 2011), "Key scientist in Pistorius case insists he is running on level playing field", Inside the Games (London), http://www.insidethegames.biz/sports/summer/athletics/13927-key-scientist-in-pistorius-case-insists-he-is-running-on-level-playing-field .
• McEvoy, Jonathan (22 August 2011), "Blade stunner! Amazing double amputee Pistorius rewrites Olympic history", The Daily Mail (London), http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/othersports/article-2017069/Oscar-Pistorius-Amazing-double-amputee-rewrites-Olympic-history.html?ito=feeds-newsxml .
• Vox, Ford (28 August 2011), Why Oscar Pistorius deserves to run, New York: CNN, http://edition.cnn.com/2011/OPINION/08/27/vox.pistorius.compete/ .
• Michael Sokolove (18 January 2012). "The Fast Life of Oscar Pistorius". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/22/magazine/oscar-pistorius.html. 

Books[link]

• Pistorius, Oscar; Servadio-Kenan, Rebecca, transl. (2009), Blade Runner, London: Virgin Books, ISBN 978-0-7535-1939-4 .
• Pistorius, Oscar; Merlo, Gianni (2008), Dream Runner: In Corsa per un Sogno [In the Race for a Dream], [S.l.]: Rizzoli  (in Italian).
• Pistorius, Oscar; Lochner, Tossie, trans. (2009), Oscar: Die verhaal van Oscar Pistorius, Roggebaai: Umuzi, ISBN 978-1-4152-0068-1  (in Afrikaans).

External links[link]

• Official website of Oscar Pistorius
• Official website of the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF)
• Official website of the International Paralympic Committee

Awards and achievements
Preceded by Verena Bentele	Laureus World Sportsperson with a Disability of the Year 2012	Succeeded by Incumbent

Calvin Smith

Personal information
Nationality	United States
Born	(1961-01-08) January 8, 1961 (age 51)
Height	5 ft 10 in (1.78 m)
Weight	152 lb (69 kg)
Sport
Country	United States
Sport	Running
Event(s)	100 metres, 200 metres
Achievements and titles
Personal best(s)	100 m: 9.93 s (Colorado Springs 1983) 200 m: 19.99 s (Zürich 1983)
Medal record Competitor for the  United States Men's athletics Olympic Games Bronze 1988 Seoul 100 m Gold 1984 Los Angeles 4×100 m relay World Championships Gold 1987 Rome 200 m Silver 1983 Helsinki 100 m Gold 1983 Helsinki 200 m Gold 1983 Helsinki 4×100 m relay

Calvin Smith (born January 8, 1961) is a former sprint track and field athlete from the United States. He is a former World Record holder in the 100 metre sprint, and was twice World Champion over 200 metres. He was born in Bolton, Mississippi.

Smith was one of the best sprinters in the world in the 1980s, though for most of his career Smith, who was a quiet and unassuming character, ran in the shadow of the more charismatic American sprinting great Carl Lewis.

Biography[link]

Smith had a dazzling collegiate career at the University of Alabama. Smith set the 100 metre world record on July 3, 1983 at the U.S. Olympic Festival at Colorado Springs, with a run of 9.93 seconds. In doing so, he broke the previous record set by Jim Hines, which had lasted for almost 15 years. (Both Hines' and Smith's records were set at high altitude.)

At the inaugural Athletics World Championships in 1983, Smith claimed Gold Medals in the 200 m and the 4 x 100 m relay (which the US won in World Record time), as well as a Silver Medal behind Lewis in the 100 m.

1983 also saw Smith become the first athlete to run under 10 seconds (9.97) for the 100 m and under 20 seconds (19.99) for the 200 m in the same evening in Zurich, Switzerland.

At the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, Smith won a gold Medal as part of the US 4 x 100 m relay team, again establishing a new World Record in this event.

At the 1987 World Championships, Smith successfully defended his 200 m Gold. (At that time, the World Championships were held once every four years, whereas presently they are held every two years.)

At the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, Smith was involved in the most controversial Olympic 100 m final of all time and ended up receiving the Bronze Medal. Ben Johnson of Canada crossed the line first, with Lewis second, Linford Christie of Great Britain third, and Smith fourth. But Johnson then tested positive anabolic steroids and was stripped of his Gold Medal. Smith was thus upgraded to the Bronze Medal position. The race has been called by one newspaper the dirtiest race in history, as Lewis later admitted to having tested positive for stimulants in that year's trials, and Christie's urine also contained metabolites of a banned substance after the race. Of the top 5 in that race, Smith is the only one who never failed a drugs test. Smith later said: "I should have been the gold medallist".^[1]

Smith missed out on what seemed like a likely Gold Medal in the 4 x 100 m relay in Seoul because the US did not reach the final following a disqualification for passing the baton outside the legal area.

Smith continued to run for the US into the 1990s. In the later years of his career, he was named captain of the US athletics team at major events including the Olympic Games and World Championships.

His son, Calvin Smith Jr., runs the 200, 300, and 400 for the University of Florida. He’s “earned 16 All-America titles - the most in UF track and field history - plus one national championship...” and was an alternate "in the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games on the U.S. 4x400 relay.” [1]

Achievements[link]

Competition record[link]

• 1983 World Championships - Helsinki, Finland
  • 200 m Gold Medal
  • 4 x 100 m Relay Gold Medal (set World Record of 37.86 seconds)
  • 100 m Silver Medal

• 1984 Olympic Games - Los Angeles, U.S.
  • 4 x 100 m Relay Gold Medal (set World Record of 37.83)

• 1987 World Championships - Rome, Italy
  • 200 m Gold Medal

• 1988 Olympic Games - Seoul, South Korea
  • 100 m Bronze Medal

• 1992 IAAF World Cup - Havana, Cuba
  • 100 m Bronze Medal
  • 4 x 100 m Relay Gold Medal

Personal bests[link]

• All information taken from IAAF Profile.^[2]

See also[link]

• Men's 200 metres world record progression

References[link]

External links[link]

• IAAF profile for Calvin Smith
• The Athlete article from The Times
• Profile at run-down.com

Bershawn Jackson

Jackson at the 2008 Bislett Games.
Personal information
Nationality	American
Born	(1983-05-08) May 8, 1983 (age 29) Miami, Florida
Residence	Champaign, Illinois
Height	5 ft 8 in (1.73 m)
Weight	158 lb (72 kg)
Sport
Sport	Running
Achievements and titles
Personal best(s)	400m: 45.06 400m hurdles: 47.30
Medal record Men’s athletics Competitor for the  United States Olympic Games Bronze 2008 Beijing 400 m hurdles World Championships Gold 2005 Helsinki 400 m hurdles Gold 2009 Berlin 4x400 m relay Gold 2011 Daegu 4×400 m relay Bronze 2009 Berlin 400 m hurdles World Indoor Championships Gold 2010 Doha 4x400 m relay Continental Cup Bronze 2010 Split 400 m hurdles

Bershawn Jackson (born May 8, 1983 in Miami, Florida) is an American athlete, who mainly competes in the 400 m hurdles, but is also a capable 400 m runner.

At the 2008 Summer Olympics, Jackson won a bronze medal in the 400 m hurdles.^[1] He also has three medals (two gold, one bronze) at the World Championships and one gold medal at the World Indoor Championships.

Career[link]

Jackson first came to prominence while running for Miami Central High School, where he set the still standing FHSAA (Florida High School) record in the 300 meter hurdles at 36.01 in 2002.^[2]

Personal bests[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

• IAAF profile for Bershawn Jackson
• USA Track & Field: Bershawn Jackson

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Kirani James

Kirani James at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics
Personal information
Nationality	Grenada
Born	(1992-09-01) 1 September 1992 (age 19) Gouyave, Grenada
Residence	Tuscaloosa, Alabama, U.S.
Sport
Sport	Running
College team	Alabama Crimson Tide
Achievements and titles
Personal best(s)	200 m: 20.41 (El Paso 2011) 400 m: 44.36 (Zürich 2011)
Medal record Men's athletics Competitor for  Grenada World Championships Gold 2011 Daegu 400 m World Junior Championships Gold 2010 Moncton 400 m Silver 2008 Bydgoszcz 400 m Pan American Junior Championships Gold 2011 Miramar 200 m Gold 2009 Port-of-Spain 400 m CARIFTA Games (Junior) Gold 2010 George Town 200 m Gold 2010 George Town 400 m Gold 2009 Vieux Fort 400 m Bronze 2009 Vieux Fort 4×400 m relay World Youth Championships Gold 2009 Brixen 200 m Gold 2009 Brixen 400 m Silver 2007 Ostrava 400 m Commonwealth Youth Games Gold 2008 Pune 400 m CARIFTA Games (Youth) Gold 2008 Basseterre 200 m Gold 2008 Basseterre 400 m Gold 2007 Providenciales 400 m

Kirani James (born 1 September 1992) is a Grenadian sprinter who specializes in the 200 and 400 metres. He is the reigning 400 metres world champion.

Prodigious from a young age, he ran the fastest 400 m times ever by a 14-year-old and a 15-year-old. He won a series of gold medals at the CARIFTA Games and the Commonwealth Youth Games and rose on the international stage with 400 m silver medals at the 2007 World Youth and 2008 World Junior Championships. James became the first athlete to run a 200/400 double at the 2009 World Youth Championships and was the 2010 World Junior Champion.

He gained an athletic scholarship at the University of Alabama and won back-to-back NCAA Outdoor Championship titles in his first two years. James is the third fastest of all-time indoors (44.80 seconds) and ran a personal best of 44.36 at the 2011 IAAF Diamond League in Zürich.

Career[link]

Youth career[link]

At the age of 14 James won the gold medal in the 400 m at the 2007 CARIFTA Games in the under 17 category with a time of 47.86 seconds. He went on to win a silver medals at the 2007 World Youth Championships with a time of 46.96 s a time which is the fastest run by a 14-year-old.

In April 2008 he defended his CARIFTA 400 m title, winning the 200 metres with a time of 21.38 s. In July that year he won silver medal at the 2008 World Junior Championships with a time of 45.70 s, which is his personal best nation youth and junior record and the fastest time ever run by a 15-year-old. In October he won the gold medal at the 2008 Commonwealth Youth Games with a new games record of 46.66 s.

James made his third CARIFTA Games appearance in 2009 and, in his under-20 debut, he defeated the defending 400 m champion and fellow Grenadian Rondell Bartholomew to win in a personal best of 45.45 s. This easily set a new championship record, beating Usain Bolt's six-year-old mark of 46.35 s.^[1][2] In consequence, he was awarded the Austin Sealy Trophy for the most outstanding athlete of the games.^[1][3]

James became the first youth athlete to complete a 200/400 metres double gold at the 2009 World Youth Championships in Athletics. Noting that he would be a junior athlete for a further two years, he focused on upcoming events, pinpointing the 2010 World Junior Championships in Athletics and the 2012 Summer Olympics as future goals.^[4] Following this, he won the 400 m at the 2009 Pan American Junior Championships.^[5] He was declared the 2009 Grenada Sportsman of the Year.^[6]

College athletics[link]

At least ten colleges in the United States had expressed strong interest in recruiting James for their track team, including Baylor, Alabama, South Carolina, Florida State, and Arizona State.^[7] He accepted a scholarship offer from Alabama and in his first ever appearance on an indoor track he ran a 45.79 in the 400 meters, placing first and breaking the 10-year-old school record of 46.46 held by Cori Loving.^[8]

James ran a new indoor personal best of 20.94 in the 200 m dash at the Texas A&M Challenge at Gilliam Indoor Track Stadium in College Station, Texas on February 13, 2010.^[9] He was runner-up at the NCAA Indoor Championships, finishing behind Torrin Lawrence. James lowered his 400 m personal best to 45.02 s at the 2010 CARIFTA Games, where he took a 200/400 m double,^[10] and improved further to 45.01 in winning the SEC Championships 400 m title. He claimed the gold medal over 400 m at the 2010 World Junior Championships in Athletics, but stated he was only running for times and was not satisfied with his winning performance of 45.89 seconds.^[11] He won the NCAA Outdoor Championship title in his first year of collegiate competition.^[12]

James moved up to third on the all-time indoor lists in February 2011, recording 44.80 seconds to win at the SEC Indoor Championships. This left only Michael Johnson and Kerron Clement as the faster athletes indoors, and also bettered LaShawn Merritt's previous world best junior time of 44.93 seconds.^[13] He failed to reach the podium at the NCAA Indoor meet as he clashed with another athlete and fell mid-race.^[14] He managed to repeat as the collegiate champion outdoors, however, as he edged ahead of Gil Roberts by one hundredth of a second.^[15] After the end of the college season, he made his professional debut at the London Grand Prix Diamond League meeting and established himself among the world's best with a personal best run of 44.61 seconds – a time which made him the fastest man that year.^[16]

Professional career[link]

At the 2011 World Championships in Daegu, South Korea, both James and fellow Grenadian runner Rondell Bartholomew made the finals of the 400m event. James won the event in a personal best of 44.60 seconds, becoming the youngest 400m world champion at the age of 18.^[17][18] The medal is the first for Grenada in any event at the World championships in athletics.^[18] Nine days later, James won the 400m at the 2011 IAAF Diamond League in Zürich with a new personal best of 44.36 seconds.