Spanish–american War

Saturday, 27 October 2012

Crucible of Empire, The Spanish-American War 2/8

Spanish American War the Philippines and Filipino Genocide1

Saylor HIST212: The Spanish-American War and American Imperialism

Crucible of Empire, The Spanish-American War 3/8

Crucible of Empire, The Spanish-American War 4/8

Crucible of Empire, The Spanish-American War 5/8

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Battle of Manila Bay
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Bayamo
Bayamo is the capital city of the Granma Province of Cuba, and one of the largest cities in the Oriente region.
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Bonus Army
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British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-quarter of the world's population at the time, and covered more than 13 million square miles (34 million km2), almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was often said that "the sun never sets on the British Empire" because its span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous territories.
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Camagüey
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Canary Islands
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Caribbean
The CaribbeanPronounced or . Both pronunciations are equally valid; indeed, they see equal use even within areas of the Caribbean itself. Cf. Royal Caribbean, which stresses the second syllable. In this case, as a proper noun, those who would normally pronounce it a different way may use the pronunciation associated with the noun when referring to it. More generic nouns such as the Caribbean Community are generally referred to using the speaker's preferred pronunciation.; Dutch ; or more commonly Antilles is a region consisting of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (most of which enclose the sea), and the surrounding coasts. The region is located southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and North America, east of Central America, and to the north of South America.
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Ciego de Ávila
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Cienfuegos
Cienfuegos is a city on the southern coast of Cuba, capital of the province of Cienfuegos. It is located about 250 km (155 miles) from Havana, and has a population of 150,000. The city is dubbed "La Perla del Sur" (Pearl of the South). Cienfuegos literally translates to "Hundred fires".
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Colorado
Colorado (pronounced or, chiefly by outsiders, ) is a U.S. state that encompasses most of the Southern Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains. Colorado is part of the Western United States, the Mountain States, and the Southwestern United States.
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Costa Rica
:For the plant genus Costarica, see its synonym Sicyos.
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Cuba
The Republic of Cuba (; , ) is an island country in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos.
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Daiquirí
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El Caney
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Fashoda Incident
The Fashoda Incident (1898) was the climax of imperial territorial disputes between the United Kingdom and France in Eastern Africa. It brought the United Kingdom and France to the verge of war, but ended in a diplomatic victory for the UK. It is held to have given rise to the 'Fashoda syndrome' in French foreign policy (assertion of French influence in areas which may be becoming susceptible to British influence).
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German Empire
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Guam
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Guantánamo
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Havana
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Holguín
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Intramuros
Intramuros, located along the southern bank of the Pasig River, was built by the Spaniards in the 16th century and is the oldest district of the city of Manila, the capital of the Philippines. Its name, in Latin, intramuros, literally "within the walls", meaning within the wall enclosure of the city/fortress, also describes its structure as it is surrounded by thick, high walls and moats. During the Spanish colonial period, Intramuros was considered Manila itself.
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Isla de la Juventud
Isla de la Juventud
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Key West, Florida
Key West is a city in Monroe County, Florida, United States. The city encompasses the island of Key West, the part of Stock Island north of U.S. 1 (the Overseas Highway) (east), Sigsbee Park (north, originally known as Dredgers Key), Fleming Key (north), and Sunset Key (west, originally known as Tank Island). Both Fleming Key and Sigsbee Park are part of Naval Air Station Key West and are inaccessible by civilians. Key West is the county seat of Monroe County. Key West is known as the southernmost city in the Continental United States. It is also the southern terminus of U.S. 1, State Road A1A, the East Coast Greenway and before 1935, the Florida East Coast Railway.
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Library of Congress
The Library of Congress is the research library of the United States Congress, de facto national library of the United States, and the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States. Located in three buildings in Washington, D.C., it is the largest library in the world by shelf space and number of books. The head of the Library is the Librarian of Congress, currently James H. Billington.
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Matanzas
Matanzas is the capital of the Cuban province of Matanzas. It is famed for its Afro-Cuban folklore.
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Montauk, New York
Montauk is a census-designated place (CDP) that roughly corresponds to the hamlet (unincorporated community) with the same name located in the town of East Hampton in Suffolk County, New York, United States on the South Shore of Long Island. As of the United States 2000 Census, the CDP population was 3,851. Montauk is the easternmost census-designated place in New York state.
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Panama Canal Zone
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Philipines
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Philippine Islands
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Philippines
The Philippines ( ), officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (), is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam. The Sulu Sea to the southwest lies between the country and the island of Borneo, and to the south the Celebes Sea separates it from other islands of Indonesia. It is bounded on the east by the Philippine Sea. Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and its tropical climate make the Philippines prone to earthquakes and typhoons but have also endowed the country with natural resources and made it one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the world. An archipelago comprising 7,107 islands, the Philippines is categorized broadly into three main geographical divisions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Its capital city is Manila.
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Pinar del Río
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Project FUBELT
Project FUBELT (also known as Track II) is the codename for the secret Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) operations that were intended to undermine Salvador Allende's government and promote a military coup in Chile.
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Puerto Rico
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Qingdao
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Santa Clara, Cuba
Santa Clara is the capital city of the Cuban province of Villa Clara. It is located in the most central region of the province and almost in the most central region of the country.
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Santiago de Cuba
Santiago de Cuba is the capital city of Santiago de Cuba Province in the south-eastern area of the island nation of Cuba, some east south-east of the Cuban capital of Havana.
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Santo Domingo
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Seavey's Island
'''Seavey's Island''', on which the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard resides, is located in the Piscataqua River in Kittery, Maine, opposite Portsmouth, New Hampshire. It encompasses .
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Sierra Maestra
:For the Cuban band,see Sierra Maestra (band).
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Spain
Spain ( ; , ), officially the Kingdom of Spain (), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
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Spanish Empire
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Spanish Guinea
Spanish Guinea was an African colony of Spain that became the independent nation of Equatorial Guinea.
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United States
The United States of America (also referred to as the United States, the U.S., the USA, or America) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Caribbean and Pacific.
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USS Merrimac (1894)
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USS Olympia (C-6)
{|
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Vermont
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Afro-Cuban
The term Afro-Cuban refers to Cubans of Sub Saharan African ancestry, and to historical or cultural elements in Cuba thought to emanate from this community. The term can refer to the combining of African and other cultural elements found in Cuban society such as religion, music, language, the arts, and class culture.
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Albert Nofi
Albert A. Nofi (b. January 6, 1944), is an American military historian, defense analyst, and designer of board and computer wargaming systems.
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Alfonso XII of Spain
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Alfred Thayer Mahan
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Allyn K. Capron, Jr.
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Antero Rubin
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Antonio Román
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Apolinario Mabini
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Booker T. Washington
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Buckey O'Neill
'''William Owen "Buckey" O'Neill''' (February 2, 1860–July 1, 1898) was a American soldier, sheriff, newspaper editor, miner, politician, gambler and lawyer, mainly in Arizona. His nickname came from his tendency to "buck the tiger" (play contrary to the odds) at faro or other card games.
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Calixto García
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Catalan people
The Catalans are the people from, or with origins in Catalonia, a historical Nation and today an Autonomous Community in Spain. The inhabitants of the adjacent portion of southern France (known in Catalonia proper as Catalunya Nord, and in France as the Pays Catalan) are sometimes included in this definition.
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Charles A. Wikoff
Charles Augustus Wikoff (March 3, 1837-July 1, 1898) was a United States Army officer serving from American Civil War until he became the most senior ranking American Army officer killed in the Spanish-American War
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Chinese Cuban
A Chinese Cuban (, Cantonese Jyutping: Gu2 Baa1 Waa4 jan4; ) is a Cuban of Chinese ancestry who was born in or has immigrated to Cuba. They are part of the ethnic Chinese diaspora (or Overseas Chinese).
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Chris Madsen
http://wn.com/Chris_Madsen
Ciboney people
The Ciboney were pre-Columbian indigenous inhabitants of the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean Sea. The name Ciboney derives from the indigenous Taino people which means Cave Dwellers; evidence has shown that a number of the Ciboney people have lived in caves at some time. Over the years, many theories has been brought forth as to how the Ciboney people arrived to the Caribbean. Many of these theories have a weak foundation due to insufficient evidence. It is explained in the book Liberties Lost: Caribbean Indigenous Societies and Slave Systems, "The most popular view now is that the Ciboney were from pre-farming cultures that entered the Antilles from South America, not as one ethnic group, but as waves of different migrants over a very long period of time."
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Compay Segundo
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Cuban American
A Cuban American () is a United States citizen who traces his or her "national origin" to Cuba. Cuban Americans are also considered native born Americans with Cuban parents or Cuban-born persons who were raised and educated in US. Cuban Americans form the third-largest Hispanic group in the United States and also the largest group of Hispanics of European ancestry as a percentage within the group in the US.
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Cuban Five
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Cubans
This article is about the native people of Cuba. For citizens of Cuban "national origin" inhabiting the United States of America, see Cuban American.
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Desi Arnaz
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Emilio Aguinaldo
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Fareed Zakaria
Fareed Rafiq Zakaria (; born January 20, 1964) is an Indian-American journalist and author. After a long career as a columnist for Newsweek and editor of Newsweek International, he has recently announced a move to Editor-At-Large of Time. He is also the host of CNN's Fareed Zakaria GPS, and a frequent commentator and author about issues related to international relations, trade and American foreign policy.
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Fidel Castro
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born August 13, 1926) is a Cuban politician. One of the primary leaders of the Cuban Revolution, Castro served as the Prime Minister of Cuba from February 1959 to December 1976, and then as the President of the Council of State of Cuba and the President of Council of Ministers of Cuba until his resignation from the office in February 2008. He currently serves as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, a position he has held since 1965.
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Frank Frantz
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Frederic Remington
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Fulgencio Batista
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Félix Varela
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Gary Busey
Gary Busey (born June 29, 1944) is an American film and stage actor and artist.
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George Dewey
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German Cuban
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Hamilton Fish
:See Hamilton Fish (disambiguation) for others with the same name
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Henry M. Teller
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Ibrahim Ferrer
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Isleño
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James Monroe
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John Avery McIlhenny
John Avery McIlhenny (1867–1942) was an American businessman, soldier, politician and public servant. He was the eldest son of Tabasco sauce inventor Edmund McIlhenny.
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John Hay
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John Milius
John Frederick Milius (born April 11, 1944) is an American screenwriter, director, and producer of motion pictures.
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José Martí
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José Rizal
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Juan Alamia
Juan Alamia (c. 1876–May 11, 1913) was an American soldier who served as a Rough Rider in the Spanish American War. He later died in the Mexican Revolution.
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Jules Cambon
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Korean War
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Lebanese Civil War
The Lebanese Civil War () was a multifaceted civil war in Lebanon. The war lasted from 1975 to 1990 and resulted in an estimated 130,000 to 250,000 civilian fatalities. Another one million people (one fourth of the population) were wounded,and today approximately 350,000 people remain displaced, the majority of them Christian Lebanese who were forced out of the Chouf mountains. There was also a mass exodus of almost one million people from Lebanon, mostly of Christian descent. The Post-war occupation of the country by Syria was particularly politically disadvantageous to the Christian population as most of their leadership was driven into exile, or had been assassinated or jailed (see Baroudi and Tabar 2009).
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Leonard Wood
Leonard Wood (October 9, 1860 – August 7, 1927) was a physician who served as the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, Military Governor of Cuba and Governor General of the Philippines. Early in his military career, he received the Medal of Honor. Wood also holds officer service #2 in the Regular Army (John Pershing holds officer service #1).
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Luis Posada Carriles
Luis Clemente Faustino Posada Carriles (born February 15, 1928) (nicknamed Bambi by some Cuban exiles) is a Cuban-born Venezuelan anti-communist activist. A former Central Intelligence Agency agent, Posada has been convicted in absentia of involvement in various terrorist attacks and plots in the Western hemisphere, including: involvement in the 1976 bombing of a Cuban airliner that killed seventy-three people; admitted involvement in a string of bombings in 1997 targeting fashionable Cuban hotels and nightspots; involvement in the Bay of Pigs invasion; involvement in the Iran-Contra affair; and, according to conspiracy theorists, involvement in the assassination of John F. Kennedy. In addition, he was jailed under accusations related to an assassination attempt on Fidel Castro in Panama in 2000, although he was later pardoned by Panamanian President Mireya Moscoso in the final days of her term.
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Mark Twain
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Máximo Gómez
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Nelson A. Miles
Nelson Appleton Miles (August 8, 1839 – May 15, 1925) was an American soldier who served in the American Civil War, Indian Wars, and the Spanish-American War.
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Nicolás Guillén
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Omara Portuondo
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Otto von Diederichs
Ernst Otto von Diederichs (born 7 September 1843 in Minden, Westphalia, Kingdom of Prussia (today in the German Federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia) - died 8 March 1918 at Baden-Baden, Germany) was an Admiral of the German Imperial Navy, serving in the predecessor Prussian Navy and the Navy of the North German Confederation.
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Pablo Milanés
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Patricio Montojo
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Práxedes Sagasta
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R. Lee Ermey
Ronald Lee Ermey (born March 24, 1944) is a retired U.S. Marine Corps drill instructor and an actor.
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Raúl Castro
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Second Boer War
The Second Boer War (, Afrikaans:Tweede Vryheidsoorlog or Tweede Boereoorlog), was fought from 11 October 1899 until 31 May 1902. The Second Boer War was fought between the British Empire and the Dutch-speaking Boer inhabitants of the two independent Boer republics: the South African Republic (Transvaal Republic) and the Orange Free State. It ended with the annexation of the region under the British Empire, ultimately forming the Union of South Africa as part of the Commonwealth. The conflict is commonly referred to as The Boer War but is also known as the South African War outside South Africa, the Anglo-Boer War among most South Africans, and in Afrikaans as the Anglo-Boereoorlog or Tweede Vryheidsoorlog ("Second War of Liberation") or the Engelse oorlog (English War).
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Silvio Rodríguez
http://wn.com/Silvio_Rodríguez
Somali Civil War
The Somali Civil War is an ongoing civil war taking place in Somalia. The conflict, which began in 1991, has caused destabilisation and instability throughout the country, with the current phase of the conflict seeing the Somali government losing substantial control of the state to rebel forces.
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Stewart L. Woodford
Stewart Lyndon Woodford (September 3, 1835 New York City - February 14, 1913) was an American politician.
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Theodore Roosevelt
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Thomas Brackett Reed
Thomas Brackett Reed, (October 18, 1839 – December 7, 1902), occasionally ridiculed as Czar Reed, was a U.S. Representative from Maine, and Speaker of the House from 1889–1891 and from 1895–1899. He was a powerful leader of the Republican Party but was unable to stop the Spanish-American War.
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Thomas H. Rynning
Thomas H. Rynning (February 17, 1866-June 18, 1941) was an American law enforcement officer, warden of Yuma Territorial Prison and a captain in the Arizona Rangers, serving as head of the organization from 1902 to 1907.
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Three Guardsmen
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Tom Berenger
Tom Berenger (born May 31, 1949) is an American actor known mainly for his roles in action films.
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Valeriano Weyler
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Vietnam War
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Walter LaFeber
Walter LaFeber (born August 30, 1933 in Walkerton, Indiana) was a Marie Underhill Noll Professor and a Steven Weisse Presidential Teaching Fellow of History in the Department of History at Cornell University. He is one of the United States' most distinguished historians, a revisionist, of the nation's Foreign Relations.
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Wesley Merritt
Wesley Merritt (June 16, 1836 – December 3, 1910) was a general in the United States Army during the American Civil War and the Spanish-American War. He is noted for distinguished service in the cavalry.
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William McKinley
William McKinley, Jr. (January 29, 1843 September 14, 1901) was the 25th President of the United States, and the last veteran of the American Civil War to be elected to that office.
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William T. Sampson
William Thomas Sampson (9 February 1840 – 6 May 1902) was a United States Navy rear admiral known for his victory in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba during the Spanish-American War.
http://wn.com/William_T_Sampson
World War I
World War I was a military conflict centered on Europe that began in the summer of 1914. The fighting ended in late 1918. This conflict involved all of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (centred around the Triple Entente) and the Central Powers. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilized in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, due largely to great technological advances in firepower without corresponding ones in mobility. It was the second deadliest conflict in history.
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Crucible of Empire: The Spanish-American War

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published: 22 Jan 2012

Crucible of Empire, The Spanish-American War 1/8

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published: 29 Oct 2010

Crucible of Empire, The Spanish-American War 2/8

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published: 29 Oct 2010

The Spanish-American War

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published: 30 Jan 2008

Spanish American War the Philippines and Filipino Genocide1

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published: 17 Oct 2007

Saylor HIST212: The Spanish-American War and American Imperialism

...

published: 12 May 2011

Spanish American War

...

published: 15 Jan 2011

Crucible of Empire, The Spanish-American War 3/8

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published: 29 Oct 2010

Spanish American War Rifles

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published: 10 Oct 2007

Crucible of Empire, The Spanish-American War 4/8

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published: 29 Oct 2010

Crucible of Empire, The Spanish-American War 5/8

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published: 29 Oct 2010

First War Film

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published: 03 Mar 2008

Hearst and the Spanish American War

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published: 31 Mar 2009

The Spanish American War

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published: 17 Jan 2010

The Spanish-American War

published: 11 Nov 2011

Author: Sofie Steinkjer

David Stanley: Imperialism & The Spanish American War

Pedagogy Training with Dr. David Stanley OSU...

published: 23 Nov 2011

Author: The Gilder Lehrman Institute

US2 08 ii Spanish-American War

published: 10 Sep 2012

Author: Curtis Manning

Hearst and the Spanish-American War

published: 20 May 2012

Author: COMUNIQUEIRO

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Virgin for sale: Website auctions off virginity of college student for $780,000 (Video)

The Examiner

26 Oct 2012

Related topics virgin auctionvirginity auction Advertisement A 20 year-old Brazilian student has sold her virginity for the sum of $780,000 through an online auction on a website simply called Virgins...

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Kim Jong-il Funeral ceremony .Kim Jong-il died of a suspected heart attack on 17 December 2011 at 08:30 while traveling by train to an area outside Pyongyang.

N. Korean Army General Executed with Mortar for Drinking

Novosti

25 Oct 2012

MOSCOW, October 25 (RIA Novosti) - A high-ranking North Korean Army official was reportedly executed with a mortar round for drinking liquor during the 100-day...

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Hurricane Sandy makes landfall at Naval Station Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, October 24, 2012.

Slow-moving Hurricane Sandy marches toward East Coast

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27 Oct 2012

MIAMI (Reuters) - Hurricane Sandy pulled away from the Bahamas on Saturday after killing at least 41 people in the Caribbean, beginning a slow march toward the U.S. East Coast where it threatens to...

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Myanmar Buddhist monks march, protesting against plans to open office of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), in Yangon, Myanmar, Monday, Oct. 15, 2012.

Muslims flee Myanmar as unrest continues

New Straits/Business Times

25 Oct 2012

YANGON: A new wave of sectarian violence in western Myanmar has left five people dead and dozens injured in recent days, triggering another exodus of Muslims to emergency camps, officials said...

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Waves, brought by Hurricane Sandy, crash on a house in the Caribbean Terrace neighborhood in eastern Kingston, Jamaica, Wednesday, Oct. 24, 2012.

Hurricane Sandy growing stronger as it nears Cuba

Yahoo Daily News

25 Oct 2012

HAVANA (Reuters) - Hurricane Sandy, growing stronger over warm Caribbean waters, lashed eastern Cuba with heavy rains and rising winds on Wednesday as it bore down on the communist island after...

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Land owners argue against Austin Boulevard widening project 28 Oct 2012

Dayton Daily News Residents are trying to put the brakes on a $5 million road plan to widen and extend a bike path along Austin Boulevard using eminent domain law previously untested in Montgomery County. The bike trail extension included in the plan to widen a 0.4 mile section of the road east of the new Interstate...(size: 6.4Kb)

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Spanish–American War

Part of the Philippine Revolution, Cuban War of Independence

Charge of the Rough Riders at San Juan Hill.JPG

Charge of the Rough Riders at San Juan Hill, by Frederic Remington

Date	April 25 – August 12, 1898
Location	Cuba and Puerto Rico (Caribbean) Philippine Islands and Guam (Asia-Pacific)
Result	Treaty of Paris Independence of Cuba Outbreak of the Philippine–American War
Territorial changes	Spain relinquishes sovereignty over Cuba, cedes the Philippine Islands, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the United States for the sum of $20 million.

Belligerents

United States

Republic of Cuba^[i]

Puerto Rico

Republic of the Philipines^[i]

Katipunan^[1]^[2]^[3]

Spain

Commanders and leaders

Demetrio Castillo Duany

Emilio Aguinaldo

Apolinario Mabini

Maria Christina

Práxedes Mateo Sagasta

Patricio Montojo

Pascual Cervera

Arsenio Linares y Pombo

Manuel Macías y Casado

Ramón Blanco y Erenas

Antero Rubin

Valeriano Weyler

Strength

Cuban Republic:

30,000 irregulars^[4]^:19

United States:

300,000 regulars and volunteers^[4]^:22

Spanish Army:

278,447 regulars and militia^[4]^:20 (Cuba),
10,005 regulars and militia^[4]^:20 (Puerto Rico),
51,331 regulars and militia^[4]^:20 (Philippines)

Casualties and losses

Cuban Republic:

10,665 dead^[4]^:20

United States Army:

3,045 dead,

1,577 wounded,

2,565 diseased^[4]^:67

United States Navy:

16 dead,

68 wounded^[4]^:67

Spanish Navy:

560 dead,

300–400 wounded^[4]^:67

Spanish Army:

3,000 dead or wounded

6,700 captured,^[5](Philippines)

13,000 diseased^[4] (Cuba)

^ ^a ^b Unrecognized

v t e Spanish–American War

Atlantic Ocean Theater Cuba Puerto Rico Pacific Ocean Theater The Philippines Guam

Banana Wars

Cuba (1898–1922)

Puerto Rico (1898)

Puerto Rican Campaign

Dominican Republic (1903–1924)

Honduras (1903–1925)

Nicaragua (1912–1933)

Mexico (1914)

Veracruz

Haiti (1915–1934)

History of Cuba
This article is part of a series
New Spain
Captaincy General of Cuba
Cuban War of Independence
Spanish–American War
United States Protectorate
Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)
Cuban Revolution
Topical
Military history
Cuba Portal v t e

The Spanish–American War was a conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States, effectively the result of American intervention in the ongoing Cuban War of Independence. American attacks on Spain's Pacific possessions led to involvement in the Philippine Revolution and ultimately to the Philippine–American War.^[7]

Revolts against Spanish rule had been endemic for decades in Cuba and were closely watched by Americans; there had been war scares before, as in the Virginius Affair in 1873. By 1897–98, American public opinion grew angrier at reports of Spanish atrocities in Cuba. After the mysterious sinking of the American battleship Maine in Havana harbor, political pressures from the Democratic Party pushed the administration of Republican President William McKinley into a war he had wished to avoid.^[8] Compromise proved impossible, resulting in the United States sending an ultimatum to Spain demanding it immediately surrender control of Cuba, which the Spanish rejected. First Madrid, then Washington, formally declared war.^[9]

Although the main issue was Cuban independence, the ten-week war was fought in both the Caribbean and the Pacific. American naval power proved decisive, allowing U.S. expeditionary forces to disembark in Cuba against a Spanish garrison already reeling from nationwide insurgent attacks and wasted by yellow fever.^[10] Cuban, Philippine, and American forces obtained the surrender of Santiago de Cuba and Manila owing to their numerical superiority in most of the battles and despite the good performance of some Spanish infantry units and spirited defenses in places like San Juan Hill.^[11] With two obsolete Spanish squadrons sunk in Santiago de Cuba and Manila Bay and a third, more modern fleet recalled home to protect the Spanish coasts, Madrid sued for peace.^[12]

The result was the 1898 Treaty of Paris, negotiated on terms favorable to the U.S., which allowed temporary American control of Cuba and, following their purchase from Spain, indefinite colonial authority over Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The defeat and collapse of the Spanish Empire was a profound shock to Spain's national psyche, and provoked a thoroughgoing philosophical and artistic reevaluation of Spanish society known as the Generation of '98.^[13] The victor gained several island possessions spanning the globe and a rancorous new debate over the wisdom of expansionism.^[14]

Historical background [link]

Spain's colonial retrenchment [link]

The combined traumas of the Peninsular War, the loss of most of its colonies in the Americas in the early 19th century Spanish American wars of independence, and two disastrous Carlist wars effected a new interpretation of Spain’s remaining empire. Liberal Spanish elites like Antonio Cánovas del Castillo and Emilio Castelar tried to redefine "empire" to dovetail with Spain's emerging nationalism. As Cánovas made clear in an address to the University of Madrid in 1882,^[15]^[16] the Spanish nation was a cultural and linguistic concept that tied Spain’s colonies to the metropole despite the oceans that separated them.

Cánovas argued that Spain was markedly different from rival empires like Britain and France. Unlike these empires, spreading civilization was Spain’s unique contribution to the New World.^[17] This popular reimagining of the Spanish Empire bestowed special significance on Cuba as an integral part of the Spanish nation. The focus on preserving the empire would have disastrous consequences for Spain’s sense of national identity in the aftermath of the war.

American interest in Caribbean [link]

In 1823, U.S. President James Monroe enunciated the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that the United States would not tolerate further efforts by European governments to colonize land or interfere with states in the Americas; however, Spain's colony in Cuba was exempted. Before the Civil War Southern interests attempted to have the U.S. purchase Cuba and make it new slave territory. The proposal failed, and national attention shifted to the Civil War.

The U.S. became interested in a canal either in Nicaragua, or in Panama, where the Panama Canal was built, and realized the need for naval protection. Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan was an especially influential theorist; his ideas were much admired by Theodore Roosevelt, as the U.S. rapidly built a powerful fleet in the 1890s. Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897–98 was an aggressive supporter of a war with Spain over Cuba.

Meanwhile the Cuba Libre movement, led by Cuban intellectual José Martí, had established offices in Florida^[18] and New York to buy and smuggle weapons. It mounted a large propaganda campaign to generate sympathy that would lead to official pressure on Spain. Protestant churches and Democratic farmers were supportive, but business interests called on Washington to ignore them.^[19]

Although Cuba attracted American attention, little note was made of the Philippines, Guam, or Puerto Rico.^[20]

Historians see little popular demand for an empire, but note that Britain, France, Germany and Japan had expanded their overseas empires dramatically, in Africa, Asia and the Pacific.^[21]

The path to war [link]

Cuban struggle for independence [link]

Main article: Cuban War of Independence

The first serious bid for Cuban independence, the Ten Years War, erupted in 1868 and was suppressed by the Spanish colonial authorities a decade later. Neither the brutal fighting nor the reforms in the Pact of Zanjón (February 1878) quelled the desire of some revolutionaries for independence. One such revolutionary, José Martí, continued to promote Cuban financial and political autonomy even in exile. In early 1895, after years of organizing, Martí launched a three-pronged invasion of the island.^[22]

The plan called for one group from Santo Domingo led by Máximo Gómez, one group from Costa Rica led by Antonio Maceo Grajales, and another from the United States (preemptively thwarted by U.S. officials in Florida) to land in different places on the island and provoke a nationalist revolution. While their call for revolution, the grito de Baíre, was successful, the expected revolution was not the grand show of force Martí had expected. With a quick victory effectively lost, the revolutionaries settled in to fight a protracted guerrilla campaign.^[23]

Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, the architect of Spain’s Restoration constitution and the prime minister at the time, ordered General Arsenio Martínez-Campos, a distinguished veteran of the war against the previous uprising in Cuba, to quell the revolt. Campos’s reluctance to accept his new assignment and his method of containing the revolt to the province of Oriente earned him ridicule in the Spanish press.^[24]

The mounting political pressure thus forced Cánovas to replace General Campos with General Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau, a soldier who had proved he could quash rebellions in the colonies and the Spanish metropole. Weyler deprived the insurgency of weaponry, supplies, and assistance by ordering the residents of some Cuban districts to move to reconcentration camps near the military headquarters.^[25] Although this strategy was brutally effective at slowing the spread of rebellion, it stirred indignation in the United States.^[26] McKinley remarked that this “was not civilized warfare" but "extermination.”^[27]

Spanish attitude [link]

A Catalan satirical drawing published in La Campana de Gràcia (1896), criticizing U.S. behavior regarding Cuba.

The Spanish government regarded Cuba as a province of Spain rather than a colony, and depended on it for prestige and trade, and as a training ground for the army. Prime minister Cánovas del Castillo announced that “the Spanish nation is disposed to sacrifice to the last peseta of its treasure and to the last drop of blood of the last Spaniard before consenting that anyone snatch from it even one piece of its territory.”^[28] He had long dominated and stabilized Spanish politics. He was assassinated in 1897, leaving a Spanish political system that was not stable and could not risk a blow to its prestige.^[29]

U.S. response [link]

The eruption of the Cuban revolt, Weyler’s measures, and the popular fury these events whipped up proved to be a boon to the newspaper industry in New York City, where Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World and William Randolph Hearst of the New York Journal recognized the potential for great headlines and stories that would sell copies. Both papers covered Spain’s actions and Weyler’s tactics in a way that confirmed the popular disparaging attitude toward Spain in America. In the minds, schoolbooks, and scholarship of the mostly Protestant U.S. public, the Catholic Spanish Empire was a backward, immoral union built on the backs of enslaved natives and funded with stolen gold.^[30]

The U.S. had important economic interests that were being harmed by the prolonged conflict and deepening uncertainty about the future of Cuba. Shipping firms that relied heavily on trade with Cuba suffered huge losses as the conflict continued unresolved.^[31] These firms pressed Congress and McKinley to seek an end to the revolt. Other U.S. business concerns, specifically those who had invested in Cuban sugar, looked to the Spanish to restore order.^[32] Stability, not war, was the goal of both interests. How stability would be achieved would depend largely on the ability of Spain and the U.S. to work out their issues diplomatically.

President McKinley, well aware of the political complexity surrounding the conflict, wanted to end the revolt peacefully. Threatening to consider recognizing Cuba’s belligerent status, and thus allowing the legal rearming of Cuban insurgents by U.S. firms, he sent Stewart L. Woodford to Madrid to negotiate an end to the conflict. With Práxedes Sagasta, an open advocate of Cuban autonomy, now Prime Minister of Spain (the more hard-line Cánovas del Castillo had been assassinated before Woodford arrived), negotiations went smoothly. Cuban autonomy was set to begin on January 1, 1898.^[33]

[edit] USS Maine

Main article: USS Maine (ACR-1)

The sunken USS Maine in Havana harbor.

Eleven days after the Cuban autonomous government took power, a small riot erupted in Havana. The riot was thought to be ignited by Spanish officers who were offended by the persistent newspaper criticism of General Valeriano Weyler’s policies.^[34] McKinley sent the USS Maine to Havana to ensure the safety of American citizens and interests.^[34]

The need for the U.S. to send Maine to Havana had been expected for months, but the Spanish government was notified just 18 hours before its arrival, which was contrary to diplomatic convention. Preparations for the possible conflict started in October 1897, when President McKinley arranged for Maine to be deployed to Key West, Florida,^[34] as a part of a larger, global deployment of U.S. naval power to attack simultaneously on several fronts if the war was not avoided. As Maine left Florida, a large part of the North Atlantic Squadron was moved to Key West and the Gulf of Mexico. Others were also moved just off the shore of Lisbon, and still others were moved to Hong Kong.^[35]

At 9:40 pm on February 15, 1898, Maine sank in Havana harbor after suffering a massive explosion. While McKinley preached patience, the news of the explosion and the death of 266 sailors stirred popular American opinion into demanding a swift belligerent response. McKinley asked Congress to appropriate $50 million for defense, and Congress unanimously obliged. Most American leaders took the position that the cause of the explosion was unknown, but public attention was now riveted on the situation and Spain could not find a diplomatic solution to avoid war. It appealed to the European powers, all of whom advised Spain to back down and avoid war.

The U.S. Navy’s investigation, made public on March 28, concluded that the ship’s powder magazines were ignited when an external explosion was set off under the ship’s hull. This report poured fuel on popular indignation in the U.S., making the war inevitable.^[36] Spain’s investigation came to the opposite conclusion: the explosion originated within the ship. Other investigations in later years came to various contradictory conclusions, but had no bearing on the coming of the war. In 1974, Admiral Hyman George Rickover had his staff look at the documents and decided there was an internal explosion. A study commissioned by National Geographic magazine in 1999, using AME computer modelling, stated that the explosion could have been caused by a mine, but no definitive evidence was found.^[37]

Declaring war [link]

Main article: Propaganda of the Spanish–American War

File:Charles A Wikoff.jpg

United States Army officer Colonel Charles A. Wikoff was the most senior U.S. military officer killed in the Spanish–American War.

After the Maine was destroyed,^[38] newspaper publishers Hearst and Pulitzer decided that the Spanish were to blame, and they publicized this theory as fact in their New York City papers using sensationalistic and astonishing accounts of "atrocities" committed by the Spanish in Cuba. Their press exaggerated what was happening and how the Spanish were treating the Cuban prisoners.^[39] The stories were based on truth but written with incendiary language causing emotional and often heated responses among readers. A common myth states, to the opinion of his illustrator Frederic Remington, that conditions in Cuba were not bad enough to warrant hostilities, Hearst responded: "You furnish the pictures and I'll furnish the war."^[40]

This new "yellow journalism" was, however, uncommon outside New York City, and historians no longer consider it the major force shaping the national mood.^[41] Public opinion nationwide did demand immediate action, overwhelming the efforts of President McKinley, Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed, and the business community to find a negotiated solution.

A speech delivered by Senator Redfield Proctor of Vermont on March 17, 1898 thoroughly analyzed the situation, concluding that war was the only answer. The speech helped provide one final push for the United States to declare war.^[4]^:210 Many in the business and religious communities, which had, until then, opposed war, switched sides, leaving McKinley and Speaker Reed almost alone in their resistance to a war.^[42] On April 11, McKinley ended his resistance and asked Congress for authority to send American troops to Cuba to end the civil war there, knowing that Congress would force a war.

On April 19, while Congress was considering joint resolutions supporting Cuban independence, Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado proposed the Teller Amendment to ensure that the U.S. would not establish permanent control over Cuba after the war. The amendment, disclaiming any intention to annex Cuba, passed the Senate 42 to 35; the House concurred the same day, 311 to 6. The amended resolution demanded Spanish withdrawal and authorized the President to use as much military force as he thought necessary to help Cuba gain independence from Spain. President McKinley signed the joint resolution on April 20, 1898, and the ultimatum was sent to Spain. In response, Spain broke off diplomatic relations with the United States on April 21. On the same day, the U.S. Navy began a blockade of Cuba.^[43] Spain declared war on April 23. On April 25, Congress declared that a state of war between the U.S. and Spain had existed since April 21, the day the blockade of Cuba had begun.^[43]

The Navy was ready, but the Army was not well-prepared for the war and made radical changes in plans and quickly purchased supplies. In the spring of 1898, the strength of the Regular U.S. Army was just 28,000 men. The Army wanted 50,000 new men but received over 220,000, through volunteers and the mobilization of state National Guard units.^[44]

Pacific Theater [link]

Philippines [link]

The Pacific theatre of the Spanish–American War.

In the 300 years of Spanish rule, the country developed from a small overseas colony governed from the Viceroyalty of New Spain to a land with modern elements in the cities. The Spanish-speaking middle classes of the 19th century were mostly educated in the liberal ideas coming from Europe. Among these Ilustrados was the Filipino national hero José Rizal, who demanded larger reforms from the Spanish authorities. This movement eventually led to the Philippine Revolution against Spanish colonial rule. The revolution had been in a state of truce since the signing of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato in 1897, with revolutionary leaders having accepted exile outside of the country.

The Battle of Manila Bay.

The first battle between American and Spanish forces was at Manila Bay where, on May 1, Commodore George Dewey, commanding the U.S. Navy's Asiatic Squadron aboard USS Olympia, in a matter of hours defeated a Spanish squadron under Admiral Patricio Montojo. Dewey managed this with only nine wounded.^[45]^[46] With the German seizure of Tsingtao in 1897, Dewey's squadron had become the only naval force in the Far East without a local base of its own, and was beset with coal and ammunition problems.^[47] Despite these problems, the Asiatic Squadron not only destroyed the Spanish fleet but also captured the harbor of Manila.^[47]

Following Dewey's victory, Manila Bay was filled with the warships of Britain, Germany, France and Japan.^[47] The German fleet of eight ships, ostensibly in Philippine waters to protect German interests, acted provocatively – cutting in front of American ships, refusing to salute the United States flag (according to customs of naval courtesy), taking soundings of the harbor, and landing supplies for the besieged Spanish.^[49]

The Germans, with interests of their own, were eager to take advantage of whatever opportunities the conflict in the islands might afford. The Americans called the bluff of the Germans, threatening conflict if the aggression continued, and the Germans backed down.^[50]^[51] At the time, the Germans expected the confrontation in the Philippines to end in an American defeat, with the revolutionaries capturing Manila and leaving the Philippines ripe for German picking.^[52]

Commodore Dewey transported Emilio Aguinaldo, a Filipino leader who had led rebellion against Spanish rule in the Philippines in 1896, to the Philippines from exile in Hong Kong to rally more Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government.^[53] By June, U.S. and Filipino forces had taken control of most of the islands, except for the walled city of Intramuros. On June 12, Aguinaldo proclaimed the independence of the Philippines.^[54]^[55]

On August 13, with American commanders unaware that a cease-fire had been signed between Spain and the U.S. on the previous day, American forces captured the city of Manila from the Spanish.^[53]^[56] This battle marked the end of Filipino-American collaboration, as the American action of preventing Filipino forces from entering the captured city of Manila was deeply resented by the Filipinos. This later led to the Philippine–American War,^[57] which would prove to be more deadly and costly than the Spanish–American War.

The U.S. had sent a force of some 11,000 ground troops to the Philippines. Armed conflict broke out between U.S. forces and the Filipinos when U.S. troops began to take the place of the Spanish in control of the country after the end of the war, resulting in the Philippine–American War. On August 14, 1899, the Schurman Commission recommended that the U.S. retain control of the Philippines, possibly granting independence in the future.^[58]

Guam [link]

On June 20, a U.S. fleet commanded by Captain Henry Glass, consisting of the armored cruiser USS Charleston and three transports carrying troops to the Philippines, entered Guam's Apra Harbor, Captain Glass having opened sealed orders instructing him to proceed to Guam and capture it. Charleston fired a few cannon rounds at Fort Santa Cruz without receiving return fire. Two local officials, not knowing that war had been declared and believing the firing had been a salute, came out to Charleston to apologize for their inability to return the salute. Glass informed them that the U.S. and Spain were at war.^[59]

The following day, Glass sent Lt. William Braunersruehter to meet the Spanish Governor to arrange the surrender of the island and the Spanish garrison there. Some 54 Spanish infantry were captured and transported to the Philippines as prisoners of war. No U.S. forces were left on Guam, but the only U.S. citizen on the island, Frank Portusach, told Captain Glass that he would look after things until U.S. forces returned.^[60]

Caribbean Theater [link]

Cuba [link]

The Spanish armored cruiser Cristóbal Colón. Destroyed during the Battle of Santiago on July 3, 1898.

File:San Juan Hill by Kurz and Allison.JPG

Detail from Charge of the 24th and 25th Colored Infantry and Rescue of Rough Riders at San Juan Hill, July 2, 1898 depicting the Battle of San Juan Hill.

Theodore Roosevelt advocated intervention in Cuba, both for the Cuban people and to promote the Monroe Doctrine. While Assistant Secretary of the Navy, he placed the Navy on a war-time footing and prepared Dewey's Asiatic Squadron for battle. He also worked with Leonard Wood in convincing the Army to raise an all-volunteer regiment, the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry. Wood was given command of the regiment that quickly became known as the "Rough Riders".^[61]

The Americans planned to capture the city of Santiago de Cuba to destroy Linares' army and Cervera's fleet. To reach Santiago they had to pass through concentrated Spanish defenses in the San Juan Hills and a small town in El Caney. The American forces were aided in Cuba by the pro-independence rebels led by General Calixto García.

Land campaign [link]

From June 22–24, the U.S. V Corps under General William R. Shafter landed at Daiquirí and Siboney, east of Santiago, and established an American base of operations. A contingent of Spanish troops, having fought a skirmish with the Americans near Siboney on June 23, had retired to their lightly entrenched positions at Las Guasimas. An advance guard of U.S. forces under former Confederate General Joseph Wheeler ignored Cuban scouting parties and orders to proceed with caution. They caught up with and engaged the Spanish rearguard commanded of about 2000 soldiers led by General Antonio Rubin^[62] who effectively ambushed them, in the Battle of Las Guasimas on June 24. The battle ended indecisively in favor of Spain and the Spanish left Las Guasimas on their planned retreat to Santiago.

The U.S. Army employed American Civil War-era skirmishers at the head of the advancing columns. All four U.S. soldiers who had volunteered to act as skirmishers walking point at the head of the American column were killed, including Hamilton Fish, from a well-known patrician New York City family, and Captain Alyn Capron, whom Theodore Roosevelt would describe as one of the finest natural leaders and soldiers he ever met.^[63]

The Battle of Las Guasimas showed the U.S. that the old linear Civil War tactics did not work effectively against Spanish troops who had learned the art of cover and concealment from their own struggle with Cuban insurgents, and never made the error of revealing their positions while on the defense. Spanish troops were equipped with smokeless powder arms that also helped them to hide their positions while firing. Regular Spanish troops were mostly armed with modern charger-loaded 1893 7mm Spanish Mauser rifles in using smokeless powder, while militia and irregular troops were armed with Remington Rolling Block rifles in .43 Spanish using smokeless powder and brass jacketed bullet.^[64]

The high-speed 7x57mm Mauser round was termed the "Spanish Hornet" by the Americans because of the supersonic crack as it passed overhead. In response, American troops using .30–40 Krag-Jørgensen and worse, .45–70 Springfield single-shot black powder rifles found themselves unable to respond with an equivalent volume of fire. American soldiers could advance against the Spaniards only in what are now called "fireteam" rushes, four-to-five man groups advancing while others laid down supporting fire from small arms.

On July 1, a combined force of about 15,000 American troops in regular infantry and cavalry regiments, including all four of the army's "Colored" regiments, and volunteer regiments, among them Roosevelt and his "Rough Riders", the 71st New York, the 2nd Massachusetts Infantry, and 1st North Carolina, and rebel Cuban forces attacked 1,270 entrenched Spaniards in dangerous Civil War-style frontal assaults at the Battle of El Caney and Battle of San Juan Hill outside of Santiago.^[65] More than 200 U.S. soldiers were killed and close to 1,200 wounded in the fighting.^[66] Supporting fire by Gatling guns was critical to the success of the assault.^[67]^[68] Cervera decided to escape Santiago two days later.

The Spanish forces at Guantánamo were so isolated by Marines and Cuban forces that they did not know that Santiago was under siege, and their forces in the northern part of the province could not break through Cuban lines. This was not true of the Escario relief column from Manzanillo,^[69] which fought its way past determined Cuban resistance but arrived too late to participate in the siege.

After the battles of San Juan Hill and El Caney, the American advance halted. Spanish troops successfully defended Fort Canosa, allowing them to stabilize their line and bar the entry to Santiago. The Americans and Cubans forcibly began a bloody, strangling siege of the city.^[70] During the nights, Cuban troops dug successive series of "trenches" (raised parapets), toward the Spanish positions. Once completed, these parapets were occupied by U.S. soldiers and a new set of excavations went forward. American troops, while suffering daily losses from Spanish fire, suffered far more casualties from heat exhaustion and mosquito-borne disease.^[71] At the western approaches to the city, Cuban general Calixto Garcia began to encroach on the city, causing much panic and fear of reprisals among the Spanish forces.

Naval operations [link]

The Santiago Campaign (1898).

The major port of Santiago de Cuba was the main target of naval operations during the war. The U.S. fleet attacking Santiago needed shelter from the summer hurricane season; Guantánamo Bay, with its excellent harbor, was chosen. The 1898 invasion of Guantánamo Bay happened between June 6 and 10, with the first U.S. naval attack and subsequent successful landing of U.S. Marines with naval support.

The Battle of Santiago de Cuba on July 3, was the largest naval engagement of the Spanish–American War and resulted in the destruction of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron (also known as the Flota de Ultramar). In May, the fleet of Spanish Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete had been spotted by American forces in Santiago harbor, where they had taken shelter for protection from sea attack. A two-month stand-off between Spanish and American naval forces followed.

When the Spanish squadron finally attempted to leave the harbor on July 3, the American forces destroyed or grounded five of the six ships. Only one Spanish vessel, the new armored cruiser Cristobal Colon, survived, but her captain hauled down her flag and scuttled her when the Americans finally caught up with her. The 1,612 Spanish sailors who were captured, including Admiral Cervera, were sent to Seavey's Island at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, where they were confined at Camp Long as prisoners of war from July 11 until mid-September.

During the stand-off, U.S. Assistant Naval Constructor Richmond Pearson Hobson had been ordered by Rear Admiral William T. Sampson to sink the collier USS Merrimac in the harbor to bottle up the Spanish fleet. The mission was a failure, and Hobson and his crew were captured. They were exchanged on July 6, and Hobson became a national hero; he received the Medal of Honor in 1933 and became a Congressman.

U.S. withdrawal [link]

Fiebre amarilla, yellow fever, had quickly spread amongst the American occupation force, crippling it. A group of concerned officers of the American army chose Theodore Roosevelt to draft a request to Washington that it withdraw the Army, a request that paralleled a similar one from General Shafter, who described his force as an “army of convalescents”. By the time of his letter, 75% of the force in Cuba was unfit for service.^[72]

On August 7, the American invasion force started to leave Cuba. The evacuation was not total. The U.S. Army kept the black Ninth Infantry Regiment in Cuba to support the occupation. The logic was that their race and the fact that many black volunteers came from southern states would protect them; this logic led to these soldiers being nicknamed “Immunes”. Still, when the Ninth left, 73 of its 984 soldiers had contracted the disease.^[72]

Puerto Rico [link]

Main article: Puerto Rican Campaign

File:Spanish defenders of Guayama.jpg

Puerto Rican and Spanish troops in Guayama, Puerto Rico.

In May 1898, Lt. Henry H. Whitney of the United States Fourth Artillery was sent to Puerto Rico on a reconnaissance mission, sponsored by the Army's Bureau of Military Intelligence. He provided maps and information on the Spanish military forces to the U.S. government prior to the invasion. On May 10, U.S. Navy warships were sighted off the coast of Puerto Rico. On May 12, a squadron of 12 U.S. ships commanded by Rear Adm. William T. Sampson bombarded San Juan. During the bombardment, many government buildings were shelled. On June 25, the USS Yosemite blockaded San Juan harbor.

On July 25, General Nelson A. Miles, with 3,300 soldiers, landed at Guánica, beginning the Puerto Rican Campaign. The troops faced resistance early in the invasion. The first skirmish between the American and Spanish troops occurred in Guánica. The first organized armed opposition occurred in Yauco in what became known as the Battle of Yauco.^[73] This encounter was followed by the Battles of Fajardo, Guayama, Guamaní River Bridge, Coamo, Silva Heights and finally by the Battle of Asomante.^[73]^[74] On August 9, 1898, infantry and cavalry troops encountered Spanish and Puerto Rican soldiers armed with cannons in a mountain known as Cerro Gervasio del Asomante, while trying to enter Aibonito.^[74]

The American commanders decided to retreat and regroup, returning on August 12, 1898, with an artillery unit.^[74] The Spanish and Puerto Rican units began the offensive with cannon fire, being led by Ricardo Hernáiz. The sudden attack caused confusion among some soldiers, who reported seeing a second Spanish unit nearby.^[74] In the cross fire, four American troops—Sergeant John Long, Lieutenant Harris, Captain E.T. Lee and Corporal Oscar Swanson—were gravely injured.^[74] Based on this and the reports of upcoming reinforcements, Commander Landcaster ordered a retreat.^[74]

Making peace [link]

Jules Cambon, the French Ambassador in the U.S., signing the memorandum of ratification on behalf of Spain.

With defeats in Cuba and the Philippines, and both of its fleets incapacitated, Spain sued for peace.

Hostilities were halted on August 12, 1898, with the signing in Washington of a Protocol of Peace between the United States and Spain.^[75] After over two months of difficult negotiations, the formal peace treaty, the Treaty of Paris, was signed in Paris on December 10, 1898,^[76] and was ratified by the United States Senate on February 6, 1899.

The United States gained almost all of Spain's colonies in the treaty, including the Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico.^[76] The treaty came into force in Cuba April 11, 1899, with Cubans participating only as observers. Having been occupied since July 17, 1898, and thus under the jurisdiction of the United States Military Government (USMG), Cuba formed its own civil government and gained independence on May 20, 1902, with the announced end of USMG jurisdiction over the island. However, the U.S. imposed various restrictions on the new government, including prohibiting alliances with other countries, and reserved the right to intervene. The U.S. also established a perpetual lease of Guantánamo Bay.

Aftermath [link]

File:TR On Horseback Back From Cuba 1898.jpg

With the end of the war, Colonel Theodore Roosevelt musters out of the U.S. Army after the required 30-day quarantine period at Montauk, Long Island, in 1898.

The war lasted four months. John Hay (the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom), writing from London to his friend Theodore Roosevelt declared that it had been "a splendid little war."^[77]^[78] The press showed Northerners and Southerners, blacks and whites fighting against a common foe, helping to ease the scars left from the American Civil War.^[79]

The war marked American entry into world affairs. Since then, the U.S. has had a significant hand in various conflicts around the world, and entered many treaties and agreements. The Panic of 1893 was over by this point, and the U.S. entered a long and prosperous period of economic and population growth, and technological innovation that lasted through the 1920s.^[80]

The war redefined national identity, served as a solution of sorts to the social divisions plaguing the American mind, and provided a model for all future news reporting.^[81]

The war also effectively ended the Spanish Empire. Spain had been declining as an imperial power since the early 19th century as a result of Napoleon's invasion. The loss of Cuba caused a national trauma because of the affinity of peninsular Spaniards with Cuba, which was seen as another province of Spain rather than as a colony. Spain retained only a handful of overseas holdings: Spanish West Africa, Spanish Guinea, Spanish Sahara, Spanish Morocco and the Canary Islands.

The Spanish soldier Julio Cervera Baviera, who served in the Puerto Rican Campaign, published a pamphlet in which he blamed the natives of that colony for its occupation by the Americans, saying: "I have never seen such a servile, ungrateful country [i.e., Puerto Rico].... In twenty-four hours, the people of Puerto Rico went from being fervently Spanish to enthusiastically American.... They humiliated themselves, giving in to the invader as the slave bows to the powerful lord."^[82] He was challenged to a duel by a group of young Puerto Ricans for writing this pamphlet.^[83]

Culturally, a new wave called the Generation of '98 originated as a response to this trauma, marking a renaissance in Spanish culture. Economically, the war benefited Spain, because after the war large sums of capital held by Spaniards in Cuba and America were returned to the peninsula and invested in Spain. This massive flow of capital (equivalent to 25% of the gross domestic product of one year) helped to develop the large modern firms in Spain in the steel, chemical, financial, mechanical, textile, shipyard, and electrical power industries.^[84] However, the political consequences were serious. The defeat in the war began the weakening of the fragile political stability that had been established earlier by the rule of Alfonso XII.

The cover of Puck from April 6, 1901. Caricaturizes an Easter bonnet made out of a warship that alludes to the gains of the Spanish–American War.

Congress had passed the Teller Amendment prior to the war, promising Cuban independence. However, the Senate passed the Platt Amendment as a rider to an Army appropriations bill, forcing a peace treaty on Cuba which prohibited it from signing treaties with other nations or contracting a public debt. The Platt Amendment was pushed by imperialists who wanted to project U.S. power abroad (this was in contrast to the Teller Amendment which was pushed by anti-imperialists who called for a restraint on U.S. rule). The amendment granted the United States the right to stabilize Cuba militarily as needed. The Platt Amendment also provided for a permanent American naval base in Cuba. Guantánamo Bay was established after the signing of treaties between Cuba and the U.S. beginning in 1903.

The U.S. annexed the former Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam. The notion of the United States as an imperial power, with colonies, was hotly debated domestically with President McKinley and the Pro-Imperialists winning their way over vocal opposition led by Democrat William Jennings Bryan, who had supported the war. The American public largely supported the possession of colonies, but there were many outspoken critics such as Mark Twain, who wrote The War Prayer in protest.

Roosevelt returned to the United States a war hero, and he was soon elected governor and then vice president.

1900 Campaign poster.

The war served to further repair relations between the American North and South. The war gave both sides a common enemy for the first time since the end of the Civil War in 1865, and many friendships were formed between soldiers of northern and southern states during their tours of duty. This was an important development, since many soldiers in this war were the children of Civil War veterans on both sides.^[85]

Segregation in the U.S. military, 1898

The African-American community strongly supported the rebels in Cuba, supported entry into the war, and gained prestige from their wartime performance in the Army. Spokesmen noted that 33 African-American seamen had died in the Maine explosion. The most influential Black leader, Booker T. Washington, argued that his race was ready to fight. War offered them a chance "to render service to our country that no other race can," because, unlike Whites, they were "accustomed" to the "peculiar and dangerous climate" of Cuba. One of the Black units that served in the war was the 9th Cavalry Regiment. In March 1898, Washington promised the Secretary of the Navy that war would be answered by "at least ten thousand loyal, brave, strong Black men in the south who crave an opportunity to show their loyalty to our land, and would gladly take this method of showing their gratitude for the lives laid down, and the sacrifices made, that Blacks might have their freedom and rights."^[86]

In 1904, the United Spanish War Veterans was created from smaller groups of the veterans of the Spanish American War. Today, that organization is defunct, but it left an heir in the Sons of Spanish–American War Veterans, created in 1937 at the 39th National Encampment of the United Spanish War Veterans. According to data from the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, the last surviving U.S. veteran of the conflict, Nathan E. Cook, died on September 10, 1992, at age 106. (If the data is to be believed, Cook, born October 10, 1885, would have been only 12 years old when he served in the war.)

The Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States (VFW) was formed in 1914 from the merger of two prior veterans organizations which both arose in 1899: the American Veterans of Foreign Service and the National Society of the Army of the Philippines.^[87] The former was formed for veterans of the Spanish–American War, while the latter was formed for veterans of the Philippine–American War. Both organizations were formed in response to the general neglect veterans returning from the war experienced at the hands of the government.

To pay the costs of the war, Congress passed an excise tax on long-distance phone service.^[88] At the time, it affected only wealthy Americans who owned telephones. However, the Congress neglected to repeal the tax after the war ended four months later, and the tax remained in place for over 100 years until, on August 1, 2006, it was announced that the U.S. Department of the Treasury and the IRS would no longer collect the tax.^[89]

Spanish–American War in film and television [link]

The Spanish–American War was the first U.S. war in which the motion picture camera played a role.^[90] The Library of Congress archives contain many films and film clips from the war.^[91] In addition, many feature films have been made about the war. These include

The Rough Riders, a 1927 silent film
Rough Riders, a 1997 television miniseries directed by John Milius, and featuring Tom Berenger (Theodore Roosevelt), Gary Busey (Joseph Wheeler), Sam Elliott (Buckey O'Neill), Dale Dye (Leonard Wood), Brian Keith (William McKinley), George Hamilton (William Randolph Hearst), and R. Lee Ermey (John Hay)
The Spanish–American War: First Intervention, a 2007 docudrama from The History Channel
Baler, a 2008 film about the Siege of Baler
Los últimos de Filipinas ("The Last Ones of the Philippines"), a 1945 Spanish biographical film film directed by Antonio Román.

Military decorations [link]

File:Spainc.gif

U.S. Army "War with Spain" campaign streamer

United States [link]

The United States awards and decorations of the Spanish–American War were as follows:

Wartime service and honors

Medal of Honor
Specially Meritorious Service Medal
Spanish Campaign Medal – upgradeable to include the Silver Citation Star to recognize those U.S. Army members who had performed individual acts of heroism.
West Indies Campaign Medal
Sampson Medal, West Indies service under Admiral William T. Sampson
Dewey Medal, service during the Battle of Manila Bay under Admiral George Dewey
Spanish War Service Medal, U.S. Army homeland service

Postwar occupation service

Other countries [link]

The governments of Spain and Cuba also issued a wide variety of military awards to honor Spanish, Cuban, and Philippine soldiers who had served in the conflict.

Notes [link]

^ The United States was informally allied with Katipunan forces under Emilio Aguinaldo from the time of Aguinaldo's return to Manila on May 19, 1898 until those forces were absorbed into a government proclaimed May 24, 1898, and continued to be informally allied with government forces until the end of the war.
^ Guevara, Sulpico, ed. (2005), "Philippine Declaration of Independence", The laws of the first Philippine Republic (the laws of Malolos) 1898–1899, Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Library (published 1972), http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=philamer;cc=philamer;rgn=full%20;idno=aab1246.0001.001;didno=aab1246.0001.001;view=image;seq=00000221, retrieved 2008-03-26 . (English translation by Sulpicio Guevara)
^ Guevara, Sulpico, ed. (2005), "Facsimile of the Proclamation of the Philippine Independence at Kawit, Cavite, June 12, 1898", The laws of the first Philippine Republic (the laws of Malolos) 1898–1899, Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Library (published 1972), http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=philamer&cc=philamer&idno=aab1246.0001.001&frm=frameset&view=image&seq=203, retrieved 2008-03-26 . (Original handwritten Spanish)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Dyal 1996
^ Trask 1996, p. 371
^ Some recent historians prefer a broader title to encompass the fighting in Cuba and the Philippine Islands.
examples:

Louis A. Pérez (1998), The war of 1898: the United States and Cuba in history and historiography, UNC Press Books, ISBN 978-0-8078-4742-8, http://books.google.com/books?id=OVFV4qclY-YC

Benjamin R. Beede (1994), The War of 1898, and U.S. interventions, 1898–1934: an encyclopedia, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-8240-5624-7, http://books.google.com/books?id=48g116X9IIwC

Thomas David Schoonover; Walter LaFeber (2005), Uncle Sam's War of 1898 and the Origins of Globalization, University Press of Kentucky, ISBN 978-0-8131-9122-5, http://books.google.com/books?id=3u3ctVjVNPsC

Virginia Marie Bouvier (2001), Whose America?: the war of 1898 and the battles to define the nation, Praeger, ISBN 978-0-275-96794-9, http://books.google.com/books?id=dwp3AAAAMAAJ
^ Beede 1994, p. 148.
^ Beede 1994, p. 120.
^ Pérez 1998, p. 89 states: "In the larger view, the Cuban insurrection had already brought the Spanish army to the brink of defeat. During three years of relentless war, the Cubans had destroyed railroad lines, bridges, and roads and paralyzed telegraph communications, making it all but impossible for the Spanish army to move across the island and between provinces. [The] Cubans had, moreover, inflicted countless thousands of casualties on Spanish soldiers and effectively driven Spanish units into beleaguered defensive concentrations in the cities, there to suffer the further debilitating effects of illness and hunger."
^ "Military Book Reviews". StrategyPage.com. http://www.strategypage.com/articles/default.asp?target=spaniard/spaniard.htm. Retrieved 2011-03-22.
^ Dyal 1996, pp. 108–109.
^ Dyal 1996, pp. 108–109.
^ George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign relations since 1776 (2008) ch. 8
^ Baycroft & Hewitson 2006, pp. 225–226
^ Antonio Cánovas del Castillo (November 1882). "Discurso sobre la nación" (in Spanish). cervantesvirtual.com. http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/67927392103470562565679/p0000001.htm. Baycroft & Hewitson 2006, pp. 225–226
^ Schmidt-Nowara, The Conquest of History, p.34–42
^ Gary R. Mormino, "Cuba Libre, Florida, and the Spanish American War," Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal (2010) Vol. 31 Issue 1/2, pp. 43–54
^ G. Wayne King, "Conservative Attitudes in the United States toward Cuba (1895–1898)," Proceedings of the South Carolina Historical Association, (1973) pp. 94–104
^ George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 (2008)
^ Edward P. Crapol, "Coming to Terms with Empire: The Historiography of Late-Nineteenth-Century. American Foreign Relations," Diplomatic History 16 (Fall 1992): 573–97; Hugh DeSantis, "The Imperialist Impulse and American Innocence, 1865–1900," in Gerald K. Haines and J. Samuel Walker, eds., American Foreign Relations: A Historiographical Review (1981), pp. 65–90; James A. Field, Jr., "American Imperialism: The Worst Chapter in Almost Any Book," American Historical Review 83 (June 1978): 644–68
^ Trask 1996, pp. 2–3
^ Trask 1996, pp. 2–3
^ Jonathan Krohn, "Review of Tone, John Lawrence, War and Genocide in Cuba 1895–1898. "H-War, H-Net Reviews." May, 2008. online
^ Jonathan Krohn, "Review of Tone, John Lawrence, War and Genocide in Cuba 1895–1898. "H-War, H-Net Reviews." May, 2008. online
^ Trask 1996, pp. 8–10; Carr 1982, pp. 379–388.
^ James Ford Rhodes (2007), The McKinley and Roosevelt Administrations 1897–1909, READ BOOKS, pp. 44, ISBN 978-1-4067-3464-5, http://books.google.com/?id=em-5IEHHTAUC , citing an annual message delivered December 6, 1897 from French Ensor Chadwick (1968), The relations of the United States and Spain: diplomacy, Russell & Russell, http://books.google.com/?id=ozGTAAAAIAAJ
^ Quoted in Trask 1996, p. 6
^ Octavio Ruiz, "Spain on the Threshold of a New Century: Society and Politics before and after the Disaster of 1898," Mediterranean Historical Review (June 1998), Vol. 13 Issue 1/2, pp 7–27
^ Richard L. Kagan, "Prescott's Paradigm: American Historical Scholarship and the Decline of Spain," The American Historical Review 101, no. 2 (April 1996): 423–46.
^ Trade with Cuba had dropped by more than two thirds from a high of 100 Million USD. Offner 2004, p. 51.
^ David M. Pletcher, The Diplomacy of Trade and Investment: American Economic Expansion in the Hemisphere, 1865–1900 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1998).
^ Offner 2004, pp. 54–55.
^ ^a ^b ^c Trask 1996, p. 24
^ Offner 2004, p. 56.
^ Offner 2004, p. 57. For a minority view that downplays the role of public opinion and asserts that McKinley feared the Cubans would win their insurgency before the U.S. could intervene, see Louis A. Pérez, "The Meaning of the Maine: Causation and the Historiography of the Spanish–American War," The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 58, No. 3 (Aug., 1989), pp. 293–322.
^ For a summary of all the studies see Louis Fisher, "Destruction of the Maine (1898)" (2009)
^ Casualties on USS Maine, Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy, http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq71-2.htm, retrieved 2007-12-20
^ Ruiz, Vicki L. 2006. "Nuestra América: Latino History as United States History." Journal of American History P.655
^ Campbell, W. Joseph (August 2000). "Not likely sent: the Remington-Hearst "telegrams"". Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly. http://academic2.american.edu/~wjc/wjc3/notlikely.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-06.
^ Smythe 2003, p. 192.
^ Offner 1992, pp. 131–35; Michelle Bray Davis and Rollin W. Quimby, "Senator Proctor's Cuban Speech: Speculations on a Cause of the Spanish–American War," Quarterly Journal of Speech 1969 55(2): 131–141. ISSN 0033-5630.
^ ^a ^b Trask 1996, p. 57
^ Graham A. Cosmas, An Army for Empire: The United States Army and the Spanish–American War (1971) ch. 3–4
^ Battle of Manila Bay, May 1, 1898, Department of the Navy – Naval Historical Center. Retrieved on October 10, 2007
^ The Battle of Manila Bay by Admiral George Dewey, The War Times Journal. Retrieved on October 10, 2007
^ ^a ^b ^c James A. Field, Jr. (June 1978), "American Imperialism: the Worst Chapter in Almost Any Book", The American Historical Review (American Historical Association) 83 (3): 659, DOI:10.2307/1861842, JSTOR 1861842
^ Wionzek 2000, p. x.
^ Dewey characterized the German interests as a single import firm; Admiral Otto von Diederichs responded with a list of eleven.^[48]
^ Seekins, Donald M. (1991), "Historical Setting—Outbreak of War, 1898", in Dolan, Philippines: A Country Study, Washington: Library of Congress, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ph0023), retrieved 2007-12-25
^ Augusto V. de Viana (September 21, 2006), What ifs in Philippine history, Manila Times, archived from the original on October 30, 2007, http://web.archive.org/web/20071030050605/http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2006/sept/21/yehey/top_stories/20060921top9.html, retrieved 2007-10-19
^ What ifs in Philippine history, Conclusion, Manila Times, September 22, 2006, archived from the original on October 30, 2007, http://web.archive.org/web/20071030050610/http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2006/sept/22/yehey/top_stories/20060922top9.html, retrieved 2007-10-19
^ Wionzek 2000, p. xvi, citing Hubatsch, Walther, Auslandsflotte und Reichspolitik, Mărwissenschaftliche Rundschau (August 1944), pp. 130–153.
^ ^a ^b The World of 1898: the Spanish–American War, U.S. Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/intro.html, retrieved 2007-10-10
^ Guevara, Sulpico, ed. (2005), "Philippine Declaration of Independence", The laws of the first Philippine Republic (the laws of Malolos) 1898–1899, Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Library (published 1972), http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=philamer;cc=philamer;rgn=full%20text;idno=aab1246.0001.001;didno=aab1246.0001.001;view=image;seq=00000221
^ "Philippine History". DLSU-Manila. http://pinas.dlsu.edu.ph/history/history.html. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
^ "Our flag is now waving over Manilia", San Francisco Chronicle, http://www.footnote.com/spotlight/6879/newspaper_article_americans_capture/, retrieved 2008-12-20
^ Lacsamana 2006, p. 126.
^ Brune & Burns 2003, p. 290
^ Beede 1994, pp. 208–209; Rogers 1995, pp. 110–112
^ Beede 1994, pp. 208–209; Rogers 1995, pp. 110–112
^ Roosevelt 1899
^ The Spanish–American War in Cuba : Battle of Las Guasimas.
^ Roosevelt, Theodore, The Rough Riders, Scribner's Magazine, Vol. 25 (January–June), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, p. 572
^ Roosevelt, Theodore, The Rough Riders, Scribner's Magazine, Vol. 25 (January–June), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, p. 572
^ The Battles at El Caney and San Juan Hills at HomeOfHeroes.com.
^ The Crowded Hour: The Charge at El Caney & San Juan Hills at HomeOfHeroes.com.
^ Parker 2003
^ History of the Gatling Gun Detachment, John Henry Parker at Project Gutenberg.
^ Escario's Column, Francisco Jose Diaz Diaz.
^ Daley 2000, pp. 161–71
^ McCook 1899
^ ^a ^b Vincent J. Cirillo. 2004. Bullets and Bacilli: The Spanish–American War and Military Medicine. (Rutgers University Press).
^ ^a ^b The American Army Moves on Puerto-Rico, Retrieved August 2, 2008
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Edgardo Pratts (2006) (in Spanish), De Coamo a la Trinchera del Asomante (First ed.), Puerto Rico: Fundación Educativa Idelfonso Pratts, ISBN 0-9762185-6-9
^ Protocol of Peace Embodying the Terms of a Basis for the Establishment of Peace Between the Two Countries, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., August 12, 1898, http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/pr980812.html, retrieved 2007-10-17
^ ^a ^b "Treaty of Paris, 1898". http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp. Retrieved 2009-12-31.
^ Bethell, John (November–December 1998), "A Splendid Little War"; Harvard and the commencement of a new world order, Harvard magazine, http://harvardmagazine.com/1998/11/war.html, retrieved 2007-12-11
^ Millis 1979, p. 340
This source provides a more complete quote:

It has been a splendid little war; begun with the highest motives, carried on with magnificent intelligence and spirit, favored by the fortune which loves the brave. It is now to be concluded, I hope, with that firm good nature which is after all the distinguishing trait of our American character.
^ Montoya 2011, p. 78.
^ Bailey 1961, p. 657
^ Kaplan, Richard L. 2003. "American Journalism Goes to War, 1898–2001: a manifesto on media and empire."P. 211
^ Negrón-Muntaner 2004, p. 11, citing Julio Cervera Baviera (1898), La defensa militar de Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico, pp. 79–80
^ Protagonistas de la Guerra Hispano Americana en Puerto Rico Parte II – Comandante Julio Cervera Baviera, 1898 La Guerra Hispano Americana en Puerto Rico, http://home.coqui.net/sarrasin/pers2.htm#anchor134043, retrieved 2008-02-06 (an excerpt frem Carreras & Tafunell 2004)
^ Albert Carreras & Xavier Tafunell: Historia Económica de la España contemporánea, p. 200–208, ISBN 84-8432-502-4.
^ Confederate & Federal Veterans of '98: Civil War Veterans who served in the Spanish–American War, Philippine Insurrection, and China Relief Expedition by Micah J. Jenkins^{[dead link]}. Retrieved on October 13, 2007
^ Gatewood 1975, pp. 23–29; there were some opponents, ibid. p. 30–32.
^ "VFW at a Glance" (PDF). VFW. September 2, 2004. http://www.vfw.org/resources/pdf/glance.pdf. Retrieved 2006-11-04.
^ Reardon, Marguerite (June 30, 2005). "Senators want to nix 1898 telecom tax". CNET Networks. http://www.news.com/Senators-want-to-nix-1898-telecom-tax/2100-1036_3-5769948.html?tag=st.nl. Retrieved 2008-02-15.
^ Reardon, Marguerite (August 1, 2006). "Telecom tax imposed in 1898 finally ends". CNET Networks. http://www.news.com/2100-1037_3-6101004.html. Retrieved 2008-02-15.
^ The Spanish American War in Motion Picture, U.S. Library of Congress.
^ Early Motion Pictures, 1897–1920, U.S. Library of Congress

References [link]

American Peace Society (1898), The Advocate of Peace, American Peace Society, http://books.google.com/?id=wtsBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA36, retrieved 2008-01-22 .
Bailey, Thomas Andrew (1961), The American Pageant: A History of the Republic, Heath, http://books.google.com/?id=dnRGAAAAMAAJ .
Baycroft, Timothy; Hewitson, Mark (2006), What is a nation?: Europe 1789–1914, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-929575-3, http://books.google.com/books?id=0RuPcvc2F4YC .
Beede, Benjamin R., ed. (1994), The War of 1898 and U.S. Interventions, 1898–1934, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-8240-5624-7, http://books.google.com/?id=48g116X9IIwC . An encyclopedia.
Botero, Rodrigo (2001), "Ambivalent embrace: America's troubled relations with Spain from the Revolutionary War to the Cold War", Contributions to the study of world history (Greenwood Publishing Group) 78, ISBN 978-0-313-31570-1, http://books.google.com/?id=y0A1q6_aEEoC .
Brune, Lester H.; Burns, Richard Dean (2003), "Chronological History of U.S. Foreign Relations: 1607–1932", Volume 1 of Chronological History of U.S. Foreign Relations, Richard Dean Burns, ISBN 978-0-415-93914-0 (Routledge), ISBN 978-0-415-93915-7, http://books.google.com/?id=Xux-LSxSY6cC .
Campbell, W. Joseph (2001), Yellow Journalism: Puncturing the Myths, Defining the Legacies, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 0-275-96686-0, http://books.google.com/?id=1u4ZBA-P1IQC .
Carr, Raymond (1982), Spain, 1808–1975, Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-822128-2, http://books.google.com/?id=NXpgQgAACAAJ&dq=carr,+raymond+spain+1808&cd=6 .
Carreras, Albert; Tafunell, Xavier (2004), Historia económica de la España Contemporánea, Crítica, ISBN 978-84-8432-502-4 .
Dyal, Donald H; Carpenter, Brian B.; Thomas, Mark A. (1996), Historical Dictionary of the Spanish American War, Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-28852-6, http://books.google.com/?id=PvxFKPI6q_oC .
Dolan, Edward F. (2001), The Spanish–American War, Twenty-First Century Books, ISBN 978-0-7613-1453-0, http://books.google.com/?id=mHA7k2VInvEC
Gatewood, Willard B. (1975), Black Americans and the White Man's Burden, 1898–1903, University of Illinois Press, ISBN 0-252-00475-2
Gaudreault, André (2009), American cinema, 1890–1909: themes and variations, Rutgers University Press, ISBN 978-0-8135-4443-4, http://books.google.com/?id=3h9RrEokcrwC .
Hendrickson, Kenneth E., Jr. (2003), The Spanish–American War, Greenwood, ISBN 978-0-313-31662-3, http://books.google.com/?id=Jk53AAAAMAAJ . short summary
Lacsamana, Leodivico Cruz (2006), Philippine history and government, Phoenix Pub. House, ISBN 978-971-06-1894-1, http://books.google.com/?id=Wb53AAAACAAJ .
Levy, Jack S.; Thompson, William R. (2010), Causes of War, John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 978-1-4051-7559-3, http://books.google.com/books?id=6puH_395tUYC
Millis, Walter (1979), The martial spirit, Ayer Publishing, ISBN 978-0-405-11866-1, http://books.google.com/books?id=e_QlhpIsrXgC
Montoya, Arthur (2011), America's Original Sin: Absolution & Penance, Xlibris Corporation, ISBN 978-1-4628-4434-0, http://books.google.com/books?id=ro77t2oCXhEC
Negrón-Muntaner, Frances (2004), Boricua Pop: Puerto Ricans and the Latinization of American Culture, NYU Press, ISBN 978-0-8147-5818-2 .
Offner, John L. (1992), An Unwanted War: the Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895–1898 .
Offner, John L. (2004), "McKinley and the Spanish–American War", Presidential Studies Quarterly 34 (1): 50–61, DOI:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2004.00034.x, ISSN 0360-4918 .
Parker, John H. (2003), The Gatlings at Santiago, Indypublish.com, ISBN 978-1-4043-8137-7, http://authorama.com/gatlings-at-santiago-1.html
Pérez, Louis A. (1998), The war of 1898: the United States and Cuba in history and historiography, UNC Press Books, ISBN 978-0-8078-4742-8, http://books.google.com/books?id=OVFV4qclY-YC
Rogers, Robert F. (1995), Destiny's Landfall: A History of Guam (illustrated ed.), University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-1678-0, http://books.google.com/?id=AEn9J3tXFS8C .
Roosevelt, Theodore (1899), "I. RAISING THE REGIMENT", The Rough Riders, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, http://bartleby.com/51/1.html .
Smithsonian Institution (2005), The Price of Freedom: Americans at War – Spanish American War, National Museum of American History (U.S.), ISBN 978-0-9744202-3-3 .
Smythe, Ted Curtis (2003), The Gilded Age press, 1865–1900, Praeger, ISBN 978-0-313-30080-6, http://books.google.com/books?id=iIhZAAAAMAAJ .
Tone, John Lawrence. War and Genocide in Cuba 1895–1898 (2006) online review
Trask, David F. (1996), The war with Spain in 1898, U of Nebraska Press, ISBN 978-0-8032-9429-5, http://books.google.com/books?id=2f0Gf0DQfmUC .
Tucker, Spencer (2009), The encyclopedia of the Spanish–American and Philippine–American wars: a political, social, and military history, ABC-CLIO, ISBN 978-1-85109-951-1, http://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC .
Wionzek, Karl-Heinz (2000), Germany, the Philippines, and the Spanish–American War: four accounts by officers of the Imperial German Navy, National Historical Institute, http://books.google.com/books?id=F-RxAAAAMAAJ .

External links [link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Spanish–American War

The Spanish American War lesson from EDSITEment
America's Black Patriots – Spanish American War
Spanish–American War Centennial
Points of Confusion over the Cuba Question and Cuba Sovereignty
Individual state's contributions to the Spanish–American War: Illinois, Pennsylvania
Sons of Spanish American War Veterans
From 'Dagoes' to 'Nervy Spaniards,' American Soldiers' Views of their Opponents, 1898 by Albert Nofi
Excerpts from The National Museum of American history.
Reenactment of Spanish–American War (video)

v t e Major armed conflicts involving the United States Armed Forces

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International	Revolutionary War Quasi-War First Barbary War War of 1812 Second Barbary War First Sumatran Expedition Second Sumatran Expedition Ivory Coast Expedition Mexican–American War First Fiji Expedition Second Opium War Second Fiji Expedition Korean Expedition Spanish–American War Philippine–American War Boxer Rebellion Banana Wars Border War World War I Russian Civil War World War II Korean War Vietnam War Invasion of the Dominican Republic Invasion of Grenada Lebanese Civil War Invasion of Panama Gulf War Somali Civil War Bosnian War Kosovo War Afghanistan War Iraq War War in North-West Pakistan Yemeni al-Qaeda crackdown Libyan Civil War Lord's Resistance Army insurgency

Related articles	List of conflicts in the U.S. List of wars involving the U.S. Timeline of U.S. military operations Length of U.S. participation in major wars Overseas expansion Military history Covert regime-change actions Casualties of war

v t e Diplomacy of the great powers 1871–1913

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v t e United States intervention in Latin America

Policy	Monroe Doctrine (1823) Platt Amendment (1901) Roosevelt Corollary / Big Stick ideology (1904) Good Neighbor policy (1933) Dollar Diplomacy

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Disputed claims	2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt 2004 Haitian rebellion

Other	Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

Foreign policy of the United States Latin America–United States relations

v t e Rough Riders

Officers	Leonard Wood Theodore Roosevelt Alexander Oswald Brodie Buckey O'Neill Seth Bullock John Campbell Greenway John Avery McIlhenny Allyn K. Capron, Jr. Frank Frantz Thomas H. Rynning

Enlisted men	George G. McMurtry Chris Madsen Hamilton Fish Thomas Grindell Henry Barrett Billy McGinty Juan Alamia

Engagements	Spanish-American War Battle of Las Guasimas Battle of San Juan Hill Siege of Santiago

Memorials	Buckey O'Neill Cabin Buckey O'Neill Monument Bronco Buster Theodore Roosevelt Monument Assemblage

Film	The Rough Riders (film) Teddy, the Rough Rider Rough Riders (film)

See Also	Arizona Rangers Three Guardsmen Canyon Diablo Train Robbery Battleground Gunfight Tiburon Island Tragedy Roosevelt's World War I volunteers The Lost Battalion

http://wn.com/Spanish–American_War

http://it.wn.com/Guerra ispano-americana

http://cs.wn.com/Španělsko-americká válka

http://id.wn.com/Perang Spanyol-Amerika

http://es.wn.com/Guerra hispano-estadounidense

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History of U.S. expansion and influence
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Timeline of military operations
List of bases
Manifest destiny
Non-interventionism
Overseas interventions
Pax Americana
America's Backyard
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This is a timeline of United States government military operations. The list through 1975 is based on Committee on International Relations (now known as the Committee on Foreign Affairs). Dates show the years in which U.S. government military units participated. The bolded items are the U.S. government wars most often considered to be major conflicts by historians and the general public. Note that instances where the U.S. government gave aid alone, with no military personnel involvement, are excluded, as are CIA-based operations.

1 Extraterritorial and major domestic deployments
2 Other interventions
3 Battles with the Native Americans
4 Relocation
5 Armed insurrections and slave revolts
6 Range wars
7 Bloody local feuds
8 Bloodless boundary disputes
9 Terrorist, paramilitary groups and guerrilla warfare
- 9.1 18th & 19th century
- 9.2 20th & 21st century
10 Labor-management disputes
11 State and national secession attempts
12 Riots, disorder and natural disasters
13 Covert operations, coups, military advisers etc.
14 Miscellaneous
- 14.1 Latter Day Saints
- 14.2 Republic of Texas
15 See also
16 Notes
17 References
18 Further reading
19 External links

Extraterritorial and major domestic deployments [link]

Portions of this list are from the Congressional Research Service report RL30172.^[1]

1775–1799 [link]

1775–1783 – American Revolutionary War

1776–1777 – Second Cherokee War

1776–1794 – Chickamauga Wars

1785–1795 – Northwest Indian War

1786–1787 – Shays' Rebellion

1791–1794 – Whiskey Rebellion

1798–1800 – Quasi-War, an undeclared naval war with France. This contest included land actions, such as that in the Dominican Republic city of Puerto Plata, where U.S. Marines captured a French privateer under the guns of the forts. Congress authorized military action through a series of statutes.^[1]

1799–1800 – Fries's Rebellion, a Pennsylvania protest against war taxes.

1800–1809 [link]

1801–1805 – First Barbary War – USS George Washington and USS Philadelphia affairs result in actions against the Barbary pirates responsible. In the Eaton expedition, a few Marines and soldiers landed with United States Agent William Eaton to raise a force against Tripoli in an effort to free the crew of the Philadelphia. Tripoli declared war; the United States did not, although Congress authorized military action by statute.^[1]

1806 – Spanish Mexico – A platoon under Captain Zebulon Pike invaded Spanish territory at the headwaters of the Rio Grande on orders from General James Wilkinson. He was made prisoner without resistance at a fort he constructed in present-day Colorado, taken to Mexico, and later released after seizure of his papers.^[RL30172]

1806–10 – Gulf of Mexico. American gunboats operated from New Orleans against Spanish and French privateers off the Mississippi Delta, chiefly under Captain John Shaw and Master Commandant David Porter.^[1]

1810–1819 [link]

1810 – West Florida (Spanish territory). Governor William C.C. Claiborne of Louisiana, on orders of President James Madison, occupied with troops territory in dispute east of the Mississippi as far as the Pearl River, later the eastern boundary of Louisiana. He was authorized to seize as far east as the Perdido River.^[RL30172]

1812 – Amelia Island and other parts of east Florida, then under Spain. Temporary possession was authorized by President James Madison and by Congress, to prevent occupation by any other power; but possession was obtained by General George Mathews in so irregular a manner that his measures were disavowed by the President.^[RL30172]

1812–15 – War of 1812. On June 18, 1812, the United States declared war against the United Kingdom. Among the issues leading to the war were British impressment of American sailors into the Royal Navy, interception of neutral ships and blockades of the United States during British hostilities with France. ^[RL30172]

1813 – West Florida (Spanish territory). On authority given by Congress, General Wilkinson seized Mobile Bay in April with 600 soldiers. A small Spanish garrison gave way. Thus U.S. troops advanced into disputed territory to the Perdido River, as projected in 1810. No fighting.^[RL30172]

1813–14 – Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia). U.S. forces built a fort on the island of Nuku Hiva to protect three prize ships which had been captured from the British.^[RL30172]

1814 – Spanish Florida. General Andrew Jackson took Pensacola and drove out the British forces.^[RL30172]

1814–25 – Caribbean. Engagements between pirates and American ships or squadrons took place repeatedly especially ashore and offshore about Cuba, Puerto Rico, Santo Domingo, and Yucatán. Three thousand pirate attacks on merchantmen were reported between 1815 and 1823. In 1822, Commodore James Biddle employed a squadron of two frigates, four sloops of war, two brigs, four schooners, and two gunboats in the West Indies.^[RL30172]

1815 – Algiers. The Second Barbary War was declared against the United States by the Dey of Algiers of the Barbary states, an act not reciprocated by the United States. Congress did authorize a military expedition by statute. A large fleet under Captain Stephen Decatur attacked Algiers and obtained indemnities.^[RL30172]

1815 – Tripoli. After securing an agreement from Algiers, Captain Decatur demonstrated with his squadron at Tunis and Tripoli, where he secured indemnities for offenses during the War of 1812.^[RL30172]

1816 – Spanish Florida. United States forces destroyed Negro Fort, which harbored fugitive slaves making raids into United States territory.^[RL30172]

1816–18 – Spanish Florida – First Seminole War. The Seminole Indians, whose area was a haven for escaped slaves and border ruffians, were attacked by troops under General Jackson and General Edmund P. Gaines and pursued into northern Florida. Spanish posts were attacked and occupied, British citizens executed. In 1819 the Floridas were ceded to the United States.^[RL30172]

1817 – Amelia Island (Spanish territory off Florida). Under orders of President James Monroe, United States forces landed and expelled a group of smugglers, adventurers, and freebooters.^[RL30172]

1818 – Oregon. The USS Ontario dispatched from Washington, which made a landing at the mouth of the Columbia River to assert US claims. Britain had conceded sovereignty but Russia and Spain asserted claims to the area.^[RL30172] Subsequently, American and British claims to the Oregon Country were resolved with the Oregon Treaty of 1846.^[RL30172]

1820–1829 [link]

1820–23 – Africa. Naval units raided the slave traffic pursuant to the 1819 act of Congress. ^[RL30172]^{[Slave Traffic]}

1822 – Cuba. United States naval forces suppressing piracy landed on the northwest coast of Cuba and burned a pirate station.^[RL30172]

1823 – Cuba. Brief landings in pursuit of pirates occurred April 8 near Escondido; April 16 near Cayo Blanco; July 11 at Siquapa Bay; July 21 at Cape Cruz; and October 23 at Camrioca.^[RL30172]

1824 – Cuba. In October the USS Porpoise landed bluejackets near Matanzas in pursuit of pirates. This was during the cruise authorized in 1822.^[RL30172]

1824 – Puerto Rico (Spanish territory). Commodore David Porter with a landing party attacked the town of Fajardo which had sheltered pirates and insulted American naval officers. He landed with 200 men in November and forced an apology. Commodore Porter was later court-martialed for overstepping his powers.^[RL30172]

1825 – Cuba. In March cooperating American and British forces landed at Sagua La Grande to capture pirates.^[RL30172]

1827 – Greece. In October and November landing parties hunted pirates on the Mediterranean islands of Argenteire, Myconos, and Andros.^[RL30172]

1830–1839 [link]

1831–32 – Falkland Islands. Captain Silas Duncan of the USS Lexington investigated the capture of three American sailing vessels and sought to protect American interests.^[RL30172]

1832 – Attack on Quallah Battoo, Sumatra, Indonesia – February 6–9. U.S. forces under Commodore John Downes aboard the frigate USS Potomac landed and stormed a fort to punish natives of the town of Quallah Battoo for plundering the American cargo ship Friendship.^[RL30172]

1833 – Argentina. October 31 to November 15. A force was sent ashore at Buenos Aires to protect the interests of the United States and other countries during an insurrection.^[RL30172]

1835–36 – Peru. December 10, 1835, to January 24, 1836, and August 31 to December 7, 1836. Marines protected American interests in Callao and Lima during an attempted revolution.^[RL30172]

1835–42 Florida Territory. United States Navy supports the Army's efforts at quelling uprisings and attacks on civilians by Seminole Indians. Government's efforts to relocate the Seminoles to west of the Mississippi are hindered by 7 years of war.

1838 – The Caroline affair on Navy Island, Canada. After the failure of the Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837 favoring Canadian democracy and independence from the British Empire; William Lyon Mackenzie and his rebels fled to Navy Island where they declared the Republic of Canada. American sympathizers sent supplies on the SS Caroline, which was intercepted by the British and set ablaze, after killing one American. It was falsely reported that dozens of Americans were killed as they were trapped on board, and American forces retaliated by burning a British steamer while it was in U.S. waters.

1838–39 – Sumatra (Indonesia). December 24, 1838, to January 4, 1839. A naval force landed to punish natives of the towns of Quallah Battoo and Muckie (Mukki) for depredations on American shipping.^[RL30172]

1840–1849 [link]

1840 – Fiji Islands. July. Naval forces landed to punish natives for attacking American exploring and surveying parties.^[RL30172]

1841 – McKean Island (Drummond Island/Taputenea), Gilbert Islands (Kingsmill Group), Pacific Ocean. A naval party landed to avenge the murder of a seaman by the natives.^[RL30172]

1841 – Samoa. February 24. A naval party landed and burned towns after the murder of an American seaman on Upolu.^[RL30172]

1842 – Mexico. Commodore Thomas ap Catesby Jones, in command of a squadron long cruising off California, occupied Monterey, California, on October 19, believing war had come. He discovered peace, withdrew, and saluted. A similar incident occurred a week later at San Diego.^[RL30172]

1843 – China. Sailors and marines from the St. Louis were landed after a clash between Americans and Chinese at the trading post in Canton.^[RL30172]

1843 – Africa. November 29 to December 16. Four United States vessels demonstrated and landed various parties (one of 200 marines and sailors) to discourage piracy and the slave trade along the Ivory Coast, and to punish attacks by the natives on American seamen and shipping.^[RL30172]

1844 – Mexico. President Tyler deployed U.S. forces to protect Texas against Mexico, pending Senate approval of a treaty of annexation. (Later rejected.) He defended his action against a Senate resolution of inquiry.^[RL30172]

1846–48 – Mexican-American War On May 13, 1846, the United States recognized the existence of a state of war with Mexico. After the annexation of Texas in 1845, the United States and Mexico failed to resolve a boundary dispute and President Polk said that it was necessary to deploy forces in Mexico to meet a threatened invasion.

The war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848. The Treaty gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, established the U.S.-Mexican border of the Rio Grande River, and ceded to the United States the present-day states of California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Wyoming. In return, Mexico received US $18,250,000[34] ($459,127,885 today)—less than half the amount the U.S. had attempted to offer Mexico for the land before the opening of hostilities. ^[RL30172]

1849 – Smyrna (İzmir, Turkey). In July a naval force gained release of an American seized by Austrian officials.^[RL30172]

1850–1859 [link]

1851 – Ottoman Empire. After a massacre of foreigners (including Americans) at Jaffa in January, a demonstration by the Mediterranean Squadron was ordered along the Turkish (Levantine) coast.^[RL30172]

1851 – Johanns Island (east of Africa). August. Forces from the U.S. sloop-of-war Dale exacted redress for the unlawful imprisonment of the captain of an American whaling brig.^[RL30172]

1852–53 – Argentina. February 3 to 12, 1852; September 17, 1852 to April 1853. Marines were landed and maintained in Buenos Aires to protect American interests during a revolution.^[RL30172]

1853 – Nicaragua. March 11 to 13. US forces landed to protect American lives and interests during political disturbances^[RL30172]

1853–54 – Japan. Commodore Matthew Perry and his expedition made a display of force leading to the "opening of Japan."^[RL30172]

1853–54 – Ryūkyū and Bonin Islands (Japan). Commodore Matthew Perry on three visits before going to Japan and while waiting for a reply from Japan made a naval demonstration, landing marines twice, and secured a coaling concession from the ruler of Naha on Okinawa; he also demonstrated in the Bonin Islands with the purpose of securing facilities for commerce.^[RL30172]

1854 – China. April 4 to June 15 to 17. American and English ships landed forces to protect American interests in and near Shanghai during Chinese civil strife.^[RL30172]

1854 – Nicaragua. July 9 to 15. Naval forces bombarded and burned San Juan del Norte (Greytown) to avenge an insult to the American Minister to Nicaragua.^[RL30172]

1855 – China. May 19 to 21. U.S. forces protected American interests in Shanghai and, from August 3 to 5 fought pirates near Hong Kong.^[RL30172]

1855 – Fiji Islands. September 12 to November 4. An American naval force landed to seek reparations for attacks on American residents and seamen.^[RL30172]

1855 – Uruguay. November 25 to 29. United States and European naval forces landed to protect American interests during an attempted revolution in Montevideo.^[RL30172]

1856 – Panama, Republic of New Grenada. September 19 to 22. U.S. forces landed to protect American interests during an insurrection.^[RL30172]

1856 – China. October 22 to December 6. U.S. forces landed to protect American interests at Canton during hostilities between the British and the Chinese, and to avenge an assault upon an unarmed boat displaying the United States flag.^[RL30172]

1857–58 – Utah War. The Utah War was a dispute between Mormon settlers in Utah Territory and the United States federal government. The Mormons and Washington each sought control over the government of the territory, with the national government victorious. The confrontation between the Mormon militia and the U.S. Army involved some destruction of property, but no actual battles between the contending military forces.

1857 – Nicaragua. April to May, November to December. In May Commander Charles Henry Davis of the United States Navy, with some marines, received the surrender of William Walker, self-proclaimed president of Nicaragua, who was losing control of the country to forces financed by his former business partner, Cornelius Vanderbilt, and protected his men from the retaliation of native allies who had been fighting Walker. In November and December of the same year United States vessels USS Saratoga, USS Wabash, and Fulton opposed another attempt of William Walker on Nicaragua. Commodore Hiram Paulding's act of landing marines and compelling the removal of Walker to the United States, was tacitly disavowed by Secretary of State Lewis Cass, and Paulding was forced into retirement.^[RL30172]

1858 – Uruguay. January 2 to 27. Forces from two United States warships landed to protect American property during a revolution in Montevideo.^[RL30172]

1858 – Fiji Islands. October 6 to 16. A marine expedition with the USS Vandalia killed 14 natives and burned 115 huts in retaliation for the murder of two American citizens at Waya.^[RL30172] ^{[Vandalia 1]} ^{[Vandalia 2]}

1858–59 – Ottoman Empire. The Secretary of State requested a display of naval force along the Levant after a massacre of Americans at Jaffa and mistreatment elsewhere "to remind the authorities (of the Ottoman Empire) of the power of the United States."^[RL30172]

1859 – Paraguay. Congress authorized a naval squadron to seek redress for an attack on a naval vessel in the Paraná River during 1855. Apologies were made after a large display of force.^[RL30172]

1859 – Mexico. Two hundred United States soldiers crossed the Rio Grande in pursuit of the Mexican nationalist Juan Cortina.^[RL30172] ^{[1859 Mexico]}

1859 – China. July 31 to August 2. A naval force landed to protect American interests in Shanghai.^[RL30172]

1860–1869 [link]

1860 – Angola, Portuguese West Africa. March 1. American residents at Kissembo called upon American and British ships to protect lives and property during problems with natives.^[RL30172]

1860 – Colombia, Bay of Panama. September 27 to October 8. Naval forces landed to protect American interests during a revolution.^[RL30172]

1861–65 – American Civil War A major war between the United States (the Union) and eleven Southern states which declared that they had a right to secession and formed the Confederate States of America.

1863 – Japan. July 16. Naval battle of Shimonoseki. The USS Wyoming retaliated against a firing on the American vessel Pembroke at Shimonoseki.^[RL30172]

1864 – Japan. July 14 to August 3. Naval forces protected the United States Minister to Japan when he visited Yedo to negotiate concerning some American claims against Japan, and to make his negotiations easier by impressing the Japanese with American power.^[RL30172]

1864 – Japan. September 4 to 14. Naval forces of the United States, Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands compelled Japan and the Prince of Nagato in particular to permit the Straits of Shimonoseki to be used by foreign shipping in accordance with treaties already signed.^[RL30172]

1865 – Panama. March 9 and 10. US forces protected the lives and property of American residents during a revolution.^[RL30172]

1865–77 Southern United States – Reconstruction following the American Civil War. The South is divided into five Union occupation districts under the Reconstruction Act.

1866 – Mexico. To protect American residents, General Sedgwick and 100 men in November obtained surrender of Matamoros, on the border state of Tamaulipas. After three days he was ordered by US Government to withdraw. His act was repudiated by the President.^[RL30172]

1866 – China. June 20 to July 7. US forces punished an assault on the American consul at Newchwang.^[RL30172]

1867 – Nicaragua. Marines occupied Managua and Leon.

1867 – Formosa (island of Taiwan) June 13. A naval force landed and burned a number of huts to punish the murder of the crew of a wrecked American vessel.

1868 – Japan (Osaka, Hiolo, Nagasaki, Yokohama, and Negata). – February 4 to 8, April 4 to May 12, June 12 and 13. US forces were landed to protect American interests during a civil war (Boshin War) in Japan .^[RL30172]

1868 – Uruguay. February 7 and 8, 19 to 26. US forces protected foreign residents and the customhouse during an insurrection at Montevideo.^[RL30172]

1868 – Colombia. April. US forces protected passengers and treasure in transit at Aspinwall during the absence of local police or troops on the occasion of the death of the President of Colombia.^[RL30172]

1870–1879 [link]

1870 – Mexico. June 17 and 18. US forces destroyed the pirate ship Forward, which had been run aground about 40 miles up the Rio Tecapan.^[RL30172]

1870 – Kingdom of Hawaii. September 21. US forces placed the American flag at half-mast upon the death of Queen Kalama, when the American consul at Honolulu would not assume responsibility for so doing.^[RL30172]

1871 – Korea. Shinmiyangyo. June 10 to 12. A US naval force attacked and captured five forts to force stalled negotiations on trade agreements and to punish natives for depredations on Americans, particularly for executing the crew of the General Sherman and burning the schooner (which in turn happened because the crew had stolen food and kidnapped a Korean official), and for later firing on other American small boats taking soundings up the Salee River. ^[RL30172]

1873 – Colombia (Bay of Panama). May 7 to 22, September 23 to October 9. U.S. forces protected American interests during hostilities between local groups over control of the government of the State of Panama.^[RL30172]

1873–96 – Mexico. United States troops crossed the Mexican border repeatedly in pursuit of cattle and other thieves and other brigands.^[RL30172]

1874 – Kingdom of Hawaii. February 12 to 20. Detachments from American vessels were landed to protect the interests of Americans living in the Kingdom during the coronation of a new king.^[RL30172]

1876 – Mexico. May 18. An American force was landed to police the town of Matamoros, Mexico, temporarily while it was without other government.^[RL30172]

1878 - Lincoln County, New Mexico. July 15 - July 19. During the Battle of Lincoln (1878) (part of the Lincoln County War) 150 cavalry-men arrived from Fort Stanton, under the command of Lieutenant George Smith (later Colonel Nathan Dudley) to assist the Murphy-Dolan Faction in attacking the Lincoln County Regulators vigilante group. 5 dead, 8-28 wounded

1880–1889 [link]

1882 – Egypt. July 14 to 18. American forces landed to protect American interests during warfare between British and Egyptians and looting of the city of Alexandria by Arabs.^[RL30172]

1885 – Panama (Colón). January 18 and 19. US forces were used to guard the valuables in transit over the Panama Railroad, and the safes and vaults of the company during revolutionary activity. In March, April, and May in the cities of Colón and Panama, the forces helped reestablish freedom of transit during revolutionary activity.^[RL30172]

1888 – Korea. June. A naval force was sent ashore to protect American residents in Seoul during unsettled political conditions, when an outbreak of the populace was expected.^[RL30172]

1888 – Haiti. December 20. A display of force persuaded the Haitian Government to give up an American steamer which had been seized on the charge of breach of blockade.^[RL30172]

1888–89 – Samoa. November 14, 1888, to March 20, 1889. US forces were landed to protect American citizens and the consulate during a native civil war.^[RL30172]

1889 – Kingdom of Hawaii. July 30 and 31. US forces at Honolulu protected the interests of Americans living in Hawaii during an American led revolution.^[RL30172]

1890–1899 [link]

1890 – Argentina. A naval party landed to protect US consulate and legation in Buenos Aires.^[RL30172]

1890 – South Dakota. December 29. Soldiers of the US Army 7th Cavalry killed 178 Sioux Amerindians following an incident over a disarmament-inspection at a Lakota Sioux encampment near Wounded Knee Creek. 89 other Amerinds were injured, 150 were reported missing; Army casualties were 25 killed, 39 wounded.^{[citation needed]}

1891 – Haiti. US forces sought to protect American lives and property on Navassa Island.^[RL30172]

1891 – Bering Strait. July 2 to October 5. Naval forces sought to stop seal poaching.^[RL30172]

1891 – Chile. August 28 to 30. US forces protected the American consulate and the women and children who had taken refuge in it during a revolution in Valparaíso.^[RL30172]

1892 - Homestead strike, On July 6. Striking miners attack Pinkerton National Detective Agency agents attempting to break the strike by bringing non-union workers to the mine. 6,000 Pennsylvania state militiamen sent to reinstate law and order. 16 dead, 27-47 wounded

1892 - Wyoming. April 11 to April 13. U.S. Cavalry sent to breakup a gun battle at the TA Ranch. Johnson County War

1893 – Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom. January 16 to April 1. Marines landed in Hawaii, ostensibly to protect American lives and property, but many believed actually to promote a provisional government under Sanford B. Dole. This action was disavowed by President Cleveland, and eventually the United States apologized in 1993.^[RL30172]

1894 – Brazil. January. A display of naval force sought to protect American commerce and shipping at Rio de Janeiro during a Brazilian civil war.^[RL30172]

1894 – Nicaragua. July 6 to August 7. US forces sought to protect American interests at Bluefields following a revolution.^[RL30172]

1894–95 – China. Marines were stationed at Tientsin and penetrated to Peking for protection purposes during the First Sino-Japanese War.^[RL30172]

1894–95 – China. A naval vessel was beached and used as a fort at Newchwang for protection of American nationals.^[RL30172]

1894–96 – Korea. July 24, 1894 to April 3, 1896. A guard of marines was sent to protect the American legation and American lives and interests at Seoul during and following the Sino-Japanese War.^[RL30172]

1895 – Colombia. March 8 and 9. US forces protected American interests during an attack on the town of Bocas del Toro by a bandit chieftain.^[RL30172]

1896 – Nicaragua. May 2 to 4. US forces protected American interests in Corinto during political unrest.^[RL30172]

1898 – Nicaragua. February 7 and 8. US forces protected American lives and property at San Juan del Sur.^[RL30172]

1898 – Spanish-American War On April 25, 1898, the United States declared war with Spain. The war followed a Cuban insurrection, the Cuban War of Independence against Spanish rule and the sinking of the USS Maine in the harbor at Havana.^[RL30172]

1898–99 – Samoa. Second Samoan Civil War a conflict that reached a head in 1898 when Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States were locked in dispute over who should have control over the Samoan island chain.

1898–99 – China. November 5, 1898 to March 15, 1899. US forces provided a guard for the legation at Peking and the consulate at Tientsin during contest between the Dowager Empress and her son.^[RL30172]

1899 – Nicaragua. American and British naval forces were landed to protect national interests at San Juan del Norte, February 22 to March 5, and at Bluefields a few weeks later in connection with the insurrection of Gen. Juan P. Reyes.^[RL30172]

1899–1913 – Philippine Islands. Philippine-American War US forces protected American interests following the war with Spain, defeating Filipino revolutionaries seeking immediate national independence.^[RL30172] The U.S. government declared the "insurgency" officially over in 1902, when the Filipino leadership generally accepted American rule. Skirmishes between government troops and armed groups lasted until 1913, and some historians consider these unofficial extensions of the war.^[2]

1900–1909 [link]

1900 – China. May 24 to September 28. Boxer Rebellion American troops participated in operations to protect foreign lives during the Boxer uprising, particularly at Peking. For many years after this experience a permanent legation guard was maintained in Peking, and was strengthened at times as trouble threatened.^[RL30172]

1901 – Colombia (State of Panama). November 20 to December 4. (See: Separation of Panama from Colombia) US forces protected American property on the Isthmus and kept transit lines open during serious revolutionary disturbances.^[RL30172]

1902 – Colombia. – April 16 to 23. US forces protected American lives and property at Bocas del Toro during a civil war.^[RL30172]

1902 – Colombia (State of Panama). September 17 to November 18. The United States placed armed guards on all trains crossing the Isthmus to keep the railroad line open, and stationed ships on both sides of Panama to prevent the landing of Colombian troops.^[RL30172]

1903 – Honduras. March 23 to 30 or 31. US forces protected the American consulate and the steamship wharf at Puerto Cortes during a period of revolutionary activity.^[RL30172]

1903 – Dominican Republic. March 30 to April 21. A detachment of marines was landed to protect American interests in the city of Santo Domingo during a revolutionary outbreak.^[RL30172]

1903 – Syria. September 7 to 12. US forces protected the American consulate in Beirut when a local Muslim uprising was feared.^[RL30172]

1903–04 – Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Twenty-five Marines were sent to Abyssinia to protect the US Consul General while he negotiated a treaty.^[RL30172]

1903–14 – Panama. US forces sought to protect American interests and lives during and following the revolution for independence from Colombia over construction of the Isthmian Canal. With brief intermissions, United States Marines were stationed on the Isthmus from November 4, 1903, to January 21, 1914 to guard American interests.^[RL30172]

1904 – Dominican Republic. January 2 to February 11. American and British naval forces established an area in which no fighting would be allowed and protected American interests in Puerto Plata and Sosua and Santo Domingo City during revolutionary fighting.^[RL30172]

1904 – Tangier, Morocco. "We want either Perdicaris alive or Raisuli dead." A squadron demonstrated to force release of a kidnapped American. Marines were landed to protect the consul general.^[RL30172]

1904 – Panama. November 17 to 24. U.S forces protected American lives and property at Ancon at the time of a threatened insurrection.^[RL30172]

1904–05 – Korea. January 5, 1904, to November 11, 1905. A guard of Marines was sent to protect the American legation in Seoul during the Russo-Japanese War.^[RL30172]

1906–09 – Cuba. September 1906 to January 23, 1909. US forces sought to protect interests and re-establish a government after revolutionary activity.^[RL30172]

1907 – Honduras. March 18 to June 8. To protect American interests during a war between Honduras and Nicaragua, troops were stationed in Trujillo, Ceiba, Puerto Cortes, San Pedro Sula, Laguna and Choloma.^[RL30172]

1910–1919 [link]

1910 – Nicaragua. May 19 to September 4, 1910. Occupation of Nicaragua US forces protected American interests at Bluefields.^[RL30172]

1911 – Honduras. January 26. American naval detachments were landed to protect American lives and interests during a civil war in Honduras.^[RL30172]

1911 – China. As the Tongmenghui-led Xinhai Revolution approached, in October an ensign and 10 men tried to enter Wuchang to rescue missionaries but retired on being warned away, and a small landing force guarded American private property and consulate at Hankow. Marines were deployed in November to guard the cable stations at Shanghai; landing forces were sent for protection in Nanking, Chinkiang, Taku and elsewhere.^[RL30172]

1912 – Honduras. A small force landed to prevent seizure by the government of an American-owned railroad at Puerto Cortes. The forces were withdrawn after the United States disapproved the action.^[RL30172]

1912 – Panama. Troops, on request of both political parties, supervised elections outside the Panama Canal Zone.^[RL30172]

1912 – Cuba. June 5 to August 5. U.S. forces protected American interests in the province of Oriente and in Havana.^[RL30172]

1912 – China. August 24 to 26, on Kentucky Island, and August 26 to 30 at Camp Nicholson. US forces protected Americans and American interests during the Xinhai Revolution.^[RL30172]

1912 – Turkey. November 18 to December 3. U.S. forces guarded the American legation at Constantinople during the First Balkan War^[RL30172]

1912–25 – Nicaragua. August to November 1912. U.S. forces protected American interests during an attempted revolution. A small force, serving as a legation guard and seeking to promote peace and stability, remained until August 5, 1925.^[RL30172]

1912–41 – China. The disorders which began with the overthrow of the dynasty during Kuomintang rebellion in 1912, which were redirected by the invasion of China by Japan, led to demonstrations and landing parties for the protection of US interests in China continuously and at many points from 1912 on to 1941. The guard at Peking and along the route to the sea was maintained until 1941. In 1927, the United States had 5,670 troops ashore in China and 44 naval vessels in its waters. In 1933 the United States had 3,027 armed men ashore. The protective action was generally based on treaties with China concluded from 1858 to 1901.^[RL30172]

1913 – Mexico. September 5 to 7. A few marines landed at Ciaris Estero to aid in evacuating American citizens and others from the Yaqui Valley, made dangerous for foreigners by civil strife.^[RL30172]

1914 – Haiti. January 29 to February 9, February 20 and 21, October 19. Intermittently US naval forces protected American nationals in a time of rioting and revolution.^[RL30172] The specific order from the Secretary of the Navy to the invasion commander, Admiral William Deville Bundy, was to "protect American and foreign" interests.^{[citation needed]}

1914 – Dominican Republic. June and July. During a revolutionary movement, United States naval forces by gunfire stopped the bombardment of Puerto Plata, and by threat of force maintained Santo Domingo City as a neutral zone.^[RL30172]

1914–17 – Mexico. Tampico Affair led to Occupation of Veracruz, Mexico. Undeclared Mexican-American hostilities followed the Tampico Affair and Villa's raids . Also Pancho Villa Expedition) – an abortive military operation conducted by the United States Army against the military forces of Francisco "Pancho" Villa from 1916 to 1917 and included capture of Vera Cruz. On March 19, 1915 on orders from President Woodrow Wilson, and with tacit consent by Venustiano Carranza General John J. Pershing led an invasion force of 10,000 men into Mexico to capture Villa.^[RL30172]

1915–34 – Haiti. July 28, 1915, to August 15, 1934. United States occupation of Haiti 1915–1934 US forces maintained order during a period of chronic political instability.^[RL30172] During the initial entrance into Haiti, the specific order from the Secretary of the Navy to the invasion commander, Admiral William Deville Bundy, was to "protect American and foreign" interests.^{[citation needed]}

1916 – China. American forces landed to quell a riot taking place on American property in Nanking.^[RL30172]

1916–24 – Dominican Republic. May 1916 to September 1924. Occupation of the Dominican Republic American naval forces maintained order during a period of chronic and threatened insurrection.^[RL30172]

1917 – China. American troops were landed at Chungking to protect American lives during a political crisis.^[RL30172]

1917–18 – World War I. On April 6, 1917, the United States declared war with Germany and on December 7, 1917, with Austria-Hungary. Entrance of the United States into the war was precipitated by Germany's submarine warfare against neutral shipping and the Zimmermann Telegram.^[RL30172]

1917–22 – Cuba. US forces protected American interests during insurrection and subsequent unsettled conditions. Most of the United States armed forces left Cuba by August 1919, but two companies remained at Camaguey until February 1922.^[RL30172]

1918–19 – Mexico. After withdrawal of the Pershing expedition, U.S. troops entered Mexico in pursuit of bandits at least three times in 1918 and six times in 1919. In August 1918 American and Mexican troops fought at Nogales, The Battle of Ambos Nogales. The incident began when German spies plotted an attack with Mexican soldiers on Nogales Arizona. The fighting began when a Mexican officer shot and killed a U.S. soldier on American soil. A full scale battle then ensued, ending with a Mexican surrender.^[RL30172]

1918–20 – Panama. US forces were used for police duty according to treaty stipulations, at Chiriqui, during election disturbances and subsequent unrest.^[RL30172]

1918–20 – Soviet Union. Marines were landed at and near Vladivostok in June and July to protect the American consulate and other points in the fighting between the Bolshevik troops and the Czech Army which had traversed Siberia from the western front. A joint proclamation of emergency government and neutrality was issued by the American, Japanese, British, French, and Czech commanders in July. In August 7,000 men were landed in Vladivostok and remained until January 1920, as part of an allied occupation force. In September 1918, 5,000 American troops joined the allied intervention force at Archangel and remained until June 1919. These operations were in response to the Bolshevik revolution in Russia and were partly supported by Czarist or Kerensky elements. ^[RL30172] For details, see the American Expeditionary Force Siberia and the American Expeditionary Force North Russia.

1919 – Dalmatia (Croatia). US forces were landed at Trau at the request of Italian authorities to police order between the Italians and Serbs.^[RL30172]

1919 – Turkey. Marines from the USS Arizona were landed to guard the US Consulate during the Greek occupation of Constantinople.^[RL30172]

1919 – Honduras. September 8 to 12. A landing force was sent ashore to maintain order in a neutral zone during an attempted revolution.^[RL30172]

1920–1929 [link]

1920 – China. March 14. A landing force was sent ashore for a few hours to protect lives during a disturbance at Kiukiang.^[RL30172]

1920 – Guatemala. April 9 to 27. US forces protected the American Legation and other American interests, such as the cable station, during a period of fighting between Unionists and the Government of Guatemala.^[RL30172]

1920–22 – Russia (Siberia). February 16, 1920, to November 19, 1922. A Marine guard was sent to protect the United States radio station and property on Russian Island, Bay of Vladivostok.^[RL30172]

1921 – Panama and Costa Rica. American naval squadrons demonstrated in April on both sides of the Isthmus to prevent war between the two countries over a boundary dispute.^[RL30172]

1922 – Turkey. September and October. A landing force was sent ashore with consent of both Greek and Turkish authorities, to protect American lives and property when the Turkish nationalists entered İzmir (Smyrna.^[RL30172]

1922–23 – China. April 1922 to November 1923. Marines were landed five times to protect Americans during periods of unrest.^[RL30172]

1924 – Honduras. February 28 to March 31, September 10 to 15. U.S. forces protected American lives and interests during election hostilities.^[RL30172]

1924 – China. – September. Marines were landed to protect Americans and other foreigners in Shanghai during Chinese factional hostilities.^[RL30172]

1925 – China. January 15 to August 29. Fighting of Chinese factions accompanied by riots and demonstrations in Shanghai brought the landing of American forces to protect lives and property in the International Settlement.^[RL30172]

1925 – Honduras. April 19 to 21. U.S. forces protected foreigners at La Ceiba during a political upheaval.^[RL30172]

1925 – Panama. October 12 to 23. Strikes and rent riots led to the landing of about 600 American troops to keep order and protect American interests. ^[RL30172]

1926–33 – Nicaragua. May 7 to June 5, 1926, and August 27, 1926, to January 3, 1933. The coup d'état of General Chamorro aroused revolutionary activities leading to the landing of American marines to protect the interests of the United States. United States forces came and went intermittently until January 3, 1933.^[RL30172]

1926 – China. August and September. The Nationalist attack on Hankow brought the landing of American naval forces to protect American citizens. A small guard was maintained at the consulate general even after September 16, when the rest of the forces were withdrawn. Likewise, when Nationalist forces captured Kiukiang, naval forces were landed for the protection of foreigners November 4 to 6.^[RL30172]

1927 – China. February. Fighting at Shanghai caused American naval forces and marines to be increased. In March a naval guard was stationed at American consulate at Nanking after Nationalist forces captured the city. American and British destroyers later used shell fire to protect Americans and other foreigners. Subsequently additional forces of marines and naval forces were stationed in the vicinity of Shanghai and Tientsin.^[RL30172]

1930–1939 [link]

1932 – China. American forces were landed to protect American interests during the Japanese occupation of Shanghai.^[RL30172]

1932 - United States. "Bonus Army" of 17,000 WWI veterans plus 20,000 family cleared from Washington and then Anacostia flats "Hooverville" by 3rd Cavalry and 12th Infantry Regiments under Gen. Douglas MacArthur, July 28.

1933 – Cuba. During a revolution against President Gerardo Machado naval forces demonstrated but no landing was made.^[RL30172]

1934 – China. Marines landed at Foochow to protect the American Consulate.^[RL30172]

1940–1944 [link]

1940 – Newfoundland, Bermuda, St. Lucia, – Bahamas, Jamaica, Antigua, Trinidad, and British Guiana. Troops were sent to guard air and naval bases obtained under lease by negotiation with the United Kingdom. These were sometimes called lend-lease bases but were under the Destroyers for Bases Agreement.^[RL30172]

1941 – Greenland. Greenland was taken under protection of the United States in April.^[RL30172]

1941 – Netherlands (Dutch Guiana). In November the President ordered American troops to occupy Dutch Guiana, but by agreement with the Netherlands government in exile, Brazil cooperated to protect aluminum ore supply from the bauxite mines in Suriname.^[RL30172]

1941 – Iceland. Iceland was taken under the protection of the United States, with consent of its government replacing British troops, for strategic reasons.^[RL30172]

1941 – Germany. Sometime in the spring the President ordered the Navy to patrol ship lanes to Europe. By July US warships were convoying and by September were attacking German submarines. In November, the Neutrality Act was partly repealed to protect US military aid to Britain. ^[RL30172]

1941–45 – World War II. On December 8, 1941, the United States declared war with Japan in response to the bombing of Pearl Harbor. Germany declared war against the United States.^[RL30172]

1945–1949 [link]

1945 – China. In October 50,000 US Marines were sent to North China to assist Chinese Nationalist authorities in disarming and repatriating the Japanese in China and in controlling ports, railroads, and airfields. This was in addition to approximately 60,000 US forces remaining in China at the end of World War II.^[RL30172]

1945–49 – Occupation of part of Germany.

1945–55 – Occupation of part of Austria.

1945–46 – Occupation of part of Italy.^{[citation needed]}

1945–52 – Occupation of Japan.

1944–46 – Temporary reoccupation of the Philippines during World War II and in preparation for previously scheduled independence.^{[citation needed]}

1945–47 – US Marines garrisoned in mainland China to oversee the removal of Soviet and Japanese forces after World War II.^[3]

1945–49 – Post World War II occupation of South Korea; North Korean insurgency in Republic of Korea^[4]

1946 – Trieste (Italy). President Truman ordered the increase of US troops along the zonal occupation line and the reinforcement of air forces in northern Italy after Yugoslav forces shot down an unarmed US Army transport plane flying over Venezia Giulia..^{[citation needed]} Earlier US naval units had been sent to the scene.^[RL30172] Later the Free Territory of Trieste, Zone A.

1947 - Greece. US Marines land in Athens and assist in the re-establishment of monarchy and the arrest of Greek Communists.

1948 – Palestine. A marine consular guard was sent to Jerusalem to protect the US Consul General.^[RL30172]

1948 – Berlin. Berlin Airlift After the Soviet Union established a land blockade of the US, British, and French sectors of Berlin on June 24, 1948, the United States and its allies airlifted supplies to Berlin until after the blockade was lifted in May 1949.^[RL30172]

1948–49 – China. Marines were dispatched to Nanking to protect the American Embassy when the city fell to Communist troops, and to Shanghai to aid in the protection and evacuation of Americans.^[RL30172]

1950–1959 [link]

File:American empire4.png

Map of military operations since 1950

1950–53 – Korean War. The United States responded to North Korean invasion of South Korea by going to its assistance, pursuant to United Nations Security Council resolutions. US forces deployed in Korea exceeded 300,000 during the last year of the conflict. Over 36,600 US military were killed in action.^[RL30172]

1950–55 – Formosa (Taiwan). In June 1950 at the beginning of the Korean War, President Truman ordered the US Seventh Fleet to prevent Chinese Communist attacks upon Formosa and Chinese Nationalist operations against mainland China.^[RL30172]

1954–55 – China. Naval units evacuated US civilians and military personnel from the Tachen Islands.^[RL30172]

1955–64 – Vietnam. First military advisors sent to Vietnam on 12 Feb 1955. By 1964, US troop levels had grown to 21,000. On 7 August 1964, US Congress approved Gulf of Tonkin resolution affirming "All necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States. . .to prevent further aggression. . . (and) assist any member or protocol state of the Southeast Asian Collective Defense Treaty (SEATO) requesting assistance. . ."^{[Vietnam timeline]}

1956 – Egypt. A marine battalion evacuated US nationals and other persons from Alexandria during the Suez crisis.^[RL30172]

1958 – Lebanon. Lebanon crisis of 1958 Marines were landed in Lebanon at the invitation of President Camille Chamoun to help protect against threatened insurrection supported from the outside. The President's action was supported by a Congressional resolution passed in 1957 that authorized such actions in that area of the world.^[RL30172]

1959–60 – The Caribbean. Second Marine Ground Task Force was deployed to protect US nationals following the Cuban revolution.^[RL30172]

1959–75 – Vietnam War. US military advisers had been in South Vietnam for a decade, and their numbers had been increased as the military position of the Saigon government became weaker. After citing what he termed were attacks on US destroyers in the Tonkin Gulf, President Johnson asked in August 1964 for a resolution expressing US determination to support freedom and protect peace in Southeast Asia. Congress responded with the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, expressing support for "all necessary measures" the President might take to repel armed attacks against US forces and prevent further aggression. Following this resolution, and following a communist attack on a US installation in central Vietnam, the United States escalated its participation in the war to a peak of 543,000 military personnel by April 1969.^[RL30172]^{[not in citation given]}

1960–1969 [link]

1962 – Thailand. The Third Marine Expeditionary Unit landed on May 17, 1962 to support that country during the threat of Communist pressure from outside; by July 30, the 5,000 marines had been withdrawn.^[RL30172]

1962 – Cuba. Cuban Missile Crisis On October 22, President Kennedy instituted a "quarantine" on the shipment of offensive missiles to Cuba from the Soviet Union. He also warned Soviet Union that the launching of any missile from Cuba against nations in the Western Hemisphere would bring about US nuclear retaliation on the Soviet Union. A negotiated settlement was achieved in a few days.^[RL30172]

1962–75 – Laos. From October 1962 until 1975, the United States played an important role in military support of anti-Communist forces in Laos.^[RL30172]

1964 – Congo (Zaire). The United States sent four transport planes to provide airlift for Congolese troops during a rebellion and to transport Belgian paratroopers to rescue foreigners.^[RL30172]

1965 – Invasion of Dominican Republic. Operation Power Pack. The United States intervened to protect lives and property during a Dominican revolt and sent 20,000 US troops as fears grew that the revolutionary forces were coming increasingly under Communist control.^[RL30172] A popular rebellion breaks out, promising to reinstall Juan Bosch as the country's elected leader. The revolution is crushed when U.S. Marines land to uphold the military regime by force. The CIA directs everything behind the scenes.

1967 – Israel. The USS Liberty incident, whereupon a United States Navy Technical Research Ship was attacked June 8, 1967 by Israeli armed forces, killing 34 and wounding more than 170 U.S. crew members.

1967 – Congo (Zaire). The United States sent three military transport aircraft with crews to provide the Congo central government with logistical support during a revolt.^[RL30172]

1968 – Laos & Cambodia. U.S. starts secret bombing campaign against targets along the Ho Chi Minh trail in the sovereign nations of Cambodia and Laos. The bombings last at least two years. (See Operation Commando Hunt)

1970–1979 [link]

1970 – Cambodian Campaign. US troops were ordered into Cambodia to clean out Communist sanctuaries from which Viet Cong and North Vietnamese attacked US and South Vietnamese forces in Vietnam. The object of this attack, which lasted from April 30 to June 30, was to ensure the continuing safe withdrawal of American forces from South Vietnam and to assist the program of Vietnamization.^[RL30172]

1972 - North Vietnam - Christmas bombing Operation Linebacker II (not mentioned in RL30172, but an operation leading to peace negotiations). The operation was conducted from 18–29 December 1972. It was a bombing of the cities Hanoi and Haiphong by B-52 bombers.

1973 – Operation Nickel Grass, a strategic airlift operation conducted by the United States to deliver weapons and supplies to Israel during the Yom Kippur War.

1974 – Evacuation from Cyprus. United States naval forces evacuated US civilians during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus.^[RL30172]

1975 – Evacuation from Vietnam. Operation Frequent Wind. On April 3, 1975, President Ford reported US naval vessels, helicopters, and Marines had been sent to assist in evacuation of refugees and US nationals from Vietnam.^[RL30172]

1975 – Evacuation from Cambodia. Operation Eagle Pull. On April 12, 1975, President Ford reported that he had ordered US military forces to proceed with the planned evacuation of US citizens from Cambodia.^[RL30172]

1975 – South Vietnam. On April 30, 1975, President Ford reported that a force of 70 evacuation helicopters and 865 Marines had evacuated about 1,400 US citizens and 5,500 third country nationals and South Vietnamese from landing zones in and around the US Embassy, Saigon and Tan Son Nhut Airport.^[RL30172]

1975 – Cambodia. Mayagüez Incident. On May 15, 1975, President Ford reported he had ordered military forces to retake the SS Mayagüez, a merchant vessel which was seized from Cambodian naval patrol boats in international waters and forced to proceed to a nearby island.^[RL30172]

1976 – Lebanon. On July 22 and 23, 1976, helicopters from five US naval vessels evacuated approximately 250 Americans and Europeans from Lebanon during fighting between Lebanese factions after an overland convoy evacuation had been blocked by hostilities.^[RL30172]

1976 – Korea. Additional forces were sent to Korea after two American soldiers were killed by North Korean soldiers in the demilitarized zone between North and South Korea while cutting down a tree.^[RL30172]

1978 – Zaire (Congo). From May 19 through June 1978, the United States utilized military transport aircraft to provide logistical support to Belgian and French rescue operations in Zaire.^[RL30172]

1980–1989 [link]

1980 – Iran. Operation Eagle Claw. On April 26, 1980, President Carter reported the use of six U.S. transport planes and eight helicopters in an unsuccessful attempt to rescue the American hostages in Iran.

1980 - U.S. Army and Air Force units arrive in the Sinai in September as part of "Operation Bright Star". They are there to train with Egyptians armed forces as part of the Camp David peace accords signed in 1979. Elements of the 101st Airborne Division, ( 1st Battalion, 502nd Infantry) and Air Force MAC (Military Airlift Command) units are in theater for four months and are the first U.S. military forces in the region since World War II.

1981 – El Salvador. After a guerrilla offensive against the government of El Salvador, additional US military advisers were sent to El Salvador, bringing the total to approximately 55, to assist in training government forces in counterinsurgency.^[RL30172]

1981 – Libya. First Gulf of Sidra Incident On August 19, 1981, US planes based on the carrier USS Nimitz shot down two Libyan jets over the Gulf of Sidra after one of the Libyan jets had fired a heat-seeking missile. The United States periodically held freedom of navigation exercises in the Gulf of Sidra, claimed by Libya as territorial waters but considered international waters by the United States.^[RL30172]

1982 – Sinai. On March 19, 1982, President Reagan reported the deployment of military personnel and equipment to participate in the Multinational Force and Observers in the Sinai. Participation had been authorized by the Multinational Force and Observers Resolution, Public Law 97-132.^[RL30172]

1982 – Lebanon. Multinational Force in Lebanon. On August 21, 1982, President Reagan reported the dispatch of 800 Marines to serve in the multinational force to assist in the withdrawal of members of the Palestine Liberation force from Beirut. The Marines left September 20, 1982.^[RL30172]

1982–83 – Lebanon. On September 29, 1982, President Reagan reported the deployment of 1200 marines to serve in a temporary multinational force to facilitate the restoration of Lebanese government sovereignty. On September 29, 1983, Congress passed the Multinational Force in Lebanon Resolution (P.L. 98-119) authorizing the continued participation for eighteen months.^[RL30172]

1983 – Egypt. After a Libyan plane bombed a city in Sudan on March 18, 1983, and Sudan and Egypt appealed for assistance, the United States dispatched an AWACS electronic surveillance plane to Egypt.^[RL30172]

1983 – Grenada. Operation Urgent Fury. Citing the increased threat of Soviet and Cuban influence and noting the development of an international airport following a bloodless Grenada coup d'état and alignment with the Soviets and Cuba, the U.S. invades the island nation of Grenada.^[RL30172]

1983–89 – Honduras. In July 1983 the United States undertook a series of exercises in Honduras that some believed might lead to conflict with Nicaragua. On March 25, 1986, unarmed US military helicopters and crewmen ferried Honduran troops to the Nicaraguan border to repel Nicaraguan troops.^[RL30172]

1983 – Chad. On August 8, 1983, President Reagan reported the deployment of two AWACS electronic surveillance planes and eight F-15 fighter planes and ground logistical support forces to assist Chad against Libyan and rebel forces.^[RL30172]

1984 – Persian Gulf. On June 5, 1984, Saudi Arabian jet fighter planes, aided by intelligence from a US AWACS electronic surveillance aircraft and fueled by a U.S. KC-10 tanker, shot down two Iranian fighter planes over an area of the Persian Gulf proclaimed as a protected zone for shipping.^[RL30172]

1985 – Italy. On October 10, 1985, US Navy pilots intercepted an Egyptian airliner and forced it to land in Sicily. The airliner was carrying the hijackers of the Italian cruise ship Achille Lauro who had killed an American citizen during the hijacking.^[RL30172]

1986 – Libya. Action in the Gulf of Sidra (1986) On March 26, 1986, President Reagan reported on March 24 and 25, US forces, while engaged in freedom of navigation exercises around the Gulf of Sidra, had been attacked by Libyan missiles and the United States had responded with missiles.^[RL30172]

1986 – Libya. Operation El Dorado Canyon. On April 16, 1986, President Reagan reported that U.S. air and naval forces had conducted bombing strikes on terrorist facilities and military installations in the Libyan capitol of Tripoli, claiming that Libyan leader Col. Muammar al-Gaddafi was responsible for a bomb attack at a German disco that killed two U.S. soldiers.^[RL30172]

1986 – Bolivia. U.S. Army personnel and aircraft assisted Bolivia in anti-drug operations.^[RL30172]

1987 – Persian Gulf. USS Stark was struck on May 17 by two Exocet antiship missiles fired from an Iraqi F-1 Mirage during the Iran-Iraq War killing 37 US Navy sailors.

1987 – Persian Gulf. Operation Nimble Archer. Attacks on two Iranian oil platforms in the Persian Gulf by United States Navy forces on October 19. The attack was a response to Iran's October 16, 1987 attack on the MV Sea Isle City, a reflagged Kuwaiti oil tanker at anchor off Kuwait, with a Silkworm missile.

1987–88 – Persian Gulf. Operation Earnest Will - After the Iran-Iraq War (the Tanker War phase) resulted in several military incidents in the Persian Gulf, the United States increased US joint military forces operations in the Persian Gulf and adopted a policy of reflagging and escorting Kuwaiti oil tankers through the Persian Gulf to protect them from Iraqi and Iranian attacks. President Reagan reported that US ships had been fired upon or struck mines or taken other military action on September 21 (Iran Ajr), October 8, and October 19, 1987 and April 18 (Operation Praying Mantis), July 3, and July 14, 1988. The United States gradually reduced its forces after a cease-fire between Iran and Iraq on August 20, 1988.^[RL30172] It was the largest naval convoy operation since World War II.^[5]

1987–88 – Persian Gulf. Operation Prime Chance was a United States Special Operations Command operation intended to protect U.S. -flagged oil tankers from Iranian attack during the Iran-Iraq War. The operation took place roughly at the same time as Operation Earnest Will.

1988 – Persian Gulf. Operation Praying Mantis was the April 18, 1988 action waged by U.S. naval forces in retaliation for the Iranian mining of the Persian Gulf and the subsequent damage to an American warship.

1988 – Honduras. Operation Golden Pheasant was an emergency deployment of U.S. troops to Honduras in 1988, as a result of threatening actions by the forces of the (then socialist) Nicaraguans.

1988 – USS Vincennes shoot down of Iran Air Flight 655

1988 – Panama. In mid-March and April 1988, during a period of instability in Panama and as the United States increased pressure on Panamanian head of state General Manuel Noriega to resign, the United States sent 1,000 troops to Panama, to "further safeguard the canal, US lives, property and interests in the area." The forces supplemented 10,000 US military personnel already in the Panama Canal Zone.^[RL30172]

1989 – Libya. Second Gulf of Sidra Incident On January 4, 1989, two US Navy F-14 aircraft based on the USS John F. Kennedy shot down two Libyan jet fighters over the Mediterranean Sea about 70 miles north of Libya. The US pilots said the Libyan planes had demonstrated hostile intentions.^[RL30172]

1989 – Panama. On May 11, 1989, in response to General Noriega's disregard of the results of the Panamanian election, President Bush ordered a brigade-sized force of approximately 1,900 troops to augment the estimated 1,000 U.S. forces already in the area.^[RL30172]

1989 – Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru. Andean Initiative in War on Drugs. On September 15, 1989, President Bush announced that military and law enforcement assistance would be sent to help the Andean nations of Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru combat illicit drug producers and traffickers. By mid-September there were 50–100 US military advisers in Colombia in connection with transport and training in the use of military equipment, plus seven Special Forces teams of 2–12 persons to train troops in the three countries.^[RL30172]

1989 – Philippines. Operation Classic Resolve. On December 2, 1989, President Bush reported that on December 1, Air Force fighters from Clark Air Base in Luzon had assisted the Aquino government to repel a coup attempt. In addition, 100 marines were sent from U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay to protect the United States Embassy in Manila.^[RL30172]

1989–90 – Panama. Operation Just Cause. On December 21, 1989, President Bush reported that he had ordered US military forces to Panama to protect the lives of American citizens and bring General Noriega to justice. By February 13, 1990, all the invasion forces had been withdrawn.^[RL30172] Around 200 Panamanian civilians were reported killed. The Panamanian head of state, General Manuel Noriega, was captured and brought to the U.S.

1990–1999 [link]

1990 – Liberia: On August 6, 1990, President Bush reported that a reinforced rifle company had been sent to provide additional security to the US Embassy in Monrovia, and that helicopter teams had evacuated U.S. citizens from Liberia.^[RL30172]

1990 – Saudi Arabia: On August 9, 1990, President Bush reported that he launched Operation Desert Shield by ordering the forward deployment of substantial elements of the U.S. armed forces into the Persian Gulf region to help defend Saudi Arabia after the August 2 invasion of Kuwait by Iraq. On November 16, 1990, he reported the continued buildup of the forces to ensure an adequate offensive military option.^[RL30172]American hostages being held in Iran.^[RL30172]

1991 – Iraq and Kuwait. Operation Desert Storm: On January 16, 1991, in response to the refusal by Iraq to leave Kuwait, U.S. and Coalition aircraft attacked Iraqi forces and military targets in Iraq and Kuwait in conjunction with a coalition of allies and under United Nations Security Council resolutions. In February 24, 1991, U.S.-led United Nation (UN) forces launched a ground offensive that finally drove Iraqi forces out of Kuwait within 100 hours. Combat operations ended on February 28, 1991, when President Bush declared a ceasefire.^[RL30172]

1991–1996 – Iraq. Operation Provide Comfort: Delivery of humanitarian relief and military protection for Kurds fleeing their homes in northern Iraq during the 1991 uprising, by a small Allied ground force based in Turkey which began in April 1991.

1991 – Iraq: On May 17, 1991, President Bush stated that the Iraqi repression of the Kurdish people had necessitated a limited introduction of U.S. forces into northern Iraq for emergency relief purposes.^[RL30172]

1991 – Zaire: On September 25–27, 1991, after widespread looting and rioting broke out in Kinshasa, Air Force C-141s transported 100 Belgian troops and equipment into Kinshasa. American planes also carried 300 French troops into the Central African Republic and hauled evacuated American citizens.^[RL30172]

1992 – Sierra Leone. Operation Silver Anvil: Following the April 29 coup that overthrew President Joseph Saidu Momoh, a United States European Command (USEUCOM) Joint Special Operations Task Force evacuated 438 people (including 42 third-country nationals) on May 3 .Two Air Mobility Command (AMC) C-141s flew 136 people from Freetown, Sierra Leone, to the Rhein-Main Air Base in Germany and nine C-130 sorties carried another 302 people to Dakar, Senegal.^[RL30172]

1992–1996 – Bosnia and Herzegovina: Operation Provide Promise was a humanitarian relief operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Yugoslav Wars, from July 2, 1992, to January 9, 1996, which made it the longest running humanitarian airlift in history.^[6]

1992 – Kuwait: On August 3, 1992, the United States began a series of military exercises in Kuwait, following Iraqi refusal to recognize a new border drawn up by the United Nations and refusal to cooperate with UN inspection teams.^[RL30172]

1992–2003 – Iraq. Iraqi no-fly zones: The U.S., United Kingdom, and it's Gulf War allies declared and enforced "no-fly zones" over the majority of sovereign Iraqi airspace, prohibiting Iraqi flights in zones in southern Iraq and northern Iraq, and conducting aerial reconnaissance and bombings. Oftentimes, Iraqi forces continued throughout a decade by firing on U.S. and British aircraft patrolling no-fly zones.(See also Operation Northern Watch, Operation Southern Watch) ^[RL30172]

1992–1995 – Somalia. Operation Restore Hope. Somali Civil War: On December 10, 1992, President Bush reported that he had deployed U.S. armed forces to Somalia in response to a humanitarian crisis and a UN Security Council Resolution in support for UNITAF. The operation came to an end on May 4, 1993. U.S. forces continued to participate in the successor United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM II).(See also Battle of Mogadishu)^[RL30172]

1993-1995 - Bosnia. Operation Deny Flight: On April 12, 1993, in response to a United Nations Security Council passage of Resolution 816, U.S. and NATO enforced the no-fly zone over the Bosnian airspace, prohibited all unauthorized flights and allowed to "take all necessary measures to ensure compliance with [the no-fly zone restrictions]."

1993 – Macedonia: On July 9, 1993, President Clinton reported the deployment of 350 U.S. soldiers to the Republic of Macedonia to participate in the UN Protection Force to help maintain stability in the area of former Yugoslavia.^[RL30172]

1994: Bosnia. Banja Luka incident: NATO become involved in the first combat situation when NATO U.S. Air Force F-16 jets shot down four of the six Bosnian Serb J-21 Jastreb single-seat light attack jets for violating UN mandated no-fly zone.

1994–1995 – Haiti. Operation Uphold Democracy: U.S. ships had begun embargo against Haiti. Up to 20,000 U.S. military troops were later deployed to Haiti to restore democratically-elected Haiti President Jean-Bertrand Aristide from a military regime which came into power in 1991 after a major coup.^[RL30172]

1994 – Macedonia: On April 19, 1994, President Clinton reported that the U.S. contingent in Macedonia had been increased by a reinforced company of 200 personnel.^[RL30172]

1995 – Bosnia. Operation Deliberate Force: In August 30, 1995, U.S. and NATO aircraft began a major bombing campaign of Bosnian Serb Army in response to a Bosnian Serb mortar attack on a Sarajevo market that killed 37 people in August 28, 1995. This operation lasted until September 20, 1995. The air campaign along with a combined allied ground force of Muslim and Croatian Army against Serb positions led to a Dayton agreement in December 1995 with the signing of warring factions of the war. U.S. and NATO dispatched the IFOR peacekeepers to Bosnia to uphold the Dayton agreement.^[RL30172]

1996 – Liberia. Operation Assured Response: On April 11, 1996, President Clinton reported that on April 9, 1996 due to the "deterioration of the security situation and the resulting threat to American citizens" in Liberia he had ordered U.S. military forces to evacuate from that country "private U.S. citizens and certain third-country nationals who had taken refuge in the U.S. Embassy compound...."^[RL30172]

1996 – Central African Republic. Operation Quick Response: On May 23, 1996, President Clinton reported the deployment of U.S. military personnel to Bangui, Central African Republic, to conduct the evacuation from that country of "private U.S. citizens and certain U.S. government employees", and to provide "enhanced security for the American Embassy in Bangui."^[RL30172] United States Marine Corps elements of Joint Task Force Assured Response, responding in nearby Liberia, provided security to the embassy and evacuated 448 people, including between 190 and 208 Americans. The last Marines left Bangui on June 22.

1996 - Bosnia. Operation Joint Guard: In December 21, 1996, U.S. and NATO established the SFOR peacekeepers to replace the IFOR in enforcing the peace under the Dayton agreement.

1997 – Albania. Operation Silver Wake: On March 13, 1997, U.S. military forces were used to evacuate certain U.S. government employees and private U.S. citizens from Tirana, Albania.^[RL30172]

1997 – Congo and Gabon: On March 27, 1997, President Clinton reported on March 25, 1997, a standby evacuation force of U.S. military personnel had been deployed to Congo and Gabon to provide enhanced security and to be available for any necessary evacuation operation.^[RL30172]

1997 – Sierra Leone: On May 29 and May 30, 1997, U.S. military personnel were deployed to Freetown, Sierra Leone, to prepare for and undertake the evacuation of certain U.S. government employees and private U.S. citizens.^[RL30172]

1997 – Cambodia: On July 11, 1997, In an effort to ensure the security of American citizens in Cambodia during a period of domestic conflict there, a Task Force of about 550 U.S. military personnel were deployed at Utapao Air Base in Thailand for possible evacuations. ^[RL30172]

1998 – Iraq. Operation Desert Fox: U.S. and British forces conduct a major four-day bombing campaign from December 16–19, 1998 on Iraqi targets.^[RL30172]

1998 – Guinea-Bissau. Operation Shepherd Venture: On June 10, 1998, in response to an army mutiny in Guinea-Bissau endangering the U.S. Embassy, President Clinton deployed a standby evacuation force of U.S. military personnel to Dakar, Senegal, to evacuate from the city of Bissau.^[RL30172]

1998–1999 – Kenya and Tanzania: U.S. military personnel were deployed to Nairobi, Kenya, to coordinate the medical and disaster assistance related to the bombing of the U.S. Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania.^[RL30172]

1998 – Afghanistan and Sudan. Operation Infinite Reach: On August 20, President Clinton ordered a cruise missile attack against two suspected terrorist training camps in Afghanistan and a suspected chemical factory in Sudan.^[RL30172]

1998 – Liberia: On September 27, 1998, America deployed a stand-by response and evacuation force of 30 U.S. military personnel to increase the security force at the U.S. Embassy in Monrovia. [1] ^[RL30172]

1999–2001 - East Timor: Limited number of U.S. military forces deployed with the United Nations-mandated International Force for East Timor restore peace to East Timor.^[RL30172]

1999 – Serbia. Operation Allied Force: U.S. and NATO aircraft began a major bombing of Serbia and Serb positions in Kosovo in March 24, 1999, during the Kosovo War due to the refusal by Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic to end repression against ethic Albanians in Kosovo. This operation ended in June 10, 1999, when Milosevic agreed to pull out it's troops out of Kosovo. In response to the situation in Kosovo, NATO dispatched the KFOR peacekeepers to secure the peace under UNSC Resolution 1244.^[RL30172]

2000–2009 [link]

2000 – Sierra Leone. On May 12, 2000 a US Navy patrol craft deployed to Sierra Leone to support evacuation operations from that country if needed.^[RL30172]

2000 – Yemen. On October 12, 2000, after the USS Cole attack in the port of Aden, Yemen, military personnel were deployed to Aden.^[RL30172]

2000 – East Timor. On February 25, 2000, a small number of U.S. military personnel were deployed to support the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET). ^[RL30172]

2001 – On April 1, 2001, a mid-air collision between a United States Navy EP-3E ARIES II signals surveillance aircraft and a People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) J-8II interceptor fighter jet resulted in an international dispute between the United States and the People's Republic of China called the Hainan Island incident.

2001 – War in Afghanistan. The War on Terrorism begins with Operation Enduring Freedom. On October 7, 2001, US Armed Forces invade Afghanistan in response to the 9/11 attacks and "begin combat action in Afghanistan against Al Qaeda terrorists and their Taliban supporters."^[RL30172]

2002 – Yemen. On November 3, 2002, an American MQ-1 Predator fired a Hellfire missile at a car in Yemen killing Qaed Salim Sinan al-Harethi, an al-Qaeda leader thought to be responsible for the USS Cole bombing.^[RL30172]

2002 – Philippines. OEF-Philippines. January 2002 U.S. "combat-equipped and combat support forces" have been deployed to the Philippines to train with, assist and advise the Philippines' Armed Forces in enhancing their "counterterrorist capabilities."^[RL30172]

2002 – Côte d'Ivoire. On September 25, 2002, in response to a rebellion in Côte d'Ivoire, US military personnel went into Côte d'Ivoire to assist in the evacuation of American citizens from Bouake.^[7]

^[RL30172]

2003–2011 – War in Iraq. Operation Iraqi Freedom. March 20, 2003. The United States leads a coalition that includes Britain, Australia and Spain to invade Iraq with the stated goal being "to disarm Iraq in pursuit of peace, stability, and security both in the Gulf region and in the United States."^[RL30172]

2003 – Liberia. Second Liberian Civil War. On June 9, 2003, President Bush reported that on June 8 he had sent about 35 US Marines into Monrovia, Liberia, to help secure the US Embassy in Nouakchott, Mauritania, and to aid in any necessary evacuation from either Liberia or Mauritania.^[RL30172]

2003 – Georgia and Djibouti. "US combat equipped and support forces" had been deployed to Georgia and Djibouti to help in enhancing their "counterterrorist capabilities."^[8]

2004 – Haiti. 2004 Haïti rebellion occurs. The US sent first sent 55 combat equipped military personnel to augment the US Embassy security forces there and to protect American citizens and property in light. Later 200 additional US combat-equipped, military personnel were sent to prepare the way for a UN Multinational Interim Force, MINUSTAH.^[RL30172]

2004 – War on Terrorism: US anti-terror related activities were underway in Georgia, Djibouti, Kenya, Ethiopia, Yemen, and Eritrea.^[9]

2004–present: Drone attacks in Pakistan

2005–06 – Pakistan. President Bush deploys troops from US Army Air Cav Brigades to provide Humanitarian relief to far remote villages in the Kashmir mountain ranges of Pakistan stricken by a massive earthquake.

2006 – Lebanon. US Marine Detachment, the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit^{[citation needed]}, begins evacuation of US citizens willing to leave the country in the face of a likely ground invasion by Israel and continued fighting between Hezbollah and the Israeli military.^[10]^[11]

2007 – Somalia. Battle of Ras Kamboni. On January 8, 2007, while the conflict between the Islamic Courts Union and the Transitional Federal Government continues, an AC-130 gunship conducts an aerial strike on a suspected Al-Qaeda operative, along with other Islamist fighters, on Badmadow Island near Ras Kamboni in southern Somalia.^{[citation needed]}

2008 – South Ossetia, Georgia. Helped Georgia humanitarian aid,^[12] helped to transport Georgian forces from Iraq during the conflict. In the past, the US has provided training and weapons to Georgia.

2010–Present [link]

2010-11 War in Iraq. Operation New Dawn. On February 17, 2010, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates announced that as of September 1, 2010, the name "Operation Iraqi Freedom" would be replaced by "Operation New Dawn". This coincides with the reduction of American troops to 50,000.
2011 - Libya. Operation Odyssey Dawn. Coalition forces enforcing U.N. Security Council Resolution 1973 with bombings of Libyan forces.
2011 - War on Terrorism. Osama Bin Laden is killed by U.S. military forces in Pakistan as part of Operation Neptune Spear.
2011 - Drone strikes on al-Shabab militants begin in Somalia.^[13] This marks the 6th nation in which such strikes have been carried out, including Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Yemen and Libya.
2011 - Nigeria. US Combat troops sent in as advisers to Nigeria.
2011 - Uganda. US Combat troops sent in as advisers to Uganda.

Other interventions [link]

In addition to the operations listed above, the US has a very active foreign policy that uses various methods to influence events in other countries. These methods include:

Weapons sales
Military advice and training e.g. through the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation or (School of the Americas)

Battles with the Native Americans [link]

Frontier warfare during the American Revolution, which included:

Northwest Indian War (1785–95)
Nickajack Expedition (1794)
Sabine Expedition (1806)
War of 1812 (western theatre), which included:

Tecumseh's War (1811–13)
Peoria War (1813)
Creek War (1813–14)

Seminole Wars (1812, 1817–18, 1835–42, 1855–58)
Arikara War (1823)
Fever River War (1827)
Le Fèvre Indian War (1827)
Black Hawk War (1832)
Pawnee Indian Territory Campaign (1834)
Creek War of 1836, aka Second Creek War or Creek Alabama Uprising (1835–37)
Missouri-Iowa Border War (1836)
Texas–Indian Wars (1836–1877)
Southwestern Frontier (Sabine) disturbances (no fighting) (1836–37)
Osage Indian War (1837)
Cayuse War (1848–55)
Southwest Indian Wars (1849–63)
- Navajo Wars (1849–66)
  - Long Walk of the Navajo (1863–68)
- Apache Wars (1851, 1854–55, 1860, 1861–72, 1873, 1885–86)
- Yuma War (1850–53)
  - Yuma Expedition (1851–52)
- Utah Indian Wars (1851–53)
  - Walker War (1853)
- Mohave War (1858)
California Indian Wars (1850–66)
- Gila Expedition (1850)
- Mariposa War (1850–51)
- Klamath and Salmon River Indian War (1855)
- Tule River War (1856)
- Mendocino War (1858)
- Pitt River Expedition (1859)
- Bald Hills War 1858–1864
- Owens Valley Indian War (1862–65)
Pitt River Expedition (1850)
Grattan Massacre (1855)
Yakima War (1855)
Winnas Expedition (1855)
Klickitat War (1855)
Puget Sound War (1855–56)
Rogue River Wars (1855–56)
Tintic War (1856)
Mountain Meadows Massacre (1857)
Spokane-Coeur d'Alene-Paloos War (1858)
Pecos Expedition (1859)
Antelope Hills Expedition (1859)
Bear River Expedition (1859)
Paiute War (1860)
Kiowa-Comanche War (1860)
Cheyenne Campaign (1861–1864)
Dakota War of 1862 (1862)
Bear River Massacre (1863)
Colorado War (1863–65)
Goshute War (1863)
Skirmishes between 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States) and Indians 1849; 1854; 1866–71; 1877; 1885; 1890
Kidder Massacre (1867) (See Second Cavalry Regiment)
Snake War (1864–68)
Utah's Black Hawk War (1865–72)
Red Cloud's War (1866–68)
Comanche Wars (1867–75)
Battle of Washita River (68)
Marias Massacre (1870)
Modoc War (1872–73)
Red River War (1874)
Apache Wars (1873, 1885–86)
Eastern Navada Expedition (1875)
Black Hills War (1876–77)
Nez Perce War (1877)
Paiute Indian troubles (1878)
Bannock War (1878)
Cheyenne War (1878–79)
Sheepeater Indian War (1879)
White River War (1879)
Ghost Dance War (1890–91)
Wounded Knee Massacre (1890)
Battle of Leech Lake (1898)
New Mexico Navajo War (1913)
Colorado Paiute War (1915)
AIM Takeovers (1969–75)^{[citation needed]}
Seneca Indian Nation Standoff and New York State Thruway Blockade (1997)^{[citation needed]}

Relocation [link]

Indian removal (1830s)
- Trail of Tears (1835–38)
World War II-Era German American Internment (1942–45)
World War II-Era Japanese American Internment (1942–46)
World War II-Era Italian American Internment (1942–43)

Armed insurrections and slave revolts [link]

Range wars [link]

Bloody local feuds [link]

Rowan County War (Kentucky, 1884–87)
Hatfield-McCoy feud (West Virginia-Kentucky, 1878–91)

Terrorist, paramilitary groups and guerrilla warfare [link]

18th & 19th century [link]

Francis Marion (1780–82)
Bleeding Kansas (1854–60)
- Wakarusa War (1855)
Cortina Troubles (1859–61)
Quantrill's Raiders (1861–63)
Red Shirts Hamburg Massacre (1876)
Ku Klux Klan (1877)
Knights of the White Camelia
White League (1874–)
- Coushatta Massacre (1874)
- Colfax Riot (1874)

20th & 21st century [link]

Black Patch Tobacco Wars (1904–14?)^{[citation needed]}
Mass racial violence in the United States (1917; 1919; 1921; 1943; 1965; 1967)
U.S. Embassy Bombing (1983)
Marine Barracks Bombing (1983)
Oklahoma City bombing (1995)
U.S. Embassy Bombings (1998)
USS Cole Bombing (2000)
September 11, 2001 attacks (2001)

Labor-management disputes [link]

Further information: Timeline of labor issues and events and List of strikes

Great Railroad Strike (1877)
Homestead Strike (1892)
Pullman Strike (1894)
Coeur d'Alene, Idaho labor confrontation of 1899
Battle of Blair Mountain (1921)

State and national secession attempts [link]

Further information: List of extinct states and Unrecognized historic regions of the United States

Westsylvania (1776)
Green Mountain Boys (1777–91) (Vermont voluntarily entered the Union in 1791)
State of Franklin (1784–90)
Republic of West Florida (1810)
Republic of Indian Stream (1832–42)
Free City of Tri-Insula (1861)
Confederate States of America (1861–65)

Covert operations, coups, military advisers etc.[link]

Main article: Covert United States foreign regime change actions

Miscellaneous [link]

Latter Day Saints [link]

Mormon War (1838)
Utah War (1857–58)

Republic of Texas [link]

Texas Revolution (1835–36)
Texas Santa Fe Expedition (1841)

Notes [link]

This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Congressional Research Service.

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^RL30172 RL30172: "Congressional Research Service report RL30172". http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl30172.htm. Retrieved 2006-07-15.
^ Boot, Max (April 1, 2002). The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise of American Power. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-00720-1. p. 125, As many as 200,000 civilians also died, victims of disease and famine and the cruelties of both sides.;
*Kumar, Amitava (October 29, 1999). Poetics/Politics: Radical Aesthetics for the Classroom. Palgrave. ISBN 0-312-21866-4. "In the fifteen years that followed the defeat of the Spanish in Manila Bay in 1898, more Filipinos were killed by U.S. forces than by the Spanish in 300 years of colonization. Over 1.5 million died out of a total population of 6 million."
*Painter, Nell Irvin (May 1, 1989). Standing at Armageddon: The United States, 1877–1919. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-30588-0. p. 154, Hundreds of thousands of Filipinos died in battle, of disease, or of other war-related causes.
*Bayor, Ronald H (June 23, 2004). The Columbia Documentary History of Race and Ethnicity in America. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11994-1. p. 335, Some seven thousand Americans and twenty thousand Filipinos were killed or wounded in the war, and hundreds of thousands of Filipinos – some estimates are as high as 1 million – died of war-related disease or famine.
*Guillermo, Emil (February 8, 2004). "A first taste of empire". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel: 03J. The Philippines: 20,000 military dead; 200,000 civilian dead. Some historians, however, put the toll higher – closer to 1 million Filipinos because of the disease and starvation that ensued.
*(author unknown) (November 1, 2003). "Kipling, the 'White Man's Burden,' and U.S. Imperialism". Monthly Review 55: 1. Although a quarter of the million is the "consensual" figure of historians, estimates of Filipino deaths from the war have ranged as high as one million, which would have meant depopulation of the islands by around one-sixth.
^ Frank, Benis M. (1968). "History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II, Volume V: Victory and Occupation". Historical Branch, G-3 Division, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps. http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/V/index.html. Retrieved 2009-03-18.
^ MacArthur – Google Books
^ COMNAVSURFOR Hosts Medal of Honor Ceremony, United States Navy, October 4, 2007, http://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=32354, retrieved 2008-01-10
^ Operation Provide Promise from www.globalsecurity.org
^ "Text of a Letter from the President to the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the President Pro Tempore of the Senate". The White House. September 26, 2002. http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/09/20020927.html. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
^ "Presidential Letter". The White House. September 19, 2003. http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/09/20030919-1.html. Retrieved 2007-04-17.
^ "Presidential Letter". The White House. March 20, 2004. http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2004/03/20040322-3.html. Retrieved 2007-04-17.
^ Josh White (July 18, 2006). "U.S. Prepares Huge Lebanon Evacuation". Washington Post: p. A12. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/17/AR2006071701421.html. Retrieved 2007-10-04.
^ "Lebanon Non-combatant Evacuation Operation (NEO) 2006". globalsecurity.org. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/neo-lebanon-06.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-04.
^ U.S. Assails Russian 'Escalation' Of Crisis. Washington Post. 10 August 2008.
^ Pilotless Drone strikes begin in Somalia

References [link]

^{Slave Traffic} "African Slave Trade Patrol – 1820–1861". GlobalSecurity.org. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/slave.htm. Retrieved 2007-04-15.
^{Vandalia 1} "Vandalia". historycentral.com/navy. http://www.historycentral.com/navy/MISC%202/vandalia.html. Retrieved 2007-04-16.
^{Vandalia 2} "USS Vandalia (1876–1889)". U.S. Department of the Navy – Naval Historical Center. http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-v/vandla2.htm. Retrieved 2007-04-16.
^{1859 Mexico} "Juan Cortina (1824–1892)". www.pbs.org. http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/a_c/cortina.htm. Retrieved 2007-04-16.
^{Vietnam timeline} "Vietnam War Timeline". 7th Bn, 15th Arty Org. http://www.landscaper.net/timelin.htm. Retrieved 2007-04-17.

External links [link]

America's Wars: Bloodiest Battles – slideshow by LIFE magazine
Instances of Use of United States Forces Abroad, 1798–1993 by Ellen C. Collier, Specialist in U.S. Foreign Policy, Foreign Affairs and National Defense Division
United States Military Campaigns, Conflicts, Expeditions and Wars Compiled by Larry Van Horn, U.S. Navy Retired
Conversations with History: Militarism and the American Empire – With Chalmers Johnson, President of the Japan Policy Research Institute – RealVideo format.
US Military Interventions Since 1890: From Wounded Knee to Iraq – compiled by Geographer Zoltan Grossman
Congressional Research Service report RL30172: Hundreds of instances of the employment of U.S. military forces abroad

v t e Major armed conflicts involving the United States Armed Forces

listed chronologically

Internal	Shays' Rebellion Whiskey Rebellion Dorr Rebellion Mormon War Bleeding Kansas Utah War Civil War Indian Wars Brooks–Baxter War Coal Creek War Homestead Strike Battle of Blair Mountain Bonus Army

International	Revolutionary War Quasi-War First Barbary War War of 1812 Second Barbary War First Sumatran Expedition Second Sumatran Expedition Ivory Coast Expedition Mexican–American War First Fiji Expedition Second Opium War Second Fiji Expedition Korean Expedition Spanish–American War Philippine–American War Boxer Rebellion Banana Wars Border War World War I Russian Civil War World War II Korean War Vietnam War Invasion of the Dominican Republic Invasion of Grenada Lebanese Civil War Invasion of Panama Gulf War Somali Civil War Bosnian War Kosovo War Afghanistan War Iraq War War in North-West Pakistan Yemeni al-Qaeda crackdown Libyan Civil War Lord's Resistance Army insurgency

Related articles	List of conflicts in the U.S. List of wars involving the U.S. Timeline of U.S. military operations Length of U.S. participation in major wars Overseas expansion Military history Covert regime-change actions Casualties of war

United States Armed Forces

Book
Portal
- A
- MC
- N
- AF
- CG
Category
- A
- MC
- N
- AF
- CG
- PHS
- NOAA
Navbox
- A
- MC
- N
- AF
- CG

Leadership

Commander-in-chief: President of the United States
Secretary of Defense
Deputy Secretary of Defense
Joint Chiefs of Staff:
- Chairman
- Vice Chairman
United States Congress: Committees on Armed Services:
- Senate
- House
Active duty four-star officers
Highest ranking officers in history
National Security Act of 1947
Goldwater–Nichols Act

Organization

Service departments	Department of Defense (Secretary): Army (Secretary) Navy (Secretary) Air Force (Secretary) Department of Homeland Security (Secretary): Coast Guard

Branches	Army (Chief of Staff) Marine Corps (Commandant) Navy (Chief of Naval Operations) Air Force (Chief of Staff) Coast Guard (Commandant)

Other uniformed services	Public Health Service Commissioned Corps (Surgeon General) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Corps (Director)

Reserve components	Reserves: A MC N AF CG National Guard: A AF

Civilian auxiliaries	Military Auxiliary Radio System Merchant Marine Civil Air Patrol Coast Guard Auxiliary

Unified Combatant Command	Northern Central European Pacific Southern Africa Special Operations Strategic Transportation

Structure

United States Code
- Title 10
- Title 14
- Title 32
- Title 50
The Pentagon
Installations
- A
- MC
- N
- AF
- CG
Budget
Units:
- A
- MC
- N
- AF
- CG
Logistics
Media

Operations and history

Personnel

Training	MEPS ASVAB Recruit training: A MC N AF CG Officer candidate school: A MC N AF Warrant: A MC Service academies: A (prep) N (prep) AF (prep) CG Merchant Marine PHS Junior/Reserve Officers' Training Corps: A MC/N AF Medical Other education

Uniforms	Uniforms: A MC N AF CG Awards & decorations: Inter-service A MC/N AF CG Foreign International Devices Badges: Identification A MC N AF CG

Ranks	Enlisted: A MC N AF CG Warrant officers Officer: A MC N AF CG PHS NOAA

Other	Oath: Enlistment Office Creeds & Codes: Code of Conduct NCO A MC N AF CG Service numbers: A MC N AF CG Military Occupational Specialty/Rating/Air Force Specialty Code Pay Uniform Code of Military Justice Judge Advocate General's Corps Military Health System/TRICARE Separation Veterans Affairs Conscription Chiefs of Chaplains: A MC N AF CG

Equipment

Land	Individual weapons Crew-served weapons Vehicles (active)

Sea	All watercraft Ships: A N (active) AF CG MSC NOAA Weapons: N CG Aircraft: N CG NOAA Reactors

Air	Aircraft WWI active Aircraft designation Missiles Helicopter arms

Other	Electronics (designations) Flags: A MC N AF CG Ensign Jack Guidons Food WMDs: Nuclear Biological Chemical

Legend: A = Army, MC = Marine Corps, N = Navy, AF = Air Force, CG = Coast Guard, PHS = Public Health Service, NOAA = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, MSC = Military Sealift Command

v t e Cold War

Participants and notable figures ANZUS NATO Non-Aligned Movement SEATO Warsaw Pact

1940s	Yalta Conference Operation Unthinkable Potsdam Conference Gouzenko Affair War in Vietnam (1945–1946) Iran crisis of 1946 Greek Civil War Corfu Channel Incident Restatement of Policy on Germany First Indochina War Truman Doctrine Asian Relations Conference Marshall Plan Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948 Tito–Stalin split Berlin Blockade Western betrayal Iron Curtain Eastern Bloc Chinese Civil War (Second round)

1950s	Korean War 1953 Iranian coup d'état Uprising of 1953 in East Germany 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état Partition of Vietnam First Taiwan Strait Crisis Geneva Summit (1955) Poznań 1956 protests Hungarian Revolution of 1956 Suez Crisis Sputnik crisis Second Taiwan Strait Crisis Cuban Revolution Kitchen Debate Asian–African Conference Bricker Amendment McCarthyism Operation Gladio Hallstein Doctrine

1960s	Congo Crisis Sino–Soviet split 1960 U-2 incident Bay of Pigs Invasion Berlin Wall Portuguese Colonial War (Angolan War of Independence Guinea-Bissau War of Independence Mozambican War of Independence) Cuban Missile Crisis Vietnam War 1964 Brazilian coup d'état United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1965–1966) South African Border War Transition to the New Order Domino theory ASEAN Declaration Laotian Civil War Greek military junta of 1967–1974 USS Pueblo incident Six-Day War War of Attrition Cultural Revolution Sino-Indian War Prague Spring Goulash Communism Sino-Soviet border conflict Bunkers in Albania

1970s	Détente Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Black September in Jordan Cambodian Civil War Realpolitik Ping Pong Diplomacy Four Power Agreement on Berlin 1972 Nixon visit to China 1973 Chilean coup d'état Yom Kippur War Carnation Revolution Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Rhodesian Bush War Angolan Civil War Mozambican Civil War Ogaden War Sino-Albanian split Cambodian–Vietnamese War Sino-Vietnamese War Iranian Revolution Operation Condor Bangladesh Liberation War Korean Air Lines Flight 902

1980s	Soviet war in Afghanistan 1980 and 1984 Summer Olympics boycotts Solidarity Soviet reaction Contras Central American crisis RYAN Korean Air Lines Flight 007 Able Archer 83 Star Wars Invasion of Grenada People Power Revolution Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 United States invasion of Panama Fall of the Berlin Wall Revolutions of 1989 Glasnost Perestroika

1990s	Democratic Revolution in Mongolia Breakup of Yugoslavia Dissolution of the Soviet Union Dissolution of Czechoslovakia

Foreign policy	Truman Doctrine Marshall Plan Containment Eisenhower Doctrine Domino theory Kennedy Doctrine Peaceful coexistence Ostpolitik Johnson Doctrine Brezhnev Doctrine Nixon Doctrine Ulbricht Doctrine Carter Doctrine Reagan Doctrine Rollback

Ideologies	Capitalism Chicago school Keynesianism Monetarism Neoclassical economics Reaganomics Supply-side economics Thatcherism Communism Marxism–Leninism Castroism Eurocommunism Guevarism Hoxhaism Juche Left communism Maoism Stalinism Titoism Trotskyism Liberal democracy Social democracy

Organizations	ASEAN CIA Comecon EEC KGB MI6 Stasi

Propaganda	Active measures Izvestia Pravda Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Red Scare TASS Voice of America Voice of Russia

Races	Arms race Nuclear arms race Space Race

See also	Brinkmanship NATO–Russia relations Soviet and Russian espionage in U.S. Soviet Union–United States relations US–Soviet summits

Category Portal Timeline

American Civil War (outline)

Origins

Origins / Issues	Timeline leading to the War Antebellum era Bleeding Kansas Border states Dred Scott v. Sandford Missouri Compromise Secession States' rights

Slavery	African-Americans Emancipation Proclamation Fugitive slave laws Slave power Uncle Tom's Cabin

Abolitionism	John Brown Frederick Douglass William Lloyd Garrison Lysander Spooner Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad

Combatants
Theaters
Campaigns
Battles
States

Combatants

Union (USA)	Army Navy Revenue Cutter Service

Confederacy (CSA)	Army Navy Marine Corps

Theaters

Campaigns

Major battles

Involvement
by state or territory

Leaders

Confederate

Military	R.H. Anderson Beauregard Bragg Cooper Early Ewell Forrest Gorgas Hill Hood Jackson A.S. Johnston J.E. Johnston Lee Longstreet Morgan Mosby Price Quantrill Semmes E.K. Smith Stuart Taylor Wheeler

Civilian	Benjamin Breckinridge Bocock Davis Mallory Memminger Seddon Stephens

Union

Military	Anderson Buell Butler Burnside Du Pont Farragut Foote Fremont Grant Halleck Hooker Hunt McClellan McDowell Meade Meigs Pope D.D. Porter Rosecrans Scott Sheridan Sherman Thomas

Civilian	Adams Chase Ericsson Lincoln Pinkerton Seward Stanton Stevens Wade Welles

Aftermath

U.S. Constitution	13th Amendment 14th Amendment 15th Amendment

Reconstruction	Alabama Claims Carpetbaggers Freedman's Bank Freedmen's Bureau Jim Crow laws Redeemers Southern Claims Commission

Cemeteries	Confederate memorials and cemeteries National cemeteries U.S. memorials and cemeteries

Veterans	Grand Army of the Republic Old soldiers' homes United Confederate Veterans

Other topics	Ku Klux Klan Lost Cause

Related topics
Categories

http://wn.com/Timeline_of_United_States_military_operations

http://ru.wn.com/Список военных операций Соединённых Штатов Америки

http://fr.wn.com/Interventions militaires des États-Unis dans le monde

http://pt.wn.com/Anexo Cronologia das operações militares dos Estados Unidos

http://de.wn.com/Liste der Militäroperationen der Vereinigten Staaten

http://es.wn.com/Intervenciones de los Estados Unidos

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_military_operations

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

For the regions of the Americas formerly subject to the Spanish Empire, see Latin America.

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. No cleanup reason has been specified. Please help improve this article if you can; the talk page may contain suggestions. (July 2009)

Spanish American
Total population

David Farragut · Manuel Dominguez · Vicente Martinez Ybor · Rita Lydig · Leo Carrillo · Adele Mara · Rita Hayworth · Bob Martinez · Héctor Elizondo · Martin Sheen · Raquel Welch · Frank Lorenzo · Kenny Ortega · Daisy Fuentes · Mary Joe Fernandez · Lilian Garcia · Julian Casablancas · Jerry Garcia
Spaniard - 635,253 (2010 Census) ^[1] White Hispanics (of Spanish ancestry) 26,735,713 (2010 Census)
Regions with significant populations
California, New Mexico, Florida, Texas, New Jersey, New York, Chicago, Western United States
Languages
American English · U.S. Spanish · European Spanish
Religion
Roman Catholic (predominant) · Agnostic or Atheist · Jewish minorities
Related ethnic groups
Spaniards · Basque Americans · Catalan Americans · French Americans · Italian Americans · Portuguese Americans · other European Americans · White Hispanic Americans · Portuguese people

A Spanish American is a citizen or resident of the United States whose ancestors originate from the southwestern European nation of Spain.^[2] Spanish Americans are the earliest European American group, with a continuous presence since 1565.^[3]

Immigration waves [link]

Main article: History of Hispanic and Latino Americans

In colonial times there were a number of Spanish populations in the present–day U.S. with governments answerable to Madrid. The first settlement was in St. Augustine, Florida, followed by others in New Mexico, California, Arizona, Texas, and Louisiana. In 1598, San Juan de los Caballeros was established, near present day Santa Fe, New Mexico, by Juan de Oñate and about 1,000 other Spaniards. After the establishment of the American colonies, an additional 250,000 immigrants arrived either directly from Spain, the Canary Islands or, after a relatively short sojourn, from present-day central Mexico. The Canary Islanders settled San Antonio de Bejar, San Antonio, Texas, in 1731.^{[citation needed]} Most of the Spanish settlers in present-day Texas, California, New Mexico, Colorado, and Arizona were of ethnically-mixed ancestry, or mestizo. Most self-identified Spanish-Americans in the Southwest differentiate themselves nominally from the population of Mexican-Americans who came after the Mexican Revolution.^[4]^[5]

The earliest Spanish settlements in then northern Mexico were the result of the same forces that later led the English to come to North America. Exploration had been fueled in part by imperial hopes for the discovery of wealthy civilizations. In addition, like those aboard the Mayflower, most Spaniards came to the New World seeking land to farm, or occasionally, as historians have recently established, freedom from religious persecution. Some of the new Spanish settlers were descendants of Spanish Jewish converts, while others were descendants of Spanish Muslim converts.

Basques stood out in the exploration of the Americas, both as soldiers and members of the crews that sailed for the Spanish.^[6] Prominent in the civil service and colonial administration, they were accustomed to overseas travel and residence. Another reason for their emigration besides the restrictive inheritance laws in the Basque Country, was the devastation from the Napoleonic Wars in the first half of the nineteenth century, which was followed by defeats in the two Carlist civil wars. (For more information about the Basque, and immigrants to the United States from this region, please see the article Basque Americans).

Immigration to the United States from Spain was minimal but steady during the first half of the nineteenth century, with an increase during the 1850s and 1860s resulting from the social disruption of the Carlist civil wars. Much larger numbers of Spanish immigrants entered the country in the first quarter of the twentieth century—27,000 in the first decade and 68,000 in the second—due to the same circumstances of rural poverty and urban congestion that led other Europeans to emigrate in that period, as well as unpopular wars.The Spanish presence in the United States declined sharply between 1930 and 1940 from a total of 110,000 to 85,000. Many immigrants moved either back to Spain or to another country.

Beginning with the Fascist revolt against the Second Spanish Republic in 1936 and the devastating civil war that ensued, General Francisco Franco established a reactionary dictatorship for 40 years. At the time of the Fascist takeover, a small but prominent group of liberal intellectuals fled to the United States. After the civil war the country endured 20 years of Autarky, as Fanco believed that post World War II Spain could survive or continue its activities without any European assistance. As a result, in the mid-1960s, 44,000 Spaniards immigrated to the United States. In the 1970s, when Franco abandon Spain's autarkic economic system, prosperity began to emerged in Spain, and Spanish immigration to the United States declined to about 3,000 per year. In the 1980s, as Europe enjoyed an economic boom, Spanish immigrants to the United States dropped to only 15,000. The 1990 U.S. census recorded 76,000 foreign-born Spaniards in the country, representing only four-tenths of a percent of the total populace.

Much as with French Americans, who are of French descent but mostly by way of Canada, the majority of the 24 million strong Spanish American population have come by way of Latin America, especially Mexico, but also Puerto Rico, Cuba, and other areas. Some are descendants of colonial settlers in the southwestern states, especially New Mexico, before they became part of the United States. They are today the largest Latin group in the United States, followed by Italian Americans (18 million) and French Americans (12 million).

People born in Spain [link]

Spanish-born population in the United States 1850-2000 ^[7]^[8]
Year	Population
2010	+100,000
2000	82,858
1990	76,415
1980	73,735
1970	57,488
1960	44,999
1950	59,362
1940	//
1930	//
1920	49,535
1910	22,108
1900	7,050
1890	6,185
1880	5,121
1870	3,764
1860	4,244
1850	3,113

Assimilation in the United States [link]

Spanish Americans are readily accepted into American society.^[9] The Spanish work ethic is compatible with the values of both pre– and post–industrial Europe. Leisure time is used to maintain essential social contacts and is identified with upward social movement.

Stereotypes of Spanish immigrants derive in part from legends created and spread by the English in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when the two countries were rivals for European and world domination. Revulsion is expressed at the alleged cruelty of bull fighting, a practice that is believed by supporters to exalt individual worth through the demonstration of almost chivalric courage. Other stereotypical images, including exaggerated ideas of wild emotional intensity, create the misperception of Spain as the land of the tambourine and castanets, fiery flamenco dancing, and the reckless sensualism of Bizet's opera heroine, Carmen. Most of these elements are only connected, and in a much attenuated degree, with the southern region, Andalusia. As in matters of religion, northern Spaniards often view the character of life in their own regions as profoundly different.

Spanish language in the United States [link]

Main article: Spanish language in the United States

Spanish language spread across the United States.

Spanish was the first European language spoken in North America. It was brought to the territory of what is the contemporary U.S. in 1513 by Juan Ponce de León. In 1565, the Spaniards founded St. Augustine, Florida, the oldest, continuously occupied European settlement in the modern U.S. territory.^[3]

Like other descendants of immigrants, Spaniards have adopted English as their primary language.^[10]

Influence [link]

Culture [link]

See: Hispanic Heritage Sites (U.S. National Park Service)

Many Spanish Americans still retain aspects of their culture. This includes Spanish food, drink, art, annual fiestas.^{[citation needed]} Spaniards have contributed to a vast number of areas in the United States. The influence of Spanish cuisine is seen in the cuisine of the United States throughout the country.

Cowboy [link]

See: Spanish Cowboy and Cowgirl

The cowboy has deep historic roots tracing back to Spain and the earliest settlers of the Americas through the New World tradition of the vaquero. The Spanish originated what we now consider the cowboy tradition, beginning with the hacienda system of medieval Spain. This style of cattle ranching spread throughout much of the Iberian peninsula and later, was imported to the Americas, specifically Mexico. The need to cover distances greater than a person on foot could manage gave rise to the development of the horseback-mounted vaquero.

During the 16th century, the Conquistadors and other Spanish settlers brought their cattle-raising traditions as well as both horses and domesticated cattle to the Americas, starting with their arrival in what today is Mexico and Florida.^[11] The traditions of Spain were transformed by the geographic, environmental and cultural circumstances of New Spain, which later became Mexico and the Southwestern United States. In turn, the land and people of the Americas also saw dramatic changes due to Spanish influence.The arrival of horses was particularly significant, as equines had been extinct in the Americas since the end of the prehistoric ice age. However, horses quickly multiplied in America and became crucial to the success of the Spanish and later settlers from other nations. As English-speaking traders and settlers expanded westward, English and Spanish traditions, language and culture merged to some degree.

Spanish communities [link]

Mission Santa Barbara, known as "Queen of the Missions," was founded in 1786.

Spanish communities in the United States, in keeping with their strong regional identification in Spain, have established centers for Basques, Galicians, Asturians, Andalusians, and other such communities.

Religion [link]

Main articles: Spanish missions in Arizona, Spanish missions in California, Spanish missions in the Carolinas, Spanish missions in Florida, Spanish missions in Georgia, Spanish missions in Louisiana, Spanish missions in New Mexico, Spanish missions in Texas, and Ajacàn Mission

Many Spanish Americans are less active in Catholic church activities than was common in past generations in Spain; they rarely change their religious affiliation, though, and still participate frequently in family–centered ecclesiastical rituals. In both Spain and the United States events such as first communions and baptisms are felt to be important social obligations that strengthen clan identity.^{[citation needed]}

Employment and economics [link]

Since Spanish American entrance into the middle class has been widespread, the employment patterns described above have largely disappeared. This social mobility has followed logically from the fact that throughout the history of Spanish immigration to the United States, the percentage of skilled workers remained uniformly high. In the first quarter of the twentieth century, for example, 85 percent of Spanish immigrants were literate, and 36 percent were either professionals or skilled craftsmen. A combination of aptitude, motivation, and high expectations led to successful entry into a variety of fields.^{[citation needed]}

Politics and Government [link]

With the outbreak of the Spanish civil war in 1936 a number of intellectual political refugees found asylum in the United States. Supporters of the overthrown Spanish Republic, which had received aid from the Soviet Union while under attack from National rebel forces, were sometimes incorrectly identified with communism, but their arrival in the United States well before the "red scare" of the early 1950s spared them the worst excesses of McCarthyism. Until the end of the dictatorship in Spain in 1975 political exiles in the United States actively campaigned against the abuses of the Franco regime.

Emigration from Spain to the United States [link]

Immigration to the United States^[12]
Years	Arrivals	Years	Arrivals
1820–1830	2,688	1891–1900	6,662
1831–1840	2,004	1901–1910	48,944
1841–1850	2,091	1911–1920	102,954
1851–1860	9,038	1921–1930	41,954
1861–1870	6,390	1931–1940	4,945
1871–1880	5,266	1941–1949	3,287
1881–1890	4,419	Total (129 yrs)	240,642

These figures show there was never the mass emigration from Iberia as there was from Latin America. It is evident in the figures that Spanish immigration peaked in the 1910s and 1920s. The majority settled in Florida and New York, although there was also a sizable Spanish influx to West Virginia at the turn of the 20th century, mostly from Asturias.

Some of the first ancestors of Spanish Americans were Spanish Jews who spoke Ladino, a language derived from Castilian Spanish and Hebrew. In the 1930s and 1940s, Spanish immigration mostly consisted of refugees fleeing from the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) and from the Franco military regime in Spain, which lasted until his death in 1975. The majority of these refugees were businessmen and intellectuals, as well as union activists, and held strong liberal anti-authoritarian feelings.

2000 U.S Census [link]

In the 2000 United States Census 299,948 Americans specifically reported their ancestry as "Spaniard," which was a significant decrease from the 1990 Census, wherein those who reported "Spaniard" numbered 360,858.^[13] Another 2,187,144 reported "Spanish."

1990 U.S. Census [link]

Demographic distribution

1990 U.S. State population

1980 U.S. Census [link]

Demographic distribution

1980 U.S. State population

The Twentieth United States Census, 1980 was the first U.S. census that asked someones ancestry.

Spanish Americans are found in relative numbers throughout America, particularly in the Southwestern and Gulf Coast. According to the 1980 U.S. census, 62.7% reported Spanish/Hispanic as their main ancestry, and 66.4% reported Spaniard as their main ancestry.^[14]^[15]^[16]

Spanish place names [link]

Albuquerque, New Mexico is named after Alburquerque, Badajoz, Spain.

Main article: List of U.S. place names of Spanish origin

Some Spanish placenames in the USA include:

Arizona - from zona árida, "Arid zone".

California - The state was named for a mythical land described in a popular Spanish novel from around 1500, Las sergas de Esplandián (The exploits of Esplandián) by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo.
- Alcatraz Island "Pelican Island, Los Angeles "City of Angels", Sacramento "City of the Sacrament", Santa Cruz "City of the Holy Cross"
Florida - "Flowery".
- Boca Raton - "Mouth of the Mouse", Key West - Anglicisation of "Cayo Hueso" ("Bone Island")
New Mexico
- Santa Fe - "Holy Faith", Las Cruces - "The Crosses", Madrid - although pronounced "MAD-rid" the city was named for the capital of Spain
Colorado - "Reddish".
- Pueblo - "Town", Alamosa - "Cottonwood"
Montana - "Montaña", "Mountain".
Texas "Tejas" in Spanish language and "slates" in English.
- El Paso "The Pass", Amarillo "Yellow", San Antonio "St. Anthony",
Nevada - "Snowfall".
- Las Vegas " The Meadows".

Notables [link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Spanish Americans

See: List of Spanish Americans

References [link]

^ Americans reporting Spaniard A's their ancestry
^ Most dictionaries give this definition as the first or only definition for "Spanish American." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (3rd ed.) (1992). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-44895-6. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.) (2003). Springfield: Merriam-Webster. ISBN 0-87779-807-9. The Random House Dictionary of the English Language (2nd ed.) (1987). New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-50050-4. Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles (2007). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920687-2. Webster's New Dictionary and Thesaurus (2002). Cleveland: Wiley Publishing. ISBN 978-0-471-79932-0
^ ^a ^b "A Spanish Expedition Established St. Augustine in Florida". Library of Congress. http://www.americaslibrary.gov/cgi-bin/jb_date.cgi?day=08&month=09. Retrieved 2009-03-27. ^{[dead link]}
^ http://www.drclas.harvard.edu/revista/articles/view/577
^ New Mexico CultureNet - Cuartocentenario
^ Kurlansky, Mark (1999). The Basque History of the World. New York: Walker. ISBN 0-14-029851-7.
^ "Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-born Population of the United States: 1850-1990"
^ PLACE OF BIRTH FOR THE FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION [126] - Universe: Foreign-born population
^ http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F3/438/438.F3d.195.04-6328.html
^ Chavez, Linda (March 25, 2011). "Hispanic population booms". Florida Today (Melbourne, Florida): pp. 9A. http://townhall.com/columnists/lindachavez/2011/03/25/hispanic_boom.
^ Vernam, p. 190
^ Perez, Juan M. (October 2005). The Hispanic Role in America "The hispanic Role in America". Coloquio Revista Cultural. http://coloquio.com/coloquioonline/2005/0510hispanicrole.htm The Hispanic Role in America.
^ Angela, Brittingham; G. Patricia de la Cruz. "Ancestry: 2000; Census 2000 Brief". U.S. Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf. Retrieved 2008-12-11.
^ 1980 Census of Total U.S Population
^ 1980,U.S Census by State
^ 1990 & 1980 State population comparisons

External links [link]

Colahan, Clark (2008). Spanish American Heritage. Multicultural America.
Ramírez, Roberto R. (2004). We the People: Hispanic Population in the United States. Census 2000 Special Reports. U.S. Census Bureau.
Pérez, Juan M. (October 2005). The Hispanic Role in America. Coloquio Revista Cultural.
Survey: 2005 American Community Survey:Hispanic Origin. U.S. Census Bureau.
Asturian-American Migration Forum. A discussion board for the descendants of Asturian-Americans.

v t e Hispanic and Latino American groups

Central American / Caribbean	Costa Rican Cuban Dominican Guatemalan Honduran Nicaraguan Panamanian Puerto Rican Salvadoran

North American	Mexican Chicano Punjabi Californio Nuevomexicano Tejano

South American	Argentine Bolivian Colombian Chilean Ecuadorian Paraguayan Peruvian Uruguayan Venezuelan

Western European	Spanish Basque Catalan Hispano Isleño

Racial groups	All groups American Indians/Native American Asian Black White Multiracial (Mulatto, Mestizo, Zambo, Pardo, "Cholo", Castizo, etc)

related ethnic groups	Belizean Americans Brazilian Americans Haitian Americans Guyanese Americans

v t e European Americans

Central Europe	Austrian Czech German Frisian Pennsylvania Dutch Hungarian Jewish¹ Polish Rusyn Slovak Slovene

Eastern Europe	Armenian Azeri⁴ Belarusian Georgian Russian² Ukrainian

Northern Europe	British English Scots-Irish Scottish Welsh Cornish Estonian Irish Latvian Lithuanian Scandinavian Danish Finnish Icelandic Norwegian Swedish

Southeast Europe	Albanian Bosnian Bulgarian Croatian Macedonian Montenegrin Romanian Moldovan Serbian

Southern Europe	Basque Catalan Cypriot Greek Italian Sicilian Maltese Portuguese Spanish Isleño Turkish³

Western Europe	Belgian Dutch Frisian French Acadian Cajun Louisiana Creole Luxembourg Swiss

¹ Most Jewish Americans came from Central and Eastern Europe ² Most Russian Americans came from European Russia ³ European part of Turkey ⁴ European part of Azerbaijan

Spanish diaspora

By Country

Africa	Equatorial Guinea

Americas	Argentina Brazil Canada Chile Cuba Jamaica Mexico Peru Puerto Rico United States

Asia	Philippines

Europe	United Kingdom

Oceania	Australia

http://wn.com/Spanish_American

http://fr.wn.com/Hispano-Américains

http://es.wn.com/Inmigración española en Estados Unidos

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_American

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.

This article may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (April 2011)

Michael Parenti
Michael Parenti
Born	1933 New York City
Occupation	political scientist, historian, and media critic
Nationality	American
Education	City College of New York, B.A. Brown University, M.A. Yale University, Ph.D.
Subjects	History, Politics, Economics
Children	Christian Parenti
www.michaelparenti.org

Michael Parenti is an American political writer, historian, and culture critic who writes on scholarly and popular subjects. He has taught at American and international universities and has been a guest lecturer before campus and community audiences.^[1]^[2] He has played an activist role in political struggles, and in various anti-war movements.

Background [link]

Parenti received his Ph.D. in political science from Yale University. He is the author of twenty four books and many more articles. His works have been translated into at least eighteen languages.^[3] Parenti lectures frequently throughout the United States and abroad. He wrote The Assassination of Julius Caesar,^[4] He is the father of Christian Parenti, an author and contributor to The Nation magazine.

Parenti's writings cover a wide range of subjects: U.S. politics, culture, ideology, political economy, imperialism, fascism, communism, democratic socialism, free-market orthodoxies, conservative judicial activism, religion, ancient history, modern history, historiography, repression in academia, news and entertainment media, technology, environmentalism, sexism, racism, homophobia, Venezuela, the wars in Iraq and Yugoslavia, ethnicity, and his own early life.^[5]^[6]^[7] Perhaps his most influential book is Democracy for the Few,^[8] now in its ninth edition, a critical analysis of U.S. society, economy, and political institutions^[9] and a college-level political science textbook published by Wadsworth Publishing.^[10] In recent years he has addressed such subjects as "Empires: Past and Present," "US Interventionism: the Case of Iraq," "Race, Gender, and Class Power," "Ideology and History," "The Collapse of Communism," and "Terrorism and Globalization."^[3]

Michael Parenti was raised in an Italian-American working-class family and neighborhood in New York City about which he has written.^[11] For many years Parenti taught political and social science at various institutions of higher learning. Eventually he devoted himself full-time to writing, public speaking, and political activism.^[12]

In 1974, Parenti ran in Vermont on the Liberty Union Party ticket for U.S. Congress and received 7% of the vote.^[13]

In Washington, D.C., in 2003, the Caucus for a New Political Science gave him a Career Achievement Award. In 2007, he received a Certificate of Special Congressional Recognition from U.S. Representative Barbara Lee and an award from New Jersey Peace Action. In the 1980s, he was a Visiting Fellow at the Institute for Policy Studies in Washington, D.C.

He served for some 12 years as a judge for Project Censored. He also is on the advisory boards of Independent Progressive Politics Network, and Education Without Borders; as well as the advisory editorial boards of New Political Science and Nature, Society and Thought.^[14]

Social and political analyses [link]

Parenti has covered many subjects in 45 years of teaching, writing, and speaking. The broad outlines of some of these are summarized below.

Racism [link]

Parenti argues that western racism is systemic and historical in nature and should be regarded as more than just an attitudinal problem^[15]. He identifies the origins of western racism in imperialism and slavery: To justify the colonial plunder of another nation or entire continent (as in the case of Africa) as well as the enslavement of conquered populations, imperialists and/or slave traffickers dehumanize their victims and define them as moral inferiors and subhuman.

Parenti maintains that racism serves several functions for ruling interests in the United States:^[16]

It divides the working class against each other.
It creates a "super-exploited" group of people who are forced to work at below scale wages thereby depressing wage levels for the entire workforce.
It distracts the (United States) white population from its own legitimate grievances by providing an irrelevant scapegoat in the form of minority populations

Culture and social structure [link]

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, becoming increasingly critical of the existing socio-economic system, Parenti argued that images of the United States as a pluralistic, democratic society were more ideological than accurate. He did not deny the existence of a vast plurality of social, ethnic, and regional groups in America, but he felt that this group pluralism did not translate into a democratic pluralism in political life. Only limited portions of the political process are accessed by the general populace. Power in America is not broadly distributed, according to Parenti, but is highly concentrated in a social structure dominated by corporate moneyed interests, whose influence predominates in most mainstream institutions and major policy areas.^[8] Parenti maintains that the resources of power are lodged in the social structure itself, the culture, institutions, and established social roles, and that ruling elements maintain their dominant positions not only by raw economic power but by attaining “cultural hegemony,” a concept formulated earlier by Antonio Gramsci (whom Parenti cites).^[17]

Role of US media [link]

With respect to the US media Parenti has maintained that, while news coverage can be marred by problems of deadlines, space, and ordinary human error, much of the misleading coverage is the result of carefully honed ideological production. Reporters, he says, often exercise much skill to avoid the more important points of a story or news analysis so as not to offend anyone who wields substantial political and economic power, including their own bosses and corporate advertisers. Parenti concludes that their goal is to avoid fishing too deeply into troubled waters thereby maintaining an appearance of objectivity and moderation. Their careers, he suggests, depend in part upon their ability to equate centrist views with “objectivity,” and to stay within the prevailing ideological orthodoxy.^[18]

Parenti’s treatment of entertainment media (movies and television) continues the argument that the media are not neutral and favor elitist interests. Exploring a wide range of films and programs, he has attempted to demonstrate that the entertainment media do more than entertain; they indoctrinate by propagating values in keeping with their corporate ownership and corporate advertisers.^[19] Most recently, he wrote the foreword to Matthew Alford's Reel Power: Hollywood Cinema and American Supremacy (Pluto Press, 2010).

Parenti often attacks specific examples of the misleading coverage provided by the US media. In Blackshirts and Reds^[20] he cites historian J. Arch Getty's figures to demonstrate the exaggeration elsewhere in the US media of the executions effected by Joseph Stalin in the Great Purge. Parenti critically reviews Slobodan Milosevic and the Destruction of Yugoslavia^[21] in "The Demonization of Slobodan Milosevic"^[22] and To Kill a Nation: The Attack on Yugoslavia ,^[23] finding similar exaggeration of war crimes in the breakup of the second Yugoslavia. In "Friendly Feudalism: The Tibet Myth"^[24] he observes, "western news media, travel books, novels, and Hollywood films have portrayed the Tibetan theocracy as a veritable Shangri-La" then goes on to detail what he feels were its negative aspects.

Culture across the globe [link]

Parenti maintains that, far from being neutral, culture is often ideologically driven in a highly skewed system of social power, benefiting some groups at the expense of others. “Growing portions of our culture are increasingly commodified and mass marketed.” “So we buy more and more of our culture and create less and less of it.” Rather than being accepted at face value, Parenti says that all cultures should be subjected to critical investigation to be judged by “universal human rights standards” and by the criticisms voiced by those who are victimized within the various cultures of the world. Parenti gives extensive attention to those who are regularly victimized by their own cultures, providing examples in chapters entitled “Custom Against Women,” “The Global Rape Culture,” and “Racist Myths.”^[16]

Role of voting fraud in US elections [link]

Parenti is among those who have cited a variety of studies claiming that the 2004 presidential election was fraudulent. In an essay entitled "The Stolen Election of 2004"^[25] he argued that modern voting technology allowed powerful corporations to manipulate the electoral results. He concluded the article by observing, about the forthcoming US election, "Given this situation, it is not likely that the GOP will lose control of Congress come November 2006. The two-party monopoly threatens to become an even worse one-party tyranny." In an updated analysis of the 2000 and 2004 presidential elections, he adds a postscript explaining why—despite the massive crossover reported in the polls away from the GOP-—the Democrats won only a slim victory in the Congressional 2006 elections.”^[26]

Class and class power [link]

Parenti stresses the role of class in all societies, particularly the purportedly classless US one. He extends the definition of class as a demographic trait relating to status, education, lifestyle, and income level to include the effects of social interrelationships. He observes that there can be no rich slaveholders without poor slaves, no powerful feudal lords without serfs, no corporate bosses without workers. The interrelationship is highly asymmetrical. It centers on the organized wealth of the society.^[8]

Parenti also believes that there is a third factor involved in class relationships, specifically the productive resources (land, agriculture, herds, natural resources, factories, technology, etc.). The dominant group in class relationships owns or controls these economic resources. The weaker class historically has had only its labor to sell. Hence the “dominant money classes” exercise a preponderant influence over workforces, markets, major investments, consumption patterns, media, and public policies. Parenti concludes that when discussing class, class power—how it is used, for whose interests, and at whose expense—must also be discussed.^[27]

US downplay of class [link]

Parenti has repeatedly criticized the tendency among many who profess to be progressive to downplay the importance of class and class power as a formative force as compared to race, gender, and culture. He allows that each of these other categories of social experience have imperatives that are distinctly their own, sometimes of a life-and-death urgency. Still they should not be seen as being mutually exclusive of, or in competition with, considerations of class power in society, he argues, and should not be used as a means of evading class analysis.^[28]

Democracy and capitalism [link]

From the late 60s well into the 80s, Parenti was one of many radicals and socialists who questioned the validity and value of what they called “bourgeois democracy,” seeing it more as a charade to mislead the people into thinking that they were free and self-governing. By the late 80s, however, he noticeably modified his position, arguing that democracy should not be thought of as merely a subterfuge or cloak created by ruling elites, although it certainly can serve that purpose. More often, Parenti claimed, whatever modicum of democracy the people attain in any society is usually the outcome of genuine struggle for a more equitable politico-economic order. He asks why the corporate class should be credited with giving people a “bourgeois democracy,” when in fact the ruling plutocrats furiously opposed most democratic advances in U.S. history, such as the extension of the franchise or the struggle for ethnic and gender equality, more direct forms of representation, more room for dissent and free speech, greater accountability of elected officials, and more equitable socio-economic domestic programs.^[8]

According to Parenti, reacting to mainstream commentators who turn every systemic vice and deficiency into a virtue, leftist critics of the status quo, seeing no real victories or progress in the centuries of popular struggle, have felt compelled to turn every virtue into a vice. To counter this trend, he says, people should recognize that real gains have been made, democracy refuses to die, and both at home and abroad popular forces, continue the democratic struggle, even against great odds.^[29]

For Parenti, democracy has two basic dimensions, the procedural and the substantive, both of which are equally important. Procedural democracy consists of the basic political forms: free speech and assembly, the right to dissent, accountability of officeholders, the right to vote in regular and honest elections, etc. Substantive democracy consists of egalitarian socio-economic outputs that advance the well-being of the populace, protect the environment, and curb the abuses and often untrammeled powers of great wealth. Parenti quotes the German sociologist Max Weber who remarked almost a century earlier that it remains to be seen whether democracy and freedom can exist under the dominion of a highly developed capitalism.^[8]

Parenti concludes that “there is no one grand, secret, power elite governing this country, but numerous coteries of corporate and governmental elites that communicate and coordinate across various policy realms. Behind their special interests are the common overall interests of the moneyed class,” which is not to say that differences never arise among these elites.

Technology, money, and deficit spending [link]

Parenti believes that people's thinking about past and present developments needs to be contextualized, that is seen in a social context of power and ideology. He gives the examples of technology and money. Both are seen as neutral entities that are inherently neither good nor bad. This may be true hypothetically, he writes, but, in reality, both technology and money have been developed within specific historical contexts by powerful interests that gained great advantage from their development. Almost all technology, he argues, is devoted to advancing the interests of higher circles, maximizing profits and corporate production, or in the case of government, maximizing surveillance, communication, and military striking power. New advances in technology are not neutral things. They impact upon us and our environment in ways that can advantage some and hurt others, according to Parenti. He writes similarly about money: "Like technology, money has a feedback effect of its own, advantaging the already advantaged", liquefying wealth, making it easier to mobilize and accumulate. With the growth of moneyed wealth comes a greater concentration and command over technology by the moneyed class.^[30]

Few phenomena in the social order can operate with neutral effect even if supposedly pursued with neutral intent, according to Parenti. The national debt is a good example. Considered merely as a “problem” of excessive government spending, the national debt in fact works well for certain interests, specifically the moneyed class, Parenti claims. By 1977,he noted how the national debt brought a transfer of income from the taxpayers to the wealthy creditors, the holders of government bonds. The greater the debt, the greater the upward transfer, as the government continues to borrow money from those they should be taxing (the big money interests). Parenti concludes it is no accident that the biggest deficit spenders have been conservative presidents like Ronald Reagan and both George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush. The national debt is in effect a way of privatizing public spending and defunding the federal budget, Parenti argues. The bigger the debt, the less money available for domestic programs, and the more money that goes from the pockets of ordinary taxpayers to rich creditors.^[8]

Fascism [link]

Parenti’s treatment of fascism differs from that of the many writers who stress the irrational features of fascism: its state idolatry, nationalistic atavism, and leadership cult. While not denying that these are key components in the propagation of fascism’s appeal, he invites us not to overlook the “rational politico economic functions” that fascism performed. “Much of politics is the rational manipulation of irrational symbols,” he claims. The emotive appeals of fascist ideology have served a class-control function, “distracting the populace from their legitimate grievances and directing their frustrations at various scapegoats.”

Most of the immense literature on the subject of fascism and Nazism focuses on who supported Hitler’s rise to power. Relatively little, Parenti writes, is said about whom the Nazis supported when they came to power. In both fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, he points out, wages were cut drastically, domestic programs were rolled back, huge subsidies were given to heavy industry, labor unions were broken, taxes on the very rich were greatly reduced or eliminated altogether, and workplace safety regulations were ignored or abolished. Fascism, he concludes, has a much overlooked politico- economic agenda; it involves something more than just goose stepping.^[31]

Empire [link]

U.S. foreign policy is neither confused nor bungling, according to Parenti. It is quite consistently directed toward certain goals, and is largely successful. For the most part, U.S. leaders have maintained friendly relations with those governments that have opened up their countries to Western corporate investors, and have shown hostility toward those countries that have tried to use their land, labor, natural resources, and markets for their own self-development, Parenti believes. Iraq was targeted for “having committed economic nationalism,” with a state-run economy that pretty much shut out Western investors. The same holds true for Yugoslavia, he claims. Both countries were bombed and invaded, and their public economies were shattered. Parenti believes that Yugoslavia was transformed from a viable social democracy to a cluster of little right-wing mini-republics.

Parenti's beliefs led him to become head of the United States chapter of the International Committee to Defend Slobodan Milošević,^[32] in which capacity he added to the criticisms of bias in the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia^[33]^[34]

Parenti also maintains that the U.S. empire feeds off the U.S. republic. The empire’s expansion abroad entails increasing costs for the republic. Ventures that are profitable for military contractors and overseas investors have to be paid in blood and taxes by the American populace. The many third world countries that are the targets of colonial intervention pay the highest price, he writes. They suffer not from underdevelopment, but from “maldevelopment,” a result of generations of overexploitation.^[35]

Communism [link]

Many on the left continue to deliver impassioned and blanket condemnations of deceased communist countries, Parenti states. “Those of us who refused to join in the Soviet bashing were branded by left anti-communists as ‘Soviet apologists’ and ‘Stalinists,’ even if we disliked Stalin and his autocratic system of rule and believed there were things seriously wrong with existing Soviet society.”^[20]

Parenti did in fact make a number of criticisms of the Soviet Union. In 1986 he wrote: "In the USSR there exist serious problems of labor productivity, industrialization, urbanization, bureaucracy, corruption, and alcoholism. There are production and distribution bottlenecks, plan failures, consumer scarcities, criminal abuses of power, suppression of dissidents, and expressions of alienation among some of the population."^[36]

More recently he wrote that the state-owned economies of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union suffered “fatal distortions in their development” because of the years of “embargo, invasion, devastating wars, and costly arms buildup; excessive bureaucratization and poor incentive systems; lack of administrative initiative and technological innovation; and a repressive political rule that allowed little critical expression and feedback while fostering stagnation and elitism.”^[6] Some on the left heavily criticized Parenti for what they saw as his defense of such regimes, however, in his book Blackshirt and Reds.

Parenti argues that “despite the well-publicized deficiencies, crimes, and injustices, there were positive features about existing communist systems that were worth preserving, such as the free medical care and human services; affordable food, fuel, transportation, and housing; universal literacy; gains in women’s rights; free education to the highest level of one’s ability; a guaranteed right to a job; free cultural and sporting events, and the like.”^[6] He supported Gorbachev’s campaign of perestroika and glasnost until 1990 when it became evident to him that the Gorbachev reforms were leading to the implantation of free-market capitalism and were, as he saw it, bringing hardships to the common people.^[37]

Social democracy [link]

Parenti maintains that the structural problems of free-market transnational capitalism will only worsen the living standards of people in the United States and abroad, while deepening the environmental crises. He advocates a greater measure of public ownership in the USA. Parenti asks “can socialism work? ... Is it not just a dream in theory and a nightmare in practice? Can the government produce anything of worth?”^[8] He goes on to point out that it already does, citing publicly owned transportation systems, utilities, banking, education, and health services that are run efficiently by the governments of the USA and various social democracies and at a far lesser cost than their private counterparts.

Ecology [link]

Parenti points to the increasingly catastrophic droughts, storms, floods, and abnormally high temperatures in many parts of the world to justify a hypothesis that the widely discussed ecological crisis of global warming will not be upon us “by the end of the century” or “in the lives of our grandchildren,” but is already happening today. He builds on this in an essay, "Why the Corporate Rich Oppose Environmentalism,"^[6] to argue that immediate and immense profits that come at a cost to the environment are of more concern to corporate investors than the diffuse and long-run damage done to the global ecology.

History and historiography [link]

Much of Parenti’s work draws upon history. In his History as Mystery^[38] he takes the old adage that history is written by the victors and fleshes it out with examples drawn from ancient and modern times. In regard to early Christianity, for instance, he maintains that, contrary to popular notions, the “Jesus worshipers” did not gather most of their followers from the poor and downtrodden but from the more affluent strata. Some Christian leaders discouraged slaves from converting to Christianity. Slaves were prohibited from becoming church deacons or priests, he maintains. Contrary to conventional US notions, he argues that the Christians were not the keepers of learning and scholarship during the Dark Ages but played a relentless role in destroying all the advanced learning and all the libraries of antiquity that were in their reach.

In The Assassination of Julius Caesar,^[4] he states that many historians, both ancient and modern, have treated popular insurgencies and the common people with fear and loathing, depicting them as mindless rootless mobs of ne’er-do-wells. He also argues that Caesar and other popular reformers of the Roman Republic before him were assassinated not because they were violating the Roman constitution but because they were advocating reforms that benefited the commoners at a cost to the aristocracy. He does not draw a link between Caesarism and the eventual descent of the Republic into the despotism of the Empire.

References in popular culture [link]

New York City based punk rock band Choking Victim use a number of samples from Michael Parenti's lectures in their album, No Gods, No Managers.

Appearances in Film and Television [link]

Apart from several recordings of some of his public speeches, Parenti has also appeared in the 1992 documentary Panama Deception and the 2004 documentary Liberty Bound as an author and social commentator.

In addition, he was interviewed for two episodes of the Showtime series Penn & Teller: Bullshit!, speaking briefly about the Dalai Lama (Episode 305 - Holier Than Thou) and patriotism (Episode 508 - Mount Rushmore).

Bibliography [link]

The Anti-Communist Impulse, Random House, 1970.
Trends and Tragedies in American Foreign Policy, Little, Brown, 1971.
Ethnic and Political Attitudes, Arno, 1975. ISBN 0-405-06413-6
Democracy for the Few, First Edition circa 1974, Eighth Edition 2007.^[8] ISBN 0-495-00744-7, ISBN 978-0-495-00744-9
Power and the Powerless, St. Martin's Press, 1978. ISBN 0-312-63372-6, ISBN 0-312-63373-4
Inventing Reality: the Politics of News Media. First edition 1986, Second Edition 1993. ISBN 0-312-02013-9, ISBN 0-312-08629-6
The Sword and the Dollar: Imperialism, Revolution and the Arms Race, St. Martin's, 1989. ISBN 0-312-02295-6
Make-Believe Media: the Politics of Entertainment, St. Martin's Press, 1992. ISBN 0-312-05603-6, ISBN 0-312-05894-2
Land of Idols: Political Mythology in America, St. Martin's, 1993. ISBN 0-312-09497-3, ISBN 0-312-09841-3
[1] Against Empire Published by City Lights Books, 1995, ISBN 0-87286-298-4, ISBN 978-0-87286-298-2, 217 pages
Dirty Truths, City Lights Books, 1996. Includes some autobiographical essays. ISBN 0-87286-317-4, ISBN 0-87286-318-2
Blackshirts & Reds: Rational Fascism and the Overthrow of Communism, City Lights Books, San Francisco, 1997. ISBN 0-87286-329-8, ISBN 0-87286-330-1
America Besieged, City Lights, 1998. ISBN 0-87286-338-7, ISBN 0-87286-338-7
History as Mystery, City Lights, 1999. ISBN 0-87286-357-3, ISBN 0-87286-364-6
To Kill a Nation: The Attack on Yugoslavia, Verso, 2000, ISBN 1-85984-776-5
The Terrorism Trap: September 11 and Beyond, City Lights, 2002. ISBN 0-87286-405-7
The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Ancient Rome, The New Press, 2003. ISBN 1-56584-797-0.^[4]
Superpatriotism, City Lights, 2004. ISBN 978-0-87286-433-7
The Culture Struggle, Seven Stories Press, 2006. ISBN 1-58322-704-0, ISBN 978-1-58322-704-6
Contrary Notions, City Lights Books, 2007.^[6] ISBN 0-87286-482-0, ISBN 978-0-87286-482-5
God and His Demons, Prometheus Books, 2010
The Face of Imperialism, (Paradigm, 2011)

References [link]

^ tucradio.org
^ "Speaking Engagements by Michael Parenti". Michael Parenti. Archived from the original on 27 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071027175430/http://www.michaelparenti.org/events.html. Retrieved 25 December 2007.
^ ^a ^b "Biography of Michael Parenti". Michael Parenti. Archived from the original on 27 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071027130302/http://www.michaelparenti.org/biography.html. Retrieved 25 December 2007.
^ ^a ^b ^c ,Parenti, Michael (September 2004). The Assassination of Julius Caesar, A People's History of Ancient Rome. New Press. pp. 276. ISBN 978-1-56584-942-6. http://www.michaelparenti.org/Caesar.html.
^ "Articles and Other Published Selections". Michael Parenti. Archived from the original on 26 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071026092449/http://www.michaelparenti.org/articles.html. Retrieved 25 December 2007.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Parenti, Michael (August 2007). Contrary Notions: The Michael Parenti Reader. City Lights Books. pp. 403. ISBN 978-0-87286-482-5. http://www.michaelparenti.org/contrarynotions.html.
^ "Books by Michael Parenti". Michael Parenti. http://www.michaelparenti.org/books.html. Retrieved 25 December 2007.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Parenti, Michael (February 2007). Democracy for the Few (Eight ed.). Wadsworth Publishing Company. pp. 322. ISBN 978-0-495-00744-9. http://www.michaelparenti.org/DemocracyForFew.html.
^ Lendman, Stephen (September 10, 2007). "Democracy for the Few, Review by Stephen Lendman". populistamerica.com (web site of the US Populist Party). Archived from the original on 13 December 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071213234600/http://www.populistamerica.com/democracy_for_the_few. Retrieved 26 December 2007.
^ CENGAGE Learning. "WADSWORTH CENGAGE Learning political science". http://academic.cengage.com/cengage/discipline.do?disciplinenumber=20. Retrieved 3 January 2008.
^ Parenti, Michael (August 2007). "La Famiglia: An Ethno-Class Experience". Contrary Notions: The Michael Parenti Reader. City Lights Books. pp. 403. ISBN 978-0-87286-482-5. http://www.michaelparenti.org/contrarynotions.html.
^ Parenti, Michael (1996). "Struggles in Academe: A Personal Account". Dirty Truths. ISBN 0-87286-317-4.
^ Sanders, Bernie (1997). "You Have to Begin Somewhere". Outsider in the House.
^ Parenti, Michael. "Michael Parenti Political Archive". http://www.michaelparenti.org/. Retrieved 2 January 2008.
^ Michael Parenti, The culture struggle, p.101
^ ^a ^b Parenti, Michael (2006). The Culture Struggle. ISBN 978-1-58322-704-6.
^ Parenti, Michael (1978). Power and the Powerless. ISBN 0-312-63373-4.
^ Parenti, Michael (1986). "The Politics of News Media". Inventing Reality. ISBN 0-312-43474-X.
^ Parenti, Michael (1992). Make-Believe Media: The Politics of Entertainment. ISBN 0-312-05603-6.
^ ^a ^b Parenti, Michael (1997). Blackshirts and Reds. ISBN 0-87286-329-8.
^ Sell, Louis (2002). Slobodan Milosevic and the Destruction of Yugoslavia. Duke University Press.
^ Parenti, Michael (December 2003). "The Demonization of Slobodan Milosevic". Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071013215434/http://michaelparenti.org/Milosevic.html. Retrieved 25 December 2007.
^ Parenti, Michael (2000). To Kill a Nation: The Attack on Yugoslavia. Verso.
^ Parenti, Michael (2007). ["http://www.michaelparenti.org/Tibet.html" "Friendly Feudalism: The Tibet Myth"]. "http://www.michaelparenti.org/Tibet.html". Retrieved January 10, 2008.
^ "ZNet Commentary: The Stolen Election of 2004". July 2006. http://www.zmag.org/sustainers/content/2006-07/03parenti.cfm. Retrieved 25 December 2007.
^ "The Stolen Presidential Elections". May 2007. Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071012054013/http://www.michaelparenti.org/stolenelections.html. Retrieved 11 January 2008.
^ Parenti, Michael (August 2007). "The Flight From Class". Contrary Notions: The Michael Parenti Reader. City Lights Books. pp. 403. ISBN 978-0-87286-482-5. http://www.michaelparenti.org/contrarynotions.html.
^ Parenti, Michael (1997). "9". Blackshirts & Reds. City Lights Books. pp. 141–160. ISBN 0-87286-329-8. http://michaelparenti.org/BlackShirts.html.
^ Parenti, Michael (February 2007). "preface". Democracy for the Few (Eight ed.). Wadsworth Publishing Company. pp. 322. ISBN 978-0-495-00744-9. http://www.michaelparenti.org/DemocracyForFew.html.
^ Parenti, Michael (August 2007). "Technology and Money: The Myth of Neutrality". Contrary Notions: The Michael Parenti Reader. City Lights Books. pp. 403. ISBN 978-0-87286-482-5. http://www.michaelparenti.org/contrarynotions.html.
^ Parenti, Michael (1997). ""Rational Fascism"". Blackshirts and Reds. ISBN 0-87286-329-8.
^ "International Committee to Defend Slobodan Milošević (official website). Committee members". December 2003. http://www.icdsm.info/FreeSlobodanMilosevic.htm. Retrieved 25 December 2007.
^ Parenti, Michael (December 2003). "Two letters by Michael Parenti. On the official website of the ICDSM". http://www.icdsm.info/more/Parenti2L.htm. Retrieved 25 December 2007.
^ "International Action Center press release: Public announcement of the formation of the U.S. section of the ICDSM and a statement against the ICTY's most recent violations of international law and human rights". December 2003. http://www.iacenter.org/bosnia/yugo-milos_903.htm. Retrieved 25 December 2007.
^ Parenti, Michael (1995). Against Empire. ISBN 0-87286-298-4.
^ Parenti, Michael (1986). Inventing Reality. ISBN 0-312-43474-X.
^ Parenti, Michael. "Reflections on the Overthrow of Communism". Michael Parenti Archive. TUC Radio. http://www.tucradio.org/parenti.html.
^ "Parenti", "Michael" (September 1999). History as Mystery. "City Light Books". pp. 304. ISBN 978-0-87286-357-6.

External links [link]

Michael Parenti Political Archive maintained by Michael Parenti
Booknotes interview with Parenti on The Assassination of Julius Caesar, September 7, 2003.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Michael Parenti

Michael Parenti's articles [link]

Audio [link]

Talks by Michael Parenti - MP3 format.
TUC Radio's Michael Parenti Archive - recordings available for purchase.
Michael Parenti talks about “The Culture Struggle” May 2007 on Democracy Now radio.
October 2006 interview on KPFA radio.

This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Parenti

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