''Platillo Moros y Cristianos'' (or simply ''moros'', ''moro'', ''congri'', or ''arroz moro'') is a famous Cuban dish. It can be considered to be the Cuban version of rice and beans, a dish found throughout the Caribbean and in Brazil.

Name

''Moro y cristianos'' means “Moors and Christians”. "Moors" refers to the black beans, and "Christians" to the rice. The name of the dish is likely a reference by early Cuban settlers to the Islamic Conquest of Spain (early 8th Century) and subsequent Reconquista (15th C.) which both had a profound effect on the Spanish culture and language.

Preparation

First the ''moros'' are boiled in water. Next the rice is cooked in another pot with some of the water from the beans. Onions, garlic, bell pepper, oregano and bay (laurel) leaf are commonly cooked as a sofrito beforehand and added to the dish to give additional flavor.

See also

Rice and beans

Frijoles negros

Arroz con gandules - the equivalent in Puerto Rico

Gallo Pinto - the equivalent dish in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

Hoppin' John - the equivalent dish in the Southern United States

Pabellón criollo - the equivalent in Venezuela

Porotos con riendas - Chilean dish of beans and spaghetti

References

Category:Legume dishes Category:Rice dishes Category:Cuban cuisine

es:Moros y cristianos (gastronomía) eo:Kongrio it:Moros y cristianos

Moros y Cristianos () or Moros i Cristians () literally in English Moors and Christians, is a set of festival activities which are celebrated in many towns and cities of Spain, mainly in the southern Valencian Community; according to popular tradition the festivals commemorate the battles, combats and fights between Moors (or Muslims) and Christians during the period known as ''Reconquista'' (from the 8th century through the 15th century).

The festivals represent the capture of the city by the Moors and the subsequent Christian reconquest. The people that take part in the festival are usually enlisted in ''filaes'' or ''comparsas'' (companies that represent the Christian or Moor legions), and for several days, they parade with bombastic costumes loosely inspired by Medieval fashion. Christians wear fur, metallic helmets, and armor, fire loud arquebuses, and ride horses. In contrast, Moors wear ancient Arab costumes, carry scimitars, and ride real camels or elephants. The festival develops among shots of gunpowder, medieval music, and fireworks, and ends with the Christians winning a simulated battle around a castle.

The most well-known Moors and Christians festival takes place in Alcoi (Valencian Community) from 22 to 24 April, around the Feast Day of Saint George (Catalan: ''Sant Jordi'', Spanish: ''San Jorge''). According to legend, after James I of Aragon reconquered the city of Alcoi, the Moors, in turn, tried to recover it shortly after. But, when they were about to start the battle again, Saint George miraculously appeared to the Moors, who were frightened away.

Other remarkable Moors and Christians festivals are celebrated in the towns of Bocairent (Medieval town 1–5 February), La Vila Joiosa (with its ''desembarc''), Villena, Biar, Cocentaina, Crevillent, El Campello, Elda, Muro d'Alcoi, Oliva (third weekend in July), Ontinyent, Orihuela, Petrer, Pollença and some districts of Alicante city. The most ancient festival is celebrated in Caudete (nowadays in the Albacete province, but then was part of the Kingdom of Valencia), dated from 1588.

A version of this festival survives in the Philippines in the form of the moro-moro play, staged during fiestas. The show begins with a parade of stars in their colorful costumes. Actors playing Christians wear blue costumes while those playing Moors wear red costumes and are fully ornamented.

See also

Reconquista

External links

Pictures of Moros y Cristianos in Muro de Alcoy 2006

Unión Nacional de Entidades Festeras de Moros y Cristianos, Web page of the official organism, in Spanish.

Fotos Moros y Cristianos, Pictures of ''Moros y Cristianos'' festival in La Vila Joiosa.

Alcoy Foto Pictures of Alcoy and ''La fiesta de moros y cristianos'' in Alcoy.

Moros i Cristians of Alcoi.

Moros y Cristianos Festival history and today

MusicaFestera.com Music of ''Moros y Cristianos''

Moros y Cristianos of Elda.

Moros y Cristianos of Villena.

Junta Festera de Moros i Cristians del Campello, Web page of the official organism.

Comparsa Saudites d'Ontinyent (valencian)

Tourist information Travel guide and info.

Category:Warfare of the Middle Ages Category:Spanish culture Category:Al-Andalus Category:Valencian Community Category:Theatre in the Philippines

ca:Moros i Cristians ceb:Moro-Moro de:Moros y Cristianos es:Moros y cristianos fr:Moros y Cristianos la:Mauri et Christiani ro:Moros y Cristianos

name	Jules Gabriel Verne
birth name	Jules Gabriel Verne
birth date	February 08, 1828
birth place	Nantes, France
death date	March 24, 1905
death place	Amiens, France
occupation	Author
language	French
nationality	French
genre	Science-fiction
notableworks	''Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea'', ''A Journey to the Center of the Earth'', ''Around the World in Eighty Days'', ''The Mysterious Island''
spouse	Honorine Hebe du Fraysse de Viane (Morel) Verne
children	Michel Verne and step-daughters Valentine and Suzanne Morel
influences	Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, Józef Sękowski, Edgar Allan Poe, James Fenimore Cooper, Jacques Arago, Daniel Defoe, Johann David Wyss, George Sand, Erckmann-Chatrian, Adolphe d'Ennery
influenced	H.G. Wells, Hugo Gernsback, Arthur Conan Doyle, Edgar Rice Burroughs, Donald G. Payne, Steampunk, Emilio Salgari, Paschal Grousset,
signature	Firma de Julio Verne.svg
portaldisp	}}

Jules Gabriel Verne (; February 8, 1828 – March 24, 1905) was a French author who pioneered the science-fiction genre. He is best known for his novels ''Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea'' (1870), ''A Journey to the Center of the Earth'' (1864), and ''Around the World in Eighty Days'' (1873). Verne wrote about space, air, and underwater travel before air travel and practical submarines were invented, and before practical means of space travel had been devised. He is the second most translated individual author in the world, according to Index Translationum. Some of his books have also been made into live-action and animated films and television shows. Verne, along with Hugo Gernsback and H. G. Wells, is often popularly referred to as the "Father of Science Fiction".

Early life

Jules Gabriel Verne was born in Nantes, Brittany () in France, to Pierre Verne, an attorney, and his wife, Sophie Allote de la Fuÿe. Jules spent his early years at home with his parents in the bustling harbor city of Nantes. The family spent summers in a country house just outside the city, in Brains on the banks of the Loire River. Here Jules and his brother Paul would often rent a boat for a Franc a day. The sight of the many ships navigating the river sparked Jules's imagination, as he describes in the autobiographical short story "Souvenirs d'Enfance et de Jeunesse". At the age of nine, Jules and Paul, of whom he was very fond, were sent to boarding school at the Saint Donatien College (Petit séminaire de Saint-Donatien). As a child, he developed a great interest in travel and exploration, a passion he showed as a writer of adventure stories and science fiction. His interest in writing often cost him progress in other subjects.

At the boarding school, Verne studied Latin, which he used in his short story "Le Mariage de Monsieur Anselme des Tilleuls" in the mid 1850s. One of his teachers may have been the French inventor Brutus de Villeroi, professor of drawing and mathematics at the college in 1842, and who later became famous for creating the US Navy's first submarine, the USS ''Alligator''. De Villeroi may have inspired Verne's conceptual design for the Nautilus in ''Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea'', although no direct exchanges between the two men have been recorded.

Verne's second French biographer, his grand-niece Marguerite Allotte de la Fuÿe, formulated the rumor that Verne was so fascinated with adventure at an early age that he stowed away on a ship bound for the West Indies, but that Jules's voyage was cut short when he found his father waiting for him at the next port.

Literary debut

After completing his studies at the ''lycée'', Verne went to Paris to study for the bar. Around 1848, in conjunction with Michel Carré, he began writing libretti for operettas. For some years, his attentions were divided between the theatre and work, but some travelers' stories which he wrote for the ''Musée des familles'' revealed to him his true talent: the telling of delightfully extravagant voyages and adventures to which cleverly prepared scientific and geographical details lent an air of verisimilitude.

When Verne's father discovered that his son was writing rather than studying law, he promptly withdrew his financial support. Verne was forced to support himself as a stockbroker, which he hated despite being somewhat successful at it. During this period, he met Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas, père, who offered him writing advice.

Verne also met Honorine de Viane Morel, a widow with two daughters. They were married on January 10, 1857. With her encouragement, he continued to write and actively looked for a publisher. On August 3, 1861, their son, Michel Jules Verne, was born. A classic ''enfant terrible'', Michel would marry an actress over Verne's objections, had two children by his underage mistress, and buried himself in debts. The relationship between father and son did improve as Michel grew older.

Verne's situation improved when he met Pierre-Jules Hetzel, one of the most important French publishers of the 19th century, who also published Victor Hugo, George Sand, and Erckmann-Chatrian, among others. They formed an excellent writer-publisher team until Hetzel's death. Hetzel helped improve Verne's writings, which until then had been repeatedly rejected by other publishers. Hetzel read a draft of Verne's story about the balloon exploration of Africa, which had been rejected by other publishers for being "too scientific". With Hetzel's help, Verne rewrote the story, which was published in 1863 in book form as ''Cinq semaines en ballon'' (''Five Weeks in a Balloon''). Acting on Hetzel's advice, Verne added comical accents to his novels, changed sad endings into happy ones, and toned down various political messages.

From that point, Hetzel published two or more volumes a year. The most successful of these include ''Voyage au centre de la Terre'' (''Journey to the Center of the Earth'', 1864); ''De la Terre à la Lune'' (''From the Earth to the Moon'', 1865); ''Vingt mille lieues sous les mers'' (''Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea'', 1869); and ''Le tour du monde en quatre-vingts jours'' (''Around the World in Eighty Days''), which first appeared in ''Le Temps'' in 1872. The series is collectively known as "Voyages Extraordinaires" ("extraordinary voyages"). Verne could now live on his writings. But most of his wealth came from the stage adaptations of ''Le tour du monde en quatre-vingts jours'' (1874) and ''Michel Strogoff'' (1876), which he wrote with Adolphe d'Ennery. In 1867, Verne bought a small ship, the ''Saint-Michel'', which he successively replaced with the ''Saint-Michel II'' and the ''Saint-Michel III'' as his financial situation improved. On board the ''Saint-Michel III'', he sailed around Europe. In 1870, he was appointed as "Chevalier" (Knight) of the Légion d'honneur. After his first novel, most of his stories were first serialised in the ''Magazine d'Éducation et de Récréation'', a Hetzel biweekly publication, before being published in the form of books. His brother Paul contributed to ''40th French climbing of the Mont-Blanc'' and a collection of short stories – ''Doctor Ox'' – in 1874. Verne became wealthy and famous. According to the Unesco Index Translationum, Jules Verne regularly places among the top five most translated authors in the world.

Later years

On March 9, 1886, as Verne was coming home, his twenty-five-year-old nephew, Gaston, shot him with a gun. One bullet missed, but the second entered Verne's left leg, giving him a limp that would not be cured. The incident was hushed up by the media, and Gaston spent the rest of his life in an asylum.

After the deaths of Hetzel and his beloved mother Sophie Henriette Allotte de la Fruye in 1887, Jules began writing darker works. This may partly be due to changes in his personality, but an important factor is the fact that Hetzel's son, who took over his father's business, was not as rigorous in his corrections as Hetzel had been. In 1888, Jules Verne entered politics and was elected town councillor of Amiens, where he championed several improvements and served for fifteen years. In 1905, while ill with diabetes, Verne died at his home, 44 Boulevard Longueville (now Boulevard Jules-Verne). Michel oversaw publication of his novels ''Invasion of the Sea'' and ''The Lighthouse at the End of the World''. The "Voyages extraordinaires" series continued for several years afterwards in the same rhythm of two volumes a year. It has later been discovered that Michel Verne had made extensive changes in these stories, and the original versions were published at the end of the 20th century.

In 1863, Jules Verne wrote a novel called ''Paris in the Twentieth Century'' about a young man who lives in a world of glass skyscrapers, high-speed trains, gas-powered automobiles, calculators, and a worldwide communications network, yet cannot find happiness and comes to a tragic end. Hetzel thought the novel's pessimism would damage Verne's then-booming career, and suggested he wait 20 years to publish it. Verne put the manuscript in a safe, where it was discovered by his great-grandson in 1989. It was published in 1994.

Reputation in English-speaking countries

While Verne is considered in many countries such as France as an author of quality books for young people, with a good command of his subjects, including technology and politics, his reputation in English-speaking countries suffered for a long time from poor translation.

Characteristic of much of late 19th-century writing, Verne's books often took a chauvinistic point of view. The British Empire was notably portrayed in a bad light in ''The Mysterious Island'', as Captain Nemo was revealed to be an Indian nobleman fighting the British Empire, which had not been mentioned in ''Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea''. The first English translator of ''Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea'' and ''From the Earth to the Moon, and a Trip Around It'', Reverend Lewis Page Mercier, working under a pseudonym, removed passages describing the political actions of Captain Nemo. However, such negative depictions were not invariable in Verne's works; for example, ''Facing the Flag'' features Lieutenant Devon, a heroic, self-sacrificing Royal Navy officer worthy of comparison with any written by British authors. Another example of a positive depiction of an Englishman is the brave and resourceful Phileas Fogg, the protagonist of ''Around the World in Eighty Days''.

Mercier and subsequent British translators also had trouble with the metric system that Verne used, sometimes dropping significant figures, at other times keeping the nominal value and only changing the unit to an Imperial measure. Thus Verne's calculations, which in general were remarkably exact, were converted into mathematical gibberish. Also, artistic passages and whole chapters were cut because of the need to fit the work in a constrained space for publication. (London author Cranstoun Metcalfe (1866–1938) translated most of Verne's work into English during the first half of the 20th century.)

For those reasons, Verne's work initially acquired a reputation in English-speaking countries for not being fit for adult readers. This, in turn, prevented him from being taken seriously enough to merit new translations, leading to those of Mercier and others being reprinted decade after decade. Only from 1965 on were some of his novels re-translated more accurately, but even today Verne's work has still not been fully rehabilitated in the English-speaking world.

Verne's works also reflect the bitterness France felt in the wake of defeat in the Franco-Prussian War from 1870 to 1871, and the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. ''The Begum's Millions'' (''Les Cinq cents millions de la Begum'') of 1879 gives a highly stereotypical depiction of Germans as monstrous cruel militarists. By contrast, almost all the protagonists in his pre-1871 works, such as the sympathetic first-person narrator in ''Journey to the Centre of the Earth'', are German.

Memorials

A restaurant built into the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France is named Le Jules Verne Restaurant. In June 1989, the Jules Verne Food Court opened at the Merry Hill Shopping Centre in the West Midlands of England; however, it had closed by the mid 1990s due to disappointing trade.

Hetzel's influence

Hetzel substantially influenced the writings of Verne, who was so happy to finally find a willing publisher that he agreed to almost all changes that Hetzel suggested. Hetzel rejected at least one novel (''Paris in the Twentieth Century'') and asked Verne to significantly change his other drafts. One of the most important changes Hetzel enforced on Verne was the adoption of optimism in his novels. Verne was in fact not an enthusiast of technological and human progress, as can be seen in his works created before he met Hetzel and after Hetzel's death. Hetzel's demand for optimistic texts proved correct. For example, ''Mysterious Island'' originally ended with the survivors returning to the mainland forever nostalgic about the island. Hetzel decided that the heroes should live happily, so in the revised draft, they use their fortunes to build a replica of the island. Many translations are like this. Also, in order not to offend France's then-ally, Russia, the origin and past of the famous Captain Nemo were changed from those of a Polish refugee avenging the partitions of Poland and the death of his family in the January Uprising repressions to those of an Indian prince fighting the British Empire after the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

Bibliography

Verne wrote numerous works, most famous of which are the 54 novels comprising the ''Voyages Extraordinaires''. He also wrote short stories, essays, plays, and poems.

His very first and better known works include: ''A Voyage in a Balloon (Un Voyage en ballon, August 1851 as published in ''Musee des familles'').

''Five Weeks in a Balloon'' (''Cinq semaines en ballon'', 1863)

''Paris in the Twentieth Century'' (''Paris au XXe siècle'', 1863, not published until 1994)

''A Journey to the Center of the Earth'' (''Voyage au centre de la Terre'', 1864)

''From the Earth to the Moon'' (''De la Terre à la Lune'', 1865)

''The Adventures of Captain Hatteras'' (''Voyages et aventures du capitaine Hatteras'', 1866)

''In Search of the Castaways'' or ''Captain Grant's Children'' (''Les Enfants du capitaine Grant'', 1867–1868)

''Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea'' (''Vingt mille lieues sous les mers'', 1870)

''Around the Moon'' (''Autour de la lune'', a sequel to ''From the Earth to the Moon'', 1870)

''A Floating City'' (''Une ville flottante'', 1871)

"Dr. Ox's Experiment" (''Une Fantaisie du Docteur Ox'', 1872)

''The Adventures of Three Englishmen and Three Russians in South Africa'' (''Aventures de trois Russes et de trois Anglais'', 1872 )

''The Fur Country'' (''Le Pays des fourrures'', 1873)

''Around the World in Eighty Days'' (''Le Tour du monde en quatre-vingts jours'', 1873)

''The Survivors of the Chancellor'' (''Le Chancellor'', 1875)

''The Mysterious Island'' (''L'Île mystérieuse'', 1875)

"The Blockade Runners", (1876)

''Michael Strogoff'' (''Michel Strogoff'', 1876)

''Off on a Comet'' (''Hector Servadac'', 1877)

''The Child of the Cavern'', also known as ''Black Diamonds'' or ''The Black Indies'' (''Les Indes noires'', 1877)

''Dick Sand, A Captain at Fifteen'' (''Un Capitaine de quinze ans'', 1878)

''The Begum's Millions'' (''Les Cinq cents millions de la Bégum'', 1879)

''The Steam House'' (''La Maison à vapeur'', 1879)

''Tribulations of a Chinaman in China'' (''Les Tribulations d'un Chinois en Chine''), 1879

''Eight Hundred Leagues on the Amazon'' (''La Jangada'', 1881)

''The Green Ray'' (''Le Rayon vert'', 1882)

''Kéraban the Inflexible'' (1883)

"Frritt-Flacc" (1884)

''The Vanished Diamond'' (''L’Étoile du sud'', 1884)

''The Archipelago on Fire'' (''L’Archipel en feu'', 1884)

''Mathias Sandorf'' (1885)

''Robur the Conqueror'' or ''The Clipper of the Clouds'' (''Robur-le-Conquérant'', 1886)

''Ticket No. "9672"'' (''Un Billet de loterie'', 1886 )

''North Against South'' (''Nord contre Sud'', 1887)

''The Flight to France'' (''Le Chemin de France'', 1887)

''Family Without a Name'' (''Famille-sans-nom'', 1888)

''Two Years' Vacation'' (''Deux Ans de vacances'', 1888)

''The Purchase of the North Pole'' (''Sans dessus dessous'', the second sequel to ''From the Earth to the Moon'', 1889)

''Mistress Branican'' (1891)

''The Carpathian Castle'' (''Le Château des Carpathes'', 1892)

''Claudius Bombarnac'' (''Claudius Bombarnac'', 1893)

''Propeller Island'' (''L’Île à hélice'', 1895)

''Facing the Flag'' (''Face au drapeau'', 1896)

''Clovis Dardentor'' (1896)

''The Sphinx of the Ice Fields'' or ''An Antarctic Mystery'' (''Le Sphinx des glaces'', a sequel to Edgar Allan Poe's ''The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym'', 1897)

''The Mighty Orinoco'' (''Le Superbe Orénoque'', 1897)

''The Village in the Treetops'' (''Le Village aérien'', 1901)

''The Kip Brothers'' (''Les Frères Kip'',1902)

''Master of the World'' (''Maître du monde'', sequel to ''Robur the Conqueror'', 1904)

''Invasion of the Sea'' (''L’Invasion de la mer'', 1904)

''A Drama in Livonia'' (''Un Drame en Livonie'', 1904)

''The Lighthouse at the End of the World'' (''Le Phare du bout du monde'', 1905)

''The Chase of the Golden Meteor'' (''La Chasse au météore'', 1908)

''The Danube Pilot'' (''Le Pilote du Danube'', 1908)

''The Survivors of the "Jonathan"'' (''Les Naufragés du « Jonathan »'', 1909)

See also

Paschal Grousset

Karl May

Zane Grey

B. Traven

Emilio Salgari

Edgar Rice Burroughs

Osip Senkovsky

Oshikawa Shunro

Steampunk, a style that took inspiration from Verne.

References

Further reading

William Butcher, Arthur C. Clarke (Introduction) (2006). ''Jules Verne: The Definitive Biography''. ISBN 1-56025-854-3

Herbert R. Lottman (1997). ''Jules Verne: An Exploratory Biography''. ISBN 0-312-14636-1

Philippe Melot, Jean-Marie Embs (2005).''Le Guide Jules Verne''. Les Editions de l'Amateur, Paris.ISBN 2-85917-417-6

Françoise Schiltz (2011). ''The Future Revisited: Jules Verne on Screen in 1950s America''. Chaplin Books, Gosport. ISBN 0-9565595-2-2

:*Translated as

External links

Bibliography

Les Voyages Extraordinaires – list of Verne works Compiled by Dennis Kytasaari. Bibliography.

Sources

Jules Verne's works: text, concordances and frequency list

A Jules Verne Centennial 1905–2005: A selection of early Jules Verne books and illustrations at the Smithsonian Institution Libraries edited by Norman M. Wolcott.

Zvi Har'El's Jules Verne Collection, including the Jules Verne Virtual Library, online sources of 51 of Jules Verne's novels translated into eight languages.

The Jules Verne Collecting Resource Page, complete online sources, posters, cards, autographs, first edition covers, etc..

Biography

Biography of Jules Verne

Reviews

"Jules Verne: Father of Science Fiction?", John Derbyshire, ''The New Atlantis'', Number 12, Spring 2006, pp. 81–90. A review of four new Jules Verne translations from the "Early Classics of Science Fiction" series by Wesleyan University Press.

''Jules Verne: An Exploratory Biography'', by Herbert R. Lottman – a review.

Misc

The maps from the Voyages Extraordinaires, scans of all the maps that were included in the original editions of Jules Verne’s novels.

Category:French science fiction writers Category:Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees Category:French Roman Catholics Category:Operetta librettists Category:People from Nantes Category:Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur Category:Roman Catholic writers Category:1828 births Category:1905 deaths Category:Maritime writers

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name	James Fenimore Cooper
birth date	September 15, 1789
birth place	Burlington, New Jersey
death date	September 14, 1851
death place	Cooperstown, New York
occupation	Novelist
movement	Colonial Realism
genre	Historical fiction
notableworks	''The Last of the Mohicans''
influenced	}}

James Fenimore Cooper (September 15, 1789 – September 14, 1851) was a prolific and popular American writer of the early 19th century. He is best remembered as a novelist who wrote numerous sea-stories and the historical novels known as the ''Leatherstocking Tales'', featuring frontiersman Natty Bumppo. Among his most famous works is the Romantic novel ''The Last of the Mohicans'', often regarded as his masterpiece.

Biography

Early life

James Fenimore Cooper was born in Burlington, New Jersey, the son of William and Elizabeth (Fenimore) Cooper. His father was a United States Congressman. Shortly after his first birthday, his family moved to Cooperstown, New York, a community founded by his father.

At 13, Cooper was enrolled at Yale, but he did not obtain a degree due to being expelled. His expulsion stemmed from a dangerous prank that involved him blowing up another student's door. Another less dangerous prank consisted of training a donkey to sit in a professor's chair. He obtained work as a sailor on a merchant vessel, and at 18, joined the United States Navy. He obtained the rank of midshipman before leaving in 1811.

At age 21, he married Susan DeLancey. They had seven children, five of whom lived to adulthood. The writer Paul Fenimore Cooper was a great-grandson.

Writings

He anonymously published his first book, ''Precaution'' (1820). He soon issued several others. In 1823, he published ''The Pioneers''; this was the first of the ''Leatherstocking'' series, featuring Natty Bumppo, the resourceful American woodsman at home with the Delaware Indians and especially their chief ''Chingachgook''. Cooper's most famous novel, ''Last of the Mohicans'' (1826), became one of the most widely read American novels of the 19th century. The book was written in New York City, where Cooper and his family lived from 1822 to 1826.

In 1826 Cooper moved his family to Europe, where he sought to gain more income from his books as well as provide better education for his children. While overseas, he continued to write. His books published in Paris include ''The Red Rover'' and ''The Water Witch''—two of his many sea stories.

In 1832 he entered the lists as a political writer; in a series of letters to the ''National'', a Parisian journal, he defended the United States against a string of charges brought against them by the ''Revue Britannique''. For the rest of his life, he continued skirmishing in print, sometimes for the national interest, sometimes for that of the individual, and not infrequently for both at once.

This opportunity to make a political confession of faith reflected the political turn he already had taken in his fiction, having attacked European anti-republicanism in ''The Bravo'' (1831). Cooper continued this political course in ''The Heidenmauer'' (1832) and ''The Headsman: or the Abbaye of Vigneron'' (1833). ''The Bravo'' depicted Venice as a place where a ruthless oligarchy lurks behind the mask of the "serene republic". All were widely read on both sides of the Atlantic, though ''The Bravo'' was a critical failure in the United States.

In 1833 Cooper returned to the United States and immediately published ''A Letter to My Countrymen'', in which he gave his own version of the controversy and sharply censured his compatriots for their share in it. He followed up with novels and several sets of notes on his travels and experiences in Europe. His ''Homeward Bound'' and ''Home as Found'' are notable for containing a highly idealized self portrait.

In June 1834, Cooper decided to reopen his ancestral mansion, Otsego Hall, at Cooperstown. It had long been closed and falling into decay; he had been absent from the mansion nearly 16 years. Repairs were begun, and the house was speedily put in order. At first, he wintered in New York City and summered in Cooperstown, but eventually he made Otsego Hall his permanent home.

Reaction

His books related to current politics and Cooper's self promotion increased the ill feeling between author and public. The Whig press was virulent in its comments about him, and Cooper filed legal actions for libel, winning all his lawsuits.

After concluding his last case in court, Cooper returned to writing with more energy and success than he had had for several years. He wrote a history of the US Navy, and returned to the Leatherstocking series with ''The Pathfinder, or The Inland Sea'' (1840) and ''The Deerslayer'' (1841) and other novels. He wrote again on maritime themes, including ''Ned Myers, or A Life Before the Mast'', which is of particular interest to naval historians.

Later life

He turned again from pure fiction to the combination of art and controversy in which he had achieved distinction with the ''Littlepage Manuscripts'' (1845–1846). His next novel was ''The Crater, or Vulcan's Peak'' (1847), in which he attempted to introduce supernatural machinery. ''Jack Tier'' (1848) was a remaking of ''The Red Rover'', and ''The Ways of the Hour'' was his last completed novel.

Cooper spent the last years of his life back in Cooperstown. He died of dropsy on September 14, 1851, the day before his 62nd birthday. His interment was in Christ Episcopal Churchyard, where his father, William Cooper, was buried. Several well-known writers, politicians, and other public figures honored Cooper's memory with a dinner in February 1852; Washington Irving served as a co-chairman for the event, alongside William Cullen Bryant and Daniel Webster.

Legacy and criticism

Cooper was one of the most popular 19th-century American authors, and his work was admired greatly throughout the world. While on his death bed, the Austrian composer Franz Schubert wanted most to read more of Cooper's novels. Honoré de Balzac, the French novelist and playwright, admired him greatly. Cooper's stories have been translated into nearly all the languages of Europe and into some of those of Asia.

Cooper's work is read carefully by law and literature scholars such as Nan Goodman, who argues that several of Cooper's novels, particularly ''The Pioneers'' and ''The Pilot'', demonstrate an early 19th century American preoccupation with prudence and negligence in a country where property rights were often still in dispute. However, despite his close association with the period, he also innovated in several ways. Amongst these, Cooper was the first major American Novelist to include African and African American characters. Though these black characters often fell into stereotypical roles, he still used slaves, free Negroes and mulattoes throughout his books.

Furthermore, Cooper was innovative in his use and portrayal of Native Americans, who play central roles in his Leatherstocking Tales. However, his treatment of this group is a complex and highlights the tenuous relationship between frontier settlers and Indians. Often, he gives contrasting views of Native characters to emphasize their potential for good, or conversely, their potential for mayhem. In ''Last of the Mohicans'', the stereotypical, nineteenth century view of the native is seen in the character of Magua, who is devoid of almost any redeeming qualities. In comparison, Chingachgook, the last chief of the Mohicans, is portrayed as noble, courageous, and heroic.

Though some scholars may dispute Cooper being classified as a Romantic, Victor Hugo pronounced him greater than the great master of modern romance, and this verdict was echoed by a multitude of less famous readers, who were satisfied with no title for their favorite less than that of the "American Scott.” ''The Deerslayer'' and ''The Pathfinder'' were criticized by Mark Twain in a satirical but vicious essay, "Fenimore Cooper's Literary Offenses" (1895), which has often been criticized as unfair and distorted. As scholars Schachterle and Ljungquist write, "Twain's deliberate misreading of Cooper has been devastating....Twain valued economy of style (a possible but not necessary criterion), but such concision simply was not a characteristic of many early nineteenth-century novelists' work. Writing with the expectation that their readers would often read their works aloud, Scott, Dickens, Thackeray, Cooper, and Melville favored a full, sometimes orotund, style that Twain and his fellow Realists a generation later spurned."

His reputation today rests upon the five Leatherstocking tales and some of the maritime stories. Literary scholar Leslie Fiedler, however, noted that Cooper's "collected works are monumental in their cumulative dullness."

Cooper was also criticized heavily for his depiction of women characters in his work. James Russell Lowell, Cooper's contemporary and a critic, referred to it poetically in ''A Fable for Critics'', writing, ". . . the women he draws from one model don't vary / All sappy as maples and flat as a prairie."

Three dining halls at the State University of New York at Oswego are named in Cooper's remembrance (Cooper Hall, The Pathfinder, and Littlepage) because of his temporary residence in Oswego and for setting some of his works there. The gilded and red tole chandelier hanging in the library of the White House in Washington DC is from the home of James Fenimore Cooper. It was brought there through the efforts of First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy in her great White House restoration.

Bibliography

{|class="wikitable" !Date !Title: Subtitle !Genre !Topic, Location, Period |- |1820 |''Precaution'' |novel |England, 1813–1814 |- |1821 |''The Spy: A Tale of the Neutral Ground'' |novel |Westchester County, New York, 1778 |- |1823 |''The Pioneers: or The Sources of the Susquehanna'' |novel |''Leatherstocking'', Otsego County, New York, 1793–1794, |- |1823 |''Tales for Fifteen: or Imagination and Heart'' |2 short stories |written under the pseudonym: Jane Morgan |- |1824 |''The Pilot: A Tale of the Sea'' |novel |John Paul Jones, England, 1780 |- |1825 |''Lionel Lincoln: or The Leaguer of Boston'' |novel |Battle of Bunker Hill, Boston, 1775–1781 |- |1826 |''The Last of the Mohicans: A narrative of 1757'' |novel |''Leatherstocking'', French and Indian War, Lake George & Adirondacks, 1757 |- |1827 |''The Prairie'' |novel |''Leatherstocking'', American Midwest, 1805 |- |1828 |''The Red Rover: A Tale'' |novel |Newport, Rhode Island & Atlantic Ocean, pirates, 1759 |- |1828 |''Notions of the Americans: Picked up by a Travelling Bachelor'' |non-fiction |America for European readers |- |1829 |''The Wept of Wish-ton-Wish: A Tale'' |novel |Western Connecticut, Puritans and Indians, 1660–1676 |- |1830 |''The Water-Witch: or the Skimmer of the Seas'' |novel |New York, smugglers, 1713 |- |1830 |''Letter to General Lafayette'' |politics |France vs. US, cost of government |- |1831 |''The Bravo: A Tale'' |novel |Venice, 18th century |- |1832 |''The Heidenmauer: or, The Benedictines, A Legend of the Rhine'' |novel |German Rhineland, 16th century |- |1832 |''No Steamboats'' |short story |  |- |1833 |''The Headsman: The Abbaye des Vignerons'' |novel |Geneva, Switzerland, & Alps, 18th century |- |1834 |''A Letter to His Countrymen'' |politics |Why Cooper temporarily stopped writing |- |1835 |''The Monikins'' |novel |Antarctica, aristocratic monkeys, 1830s; a satire on British and American politics. |- |1836 |''The Eclipse'' |memoir |Solar eclipse in Cooperstown, New York 1806 |- |1836 |''Gleanings in Europe: Switzerland (Sketches of Switzerland)'' |travel |Hiking in Switzerland, 1828 |- |1836 |''Gleanings in Europe: The Rhine (Sketches of Switzerland, Part Second)'' |travel |Travels France, Rhineland & Switzerland, 1832 |- |1836 |''A Residence in France: With an Excursion Up the Rhine, and a Second Visit to Switzerland'' |travel |  |- |1837 |''Gleanings in Europe: France'' |travel |Living, travelling in France, 1826–1828 |- |1837 |''Gleanings in Europe: England'' |travel |Travels in England, 1826, 1828, 1833 |- |1838 |''Gleanings in Europe: Italy'' |travel |Living, travelling in Italy, 1828–1830 |- |1838 |''The American Democrat : or Hints on the Social and Civic Relations of the United States of America'' |non-fiction |US society and government |- |1838 |''The Chronicles of Cooperstown'' |history |Local history of Cooperstown, New York |- |1838 |''Homeward Bound: or The Chase: A Tale of the Sea'' |novel |Atlantic Ocean & North African coast, 1835 |- |1838 |''Home as Found: Sequel to Homeward Bound'' |novel |Eve Effingham, New York City & Otsego County, New York, 1835 |- |1839 |''The History of the Navy of the United States of America'' |history |US Naval history to date |- |1839 |''Old Ironsides'' |history |History of the Frigate USS Constitution, 1st pub. 1853 |- |1840 |''The Pathfinder, or The Inland Sea'' |novel |''Leatherstocking'', Western New York, 1759 |- |1840 |''Mercedes of Castile: or, The Voyage to Cathay'' |novel |Christopher Columbus in West Indies, 1490s |- |1841 |''The Deerslayer: or The First Warpath'' |novel |''Leatherstocking'', Otsego Lake 1740-1745 |- |1842 |''The Two Admirals'' |novel |England & English Channel, Scottish uprising, 1745 |- |1842 |''The Wing-and-Wing: le Le Feu-Follet'' (Jack o Lantern) |novel |Italian coast, Neopolitan Wars, 1745 |- |1843 |''Autobiography of a Pocket-Handkerchief'' , also published as

''Le Mouchoir: An Autobiographical Romance''

''The French Governess: or The Embroidered Handkerchief''

''Die franzosischer Erzieheren: oder das gestickte Taschentuch''

|novelette |Social satire, France & New York, 1830s |- |1843 |''Richard Dale'' |  |  |- |1843 |''Wyandotte: or The Hutted Knoll. A Tale'' |novel |Butternut Valley of Otsego County, New York, 1763–1776 |- |1843 |''Ned Myers: or Life before the Mast'' |biography |of Cooper's shipmate who survived an 1813 sinking of a US sloop of war in a storm |- |1844 |''Afloat and Ashore: or The Adventures of Miles Wallingford. A Sea Tale'' |novel |Ulster County & worldwide, 1795–1805 |- |1844 |''Miles Wallingford: Sequel to Afloat and Ashore'' British title: ''Lucy Hardinge: A Second Series of Afloat and Ashore'' (1844) |novel |Ulster County & worldwide, 1795–1805 |- |1844 |''Proceedings of the Naval Court-Martial in the Case of Alexander Slidell Mackenzie, &c.;'' |  |  |- |1845 |''Satanstoe: or The Littlepage Manuscripts, a Tale of the Colony'' |novel |New York City, Westchester County, Albany, Adirondacks, 1758 |- |1845 |''The Chainbearer; or, The Littlepage Manuscripts'' |novel |Westchester County, Adirondacks, 1780s (next generation) |- |1846 |''The Redskins; or, Indian and Injin: Being the Conclusion of the Littlepage Manuscripts'' |novel |Anti-rent wars, Adirondacks, 1845 |- |1846 |''Lives of Distinguished American Naval Officers'' |biography |  |- |1847 | ''The Crater; or, Vulcan's Peak: A Tale of the Pacific'' (''Mark's Reef'') |novel | Philadelphia, Bristol (PA), & deserted Pacific island, early 19th century |- |1848 |''Jack Tier: or the Florida Reefs'' a.k.a. ''Captain Spike: or The Islets of the Gulf'' |novel |Florida Keys, Mexican War, 1846 |- |1848 |''The Oak Openings: or the Bee-Hunter'' |novel |Kalamazoo River, Michigan, War of 1812 |- |1849 |''The Sea Lions: The Lost Sealers'' |novel |Long Island & Antarctica, 1819–1820 |- |1850 |''The Ways of the Hour'' |novel |"Dukes County, New York", murder/courtroom mystery novel, legal corruption, women's rights, 1846 |- |1850 |''Upside Down: or Philosophy in Petticoats'' |play |satirization of socialism |- |1851 |''The Lake Gun'' |short story |Seneca Lake in New York, political satire based on folklore |- |1851 |''New York: or The Towns of Manhattan'' |history |Unfinished, history of New York City, 1st pub. 1864 |}

References

External links

Works by or about James Fenimore Cooper at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated)

(plain text and HTML)

James Fenimore Cooper at Open Library

James Fenimore Cooper Society Homepage

James Fenimore Cooper Society Website

Essay on Fenimore Cooper: Works in biographical/historical context

Thomas R. Lounsbury: ''James Fenimore Cooper''. 6th Edition. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1886 (American Men of Letters). PDF from the Arno Schmidt Reference Library

Category:1789 births Category:1851 deaths Category:People from Burlington, New Jersey Category:American people of English descent Category:American novelists Category:American historical novelists Category:Writers of historical fiction set in Modern Age Category:American naval historians Category:Romanticism Category:United States Navy officers Category:People from Otsego County, New York Category:People from Scarsdale, New York Category:Deaths from edema

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name	Sharon Tate
birth name	Sharon Marie Tate
birth date	January 24, 1943
birth place	Dallas, Texas, U.S.
death date	August 09, 1969
death place	Benedict Canyon, Los Angeles, California, U.S.
death cause	Murder by stabbing
spouse	Roman Polanski(1968–69; her death)
occupation	Actress, model
years active	1961–69 }}

Sharon Marie Tate (January 24, 1943 – August 9, 1969) was an American actress. During the 1960s she played small television roles before appearing in several films. After receiving positive reviews for her comedic performances, she was hailed as one of Hollywood's promising newcomers and was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for her performance in ''Valley of the Dolls'' (1967). She also appeared regularly in fashion magazines as a model and cover girl.

Married to film director Roman Polanski in 1968, Tate was eight and a half months pregnant when she and her unborn child were murdered in her home, along with four others, by followers of Charles Manson.

A decade after the murders, Tate's mother, Doris, in response to the growing cult status of the killers and the possibility that any of them might be granted parole, organized a public campaign against what she considered shortcomings in the state's corrections system. It resulted in amendments to the California criminal law in 1982, which allowed crime victims and their families to make victim impact statements during sentencing and at parole hearings.

Doris Tate was the first person to make such an impact statement under the new law, when she spoke at the parole hearing of one of her daughter's killers, Charles "Tex" Watson. She believed changes in the law had afforded her daughter dignity that had been denied her before, and that she had been able to "help transform Sharon's legacy from murder victim to a symbol of victims' rights".

Life and career

Childhood and early acting career

Sharon Tate was born in Dallas, Texas, the eldest of three daughters, to Colonel Paul James Tate, a United States Army officer, and his wife, Doris Gwendolyn (née Willett; born January 16, 1924 – died July 10, 1992). At six months of age, Sharon won the "Miss Tiny Tot of Dallas Pageant", but her parents had no show business ambitions for their daughter. Paul Tate was promoted and transferred several times. By age 16, as an army brat, Sharon had lived in six different cities, and she reportedly found it difficult to maintain friendships. Her family described her as shy and lacking in self-confidence. As an adult Sharon Tate commented that people often misinterpreted her shyness for aloofness until they knew her better.

As she matured, people commented on her beauty; she began entering beauty pageants, winning the title of "Miss Richland" in 1959. She spoke of her ambition to study psychiatry, and also stated her intention to compete in the "Miss Washington" pageant in 1960, but before she could follow either course of action, Paul Tate was transferred to Italy, taking his family with him. On arriving in Verona, Sharon Tate learned that she had become a local celebrity owing to the publication of a photograph of her in a bathing suit on the cover of the military newspaper ''Stars and Stripes''. She discovered a kinship with other students at the American school she attended in nearby Vicenza, recognizing that their backgrounds and feelings of separation were similar to her own, and for the first time in her life began to form lasting friendships.

Tate and her friends became interested in the filming of ''Adventures of a Young Man'', which was being made nearby with Paul Newman, Susan Strasberg and Richard Beymer, and obtained parts as film extras. Beymer noticed Tate in the crowd and introduced himself, and the two dated during the production of the film, with Beymer encouraging Tate to pursue a film career. In 1961, Tate was employed by the singer Pat Boone, and appeared with him in a television special he made in Venice.

Later that year, when ''Barabbas'' was being filmed near Verona, Tate was once again hired as an extra. Actor Jack Palance was impressed by her appearance and her attitude, although her role was too small to judge her talent. He arranged a screen test for her in Rome, but this did not lead to further work. Tate returned to the United States alone, saying she wanted to further her studies, but tried to find film work. After a few months, Doris Tate, who feared for her daughter's safety, suffered a nervous breakdown and Sharon was persuaded to return to Italy.

The family returned to the United States in 1962, and Sharon moved to Los Angeles, where she contacted Richard Beymer's agent, Harold Gefsky. After their first meeting Gefsky agreed to represent her, and secured work for her in television and magazine advertisements. In 1963 he introduced her to Martin Ransohoff, director of Filmways, Inc., who signed her to a seven-year contract. She was considered for a lead role on ''Petticoat Junction'', but Ransohoff realized that she was too inexperienced to handle an important role. He gave her small parts in ''Mr. Ed'' and ''The Beverly Hillbillies'' to help her gain experience. Ransohoff signed Tate to an exclusive seven year contract but kept her under wraps until he felt she was ready to appear in substantial film roles. "Mr. Ransohoff didn't want the audience to see me till I was ready", Tate was quoted in a 1967 article in ''Playboy'' magazine.

During this time Tate met the French actor Philippe Forquet, and began a relationship with him. They became engaged, but the relationship was volatile and they frequently quarreled. Career pressures drove them apart and they ended the relationship.

In 1964, she met Jay Sebring, a former sailor who had established himself as a leading hair stylist in Hollywood. Tate later said that Sebring's nature was especially gentle, but when he proposed marriage she would not accept. She said that she would retire from acting as soon as she married, and at that time she intended to focus on her career.

Film career

In 1964, Tate made a screen test for Sam Peckinpah opposite Steve McQueen for the film ''The Cincinnati Kid''. Ransohoff and Peckinpah agreed that Tate's timidity and lack of experience would cause her to flounder in such a large part, and she was rejected in favor of Tuesday Weld. She continued to gain experience with minor television appearances, and after she auditioned unsuccessfully for the role of Liesl in the film version of ''The Sound of Music'', Ransohoff gave Tate walk-on roles in two motion pictures in which he was producer: ''The Americanization of Emily'' and ''The Sandpiper''. In late 1965, Ransohoff finally gave Tate her first major role in a motion picture in the film ''Eye of the Devil'', co-starring David Niven, Deborah Kerr, Donald Pleasence, and David Hemmings.

Tate and Sebring traveled to London to prepare for filming, where she met the Alexandrian Wiccan High Priest and High Priestess Alex and Maxine Sanders, the former of whom duly initiated her into Wicca. Meanwhile, as part of Ransohoff's promotion of Tate, he arranged the production of a short documentary called ''All Eyes on Sharon Tate'', to be released at the same time as ''Eye of the Devil''. It included an interview with ''Eye of the Devil'' director J. Lee Thompson, who expressed his initial doubts about Tate's potential with the comment "We even agreed that if after the first two weeks Sharon was not quite making it, we would put her back in cold storage", but added he soon realized Tate was "tremendously exciting".

Tate played Odile, a witch who exerts a mysterious power over a landowner, played by Niven, and his wife, played by Kerr. Although she did not have as many lines as the other actors, Tate's performance was considered crucial to the film, and she was required, more than the other cast members, to set an ethereal tone. Niven described her as a "great discovery," and Kerr said that with "a reasonable amount of luck" Tate would be a great success. In interviews Tate commented on her good fortune in working with such professionals in her first film and said that she had learned a lot about acting simply by watching Kerr at work. Much of the filming took place in France, and Sebring returned to Los Angeles to fulfill his business obligations. After filming, Tate remained in London where she immersed herself in the fashion world and nightclubs. Around this time she met Roman Polanski.

Tate and Polanski later agreed that neither of them had been impressed by the other when they first met. Polanski was planning ''The Fearless Vampire Killers'', which was being co-produced by Ransohoff, and had decided that he wanted the red-headed actress Jill St. John for the female lead. Ransohoff insisted that Polanski cast Tate, and after meeting with her, he agreed that she would be suitable on the condition that she wore a red wig during filming.

The company traveled to Italy for filming where Tate's fluent Italian proved useful in communicating with the local crew members. A perfectionist, Polanski had little patience with the inexperienced Tate, and said in an interview that one scene had required seventy takes before he was satisfied. In addition to directing, Polanski also played one of the main characters, a guileless young man who is intrigued by Tate's character and begins a romance with her.

As filming progressed, Polanski praised her performances and her confidence grew. They began a relationship, and Tate moved into Polanski's London apartment after filming ended. Jay Sebring traveled to London where he insisted on meeting Polanski. Although friends later said he was devastated, he befriended Polanski and remained Tate's closest confidante. Polanski later commented that Sebring was a lonely and isolated person, who viewed Tate and himself as his family.

Tate returned to the United States to film ''Don't Make Waves'' with Tony Curtis, leaving Polanski in London. Tate played the part of Malibu, and was allegedly the inspiration for the popular "Malibu Barbie" doll. The film was intended to capitalize on the popularity of beach movies and the music of such artists as the Beach Boys and Jan and Dean. Tate's character, billed by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer publicity as "Malibu, Queen of the Surf", wore little more than a bikini for most of the film. Disappointed with the film, she began referring to herself sarcastically as "sexy little me". Before the film's release, a major publicity campaign resulted in photographs and life-sized cardboard figures of Sharon Tate being displayed in cinema foyers throughout the United States; a concurrent advertising campaign by ''Coppertone'' featured Tate. The film opened to poor reviews and mediocre ticket sales and Tate was quoted as confiding to a reporter, "It's a terrible movie", before adding, "Sometimes I say things I shouldn't. I guess I'm too outspoken."

Polanski returned to the United States, and was contracted by the head of Paramount Pictures, Robert Evans, to direct and write the screenplay for ''Rosemary's Baby'', which was based on Ira Levin's novel of the same name. Polanski later admitted that he had wanted Tate to star in the film and had hoped that someone would suggest her, as he felt it inappropriate to make the suggestion himself. The producers did not suggest Tate, and Mia Farrow was cast. Tate reportedly provided ideas for some of the key scenes, including the scene in which the protagonist, Rosemary, is impregnated. She also appeared uncredited as a guest in a party scene. A frequent visitor to the set, she was photographed there by ''Esquire'' magazine and the resulting photographs generated considerable publicity for both Tate and the film.

A March 1967 article about Tate in ''Playboy'' magazine began, "This is the year that Sharon Tate happens..." and included six nude or partially nude photographs taken by Roman Polanski during filming of ''The Fearless Vampire Killers''. Tate was optimistic: ''Eye of the Devil'' and ''The Fearless Vampire Killers'' were each due for release, and she had been signed to play a major role in the film version of ''Valley of the Dolls''. One of the all-time bestsellers, the film version was highly publicized and anticipated, and while Tate acknowledged that such a prominent role should further her career, she confided to Polanski that she did not like either the book or the script.

Patty Duke, Barbara Parkins and Judy Garland were cast as the other leads. Susan Hayward replaced Garland a few weeks later when Garland was dismissed. Director Mark Robson was highly critical of the three principal actresses but, according to Duke, directed most of his criticism at Tate. Duke later said Robson "continually treated [Tate] like an imbecile, which she definitely was not, and she was very attuned and sensitive to this treatment." Polanski later quoted Robson as saying to him, "That's a great girl you're living with. Few actresses have her kind of vulnerability. She's got a great future."

In interviews during production, Tate expressed an affinity for her character, Jennifer North, an aspiring actress admired only for her body. Some magazines commented that Tate was viewed similarly and ''Look'' magazine published an unfavorable article about the three lead actresses, describing Tate as "a hopelessly stupid and vain starlet". Tate, Duke and Parkins developed a close friendship which continued after the completion of the film. During the shooting of ''Valley of the Dolls'', Tate confided to Parkins that she was "madly in love" with Polanski. "Yes, there's no doubt that Roman is the man in my life," Tate was quoted as saying in the New York ''Sunday News''. Tate promoted the film enthusiastically. She frequently commented on her admiration for Lee Grant, with whom she had played several dramatic scenes. Tate was quoted as saying, "I learned a great deal about acting in [Valley of the Dolls], particularly in my scenes with Lee Grant...She knows what acting is all about and everything she does, from little mannerisms to delivering her lines, is pure professionalism."

A journalist asked Tate to comment on her nude scene, and she replied,

I have no qualms about it at all. I don't see any difference between being stark naked or fully dressed—if it's part of the job and it's done with meaning and intention. I honestly don't understand the big fuss made over nudity and sex in films. It's silly. On TV, the children can watch people murdering each other, which is a very unnatural thing, but they can't watch two people in the very natural process of making love. Now, really, that doesn't make any sense, does it?

An edited version of ''The Fearless Vampire Killers'' was released, and Polanski expressed disgust at Ransohoff for "butchering" his film. ''Newsweek'' called it "a witless travesty", and it was not profitable. Tate's performance was largely ignored in reviews, and when she was mentioned, it was usually in relation to her nude scenes. ''Eye of the Devil'' was released shortly after, and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer attempted to build interest in Tate with its press release describing her as "one of the screen's most exciting new personalities". The film failed to find an audience, and most reviews were indifferent, neither praising nor condemning it. The ''New York Times'' wrote that one of the few highlights was Tate's "chillingly beautiful but expressionless performance".

The ''All Eyes on Sharon Tate'' documentary was used to publicize the film. Its fourteen minutes consisted of a number of scenes depicting Tate filming ''Eye of the Devil'', dancing in nightclubs and sightseeing around London, and also contained a brief interview with her. Asked about her acting ambitions she replied, "I don't fool myself. I can't see myself doing Shakespeare." She spoke of her hopes of finding a niche in comedy, and in other interviews she expressed her desire to become "a light comedienne in the Carole Lombard style". She discussed the type of contemporary actress she wanted to emulate and explained that there were two in particular that she was influenced by: Faye Dunaway and Catherine Deneuve. Of the latter, she said, "I'd like to be an American Catherine Deneuve. She plays beautiful, sensitive, deep parts with a little bit of intelligence behind them."

Later in the year, ''Valley of the Dolls'' opened to almost uniformly negative reviews. Bosley Crowther wrote in ''The New York Times'', "all a fairly respectful admirer of movies can do is laugh at it and turn away". ''Newsweek'' said that the film "has no more sense of its own ludicrousness than a village idiot stumbling in manure", but a later article read: "Astoundingly photogenic, infinitely curvaceous, Sharon Tate is one of the most smashing young things to hit Hollywood in a long time." The three lead actresses were castigated in numerous publications, including ''The Saturday Review'', which wrote, "Ten years ago... Parkins, Duke and Tate would more likely have been playing the hat check girls than movie-queens; they are totally lacking in style, authority or charm." ''The Hollywood Reporter'' provided some positive comments, such as, "Sharon Tate emerges as the film's most sympathetic character... William H. Daniels' photographic caress of her faultless face and enormous absorbent eyes is stunning." Roger Ebert of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' praised Tate as "a wonder to behold", but after describing the dialogue in one scene as "the most offensive and appalling vulgarity ever thrown up by any civilization", concluded that, "I will be unable to take her any more seriously as a sex symbol than Raquel Welch."

Marriage to Roman Polanski

In late 1967, Tate and Polanski returned to London, and were frequent subjects of newspaper and magazine articles. Tate was depicted as being untraditional and modern, and was quoted as saying that couples should live together before marrying. They were married in Chelsea, London on January 20, 1968 with considerable publicity. Polanski was dressed in what the press described as "Edwardian finery," while Tate was attired in a white minidress. The couple moved into Polanski's mews house off Eaton Square in Belgravia. Photographer Peter Evans later described them as "the imperfect couple. They were the Douglas Fairbanks/Mary Pickford of our time... Cool, nomadic, talented and nicely shocking."

While Tate reportedly wanted a traditional marriage, Polanski remained somewhat promiscuous and described Tate's attitude to his infidelity as "Sharon's big hang-up". He reminded Tate that she had promised that she would not try to change him. Tate accepted Polanski's conditions, though she confided to friends that she hoped he would change. Peter Evans quoted Tate as saying, "We have a good arrangement. Roman lies to me and I pretend to believe him."

Polanski urged Tate to end her association with Martin Ransohoff, and Tate began to place less importance on her career, until Polanski told her that he wanted to be married to "a hippie, not a housewife". The couple returned to Los Angeles and quickly became part of a social group that included some of the most successful young people in the film industry, including Steve McQueen, Warren Beatty, Mia Farrow, Peter Sellers, Jacqueline Bisset, Leslie Caron, Joan Collins, Joanna Pettet, Laurence Harvey, Peter Fonda and Jane Fonda, older film stars like Henry Fonda, Kirk Douglas, Yul Brynner and Danny Kaye, musicians such as Jim Morrison and the Mamas & the Papas, and record producer Terry Melcher and his girlfriend Candice Bergen. Jay Sebring remained one of the couple's most frequent companions. Polanski's circle of friends included people he had known since his youth in Poland such as Wojciech Frykowski and Frykowski's girlfriend, coffee heiress Abigail Folger. The couple moved into the Chateau Marmont Hotel in West Hollywood for a few months until they arranged to lease Patty Duke's home on Summit Ridge Drive in Beverly Hills during the latter part of 1968. The Polanski house was often full of strangers, and Tate regarded the casual atmosphere as part of the "free spirit" of the times, saying that she did not mind who came into her home as her motto was "live and let live". Her close friend Leslie Caron later commented that the Polanskis were too trusting — "to the point of recklessness" — and that she had been alarmed by it.

In the summer of 1968, Tate began her next film, ''The Wrecking Crew'' (1969), a comedy in which she played Freya Carlson, an accident-prone spy, who was also a romantic interest for star Dean Martin, playing Matt Helm. She performed her own stunts and was taught martial arts by Bruce Lee. The film was successful and brought Tate strong reviews, with many reviewers praising her comedic performance. The ''New York Times'' critic Vincent Canby criticized the film but wrote, "The only nice thing is Sharon Tate, a tall, really great-looking girl". Martin commented that he intended to make another "Matt Helm" film, and that he wanted Tate to reprise her role.

Around this time Tate was feted as a promising newcomer. She was nominated for a Golden Globe Award as "New Star of the Year – Actress" for her ''Valley of the Dolls'' performance.

She placed fourth behind Mia Farrow, Judy Geeson and Katharine Houghton for a "Golden Laurel" award as the year's "Most Promising Newcomer" with the results published in the ''Motion Picture Exhibitor'' magazine. She was also runner-up to Lynn Redgrave in the ''Motion Picture Herald'''s poll for "The Star of Tomorrow", in which box-office drawing power was the main criterion for inclusion on the list. These results indicated that her career was beginning to accelerate and for her next film, Tate negotiated a fee of $150,000.

Tate became pregnant near the end of 1968, and on February 15, 1969 she and Polanski moved to 10050 Cielo Drive in Benedict Canyon. The house had previously been occupied by their friends, Terry Melcher and Candice Bergen. Tate and Polanski had visited it several times, and Tate was thrilled to learn it was available, referring to it as her "love house". At their new home, the Polanskis continued to be popular hosts for their large group of friends, although some of their friends still worried about the strange types who continued to show up at their parties. Encouraged by positive reviews of her comedic performances, Tate chose the comedy ''The Thirteen Chairs'' as her next project, as she later explained, largely for the opportunity to co-star with Orson Welles. In March 1969, she traveled to Italy to begin filming, while Polanski went to London to work on ''The Day of the Dolphin''. Frykowski and Folger moved into the Cielo Drive house.

After completing ''The Thirteen Chairs'', Tate joined Polanski in London. She posed in their apartment for photographer Terry O'Neill in casual domestic scenes such as opening baby gifts, and also completed a series of glamour photographs for the British magazine ''Queen''. A journalist asked Tate in a late July interview if she believed in fate, to which she replied, "Certainly. My whole life has been decided by fate. I think something more powerful than we are decides our fates for us. I know one thing — I've never planned anything that ever happened to me."

She returned from London to Los Angeles, on July 20, 1969, traveling alone on the QE2. Polanski was due to return on August 12 in time for the birth, and he asked Frykowski and Folger to stay in the house with Tate until then.

Death and aftermath

Murder

On August 8, 1969, Tate was two weeks from giving birth. She entertained two friends, actresses Joanna Pettet and Barbara Lewis, for lunch at her home, confiding in them her disappointment at Polanski's delay in returning from London. In the afternoon Polanski telephoned her. Her younger sister Debra also called to ask if she and their sister Patti could spend the night with her, but Sharon declined. In the evening she went to her favorite restaurant, El Coyote, with Sebring, Frykowski and Folger, returning about 10:30 p.m.

During the night, they were murdered by members of Charles Manson's "family" and their bodies discovered the following morning by Tate's housekeeper, Winifred Chapman. Police arrived at the scene to find the body of a young man, later identified as Steven Parent, shot to death in his car, which was in the driveway. Inside the house, the bodies of Tate and Sebring were found in the living room; a long rope tied around each of their necks connected them. On the front lawn lay the bodies of Frykowski and Folger. All of the victims, except Parent, had been stabbed numerous times. The coroner's report for Tate noted that she had been stabbed sixteen times, and that "five of the wounds were in and of themselves fatal".

Police took the only survivor at the address, the caretaker William Garretson, for questioning. Garretson lived in the guest house which was located on the property, but a short distance from the house, and not immediately visible. As the first suspect, he was questioned and submitted to a polygraph test. He said that Parent had visited him at approximately 11:30 p.m. and left after a few minutes. Garretson said he had no involvement in the murders and did not know anything that could help the investigation. Police accepted his explanation and he was allowed to leave.

Polanski was informed of the murders and returned to Los Angeles where police, unable to determine a motive, questioned him about his wife and friends. On Wednesday, August 13, Tate was interred in the Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City, California, with her son, Paul Richard Polanski (named posthumously for Polanski's and Tate's fathers), in her arms. Sebring's funeral took place later the same day; the funerals were scheduled several hours apart to allow mutual friends to attend both.

''Life'' magazine devoted a lengthy article to the murders and featured photographs of the crime scenes. Polanski was interviewed for the article and allowed himself to be photographed in the living room where Tate and Sebring had died, Tate's dried blood clearly visible on the floor in front of him. Widely criticized for his actions, he argued that he wanted to know who was responsible and was willing to shock the magazine's readers in the hope that someone would come forward with information.

Curiosity about the victims led to the re-release of Tate's films, achieving greater popularity than they had in their initial runs. Some newspapers began to speculate on the motives for the murders. Some of the published photographs of Tate were allegedly taken at a Satanic ritual, but were later proven to have been production photographs from ''Eye of the Devil''. Friends spoke out against the portrayal of Tate by some elements of the media. Mia Farrow said she was as "sweet and pure a human being as I have ever known", while Patty Duke remembered her as "a gentle, gentle creature. I was crazy about her, and I don't know anyone who wasn't". Polanski berated a crowd of journalists at a press conference, saying that many times they had written that Tate "was beautiful. Maybe the most beautiful woman in the world. But did you ever write how good she was?" Peter Evans later quoted the actor Laurence Harvey, who commented on Polanski immediately after the murders, "This could destroy Roman. Marriage vows mean nothing to him but few men have adored a woman as much as he adored Sharon."

Polanski later admitted that in the months following the murders he suspected various friends and associates, and his paranoia subsided only when the killers were arrested. Newspapers claimed that many Hollywood stars were moving out of the city, while others were reported to have installed security systems in their homes. Writer Dominick Dunne later recalled the tension: }}

Arrest and trial of the Manson Family

In November 1969, while in prison in connection with a car theft, Susan Atkins boasted to an inmate that she was responsible for the murder of Sharon Tate. This led to her indictment, along with the accomplices she named, Charles Manson, Charles "Tex" Watson, Patricia Krenwinkel and Linda Kasabian. Atkins also revealed that the murders of Leno and Rosemary LaBianca in Los Feliz, Los Angeles, the night after the Tate murders, were also committed by Family members, and incriminated Leslie Van Houten as a participant in the second murder.

The Los Angeles County District Attorney offered Susan Atkins a deal that guaranteed they would not seek the death penalty against her for any of the current charges in exchange for her grand jury and trial testimony. Atkins testified before the grand jury that she had been unable to stab Sharon Tate and that she was killed by Watson, a contradiction of statements she had made prior to her arrest. Atkins refused to cooperate further, forcing the District Attorney's office to withdraw its offer. An offer of immunity against prosecution was made to Kasabian in exchange for her agreement to provide complete testimony at any trial, against any of the defendants. Assistant District Attorney Vincent Bugliosi wrote later that he believed Kasabian would be more acceptable to the jurors because she had not killed anyone. In his book ''Will You Die For Me'', Charles Watson later confessed to the murder saying Atkins didn't even touch her.

On June 15, 1970, Manson, Atkins, Krenwinkel, and Van Houten were tried while Watson remained in Texas fighting extradition. The details of the trial were reported throughout the world. Kasabian was a reliable and consistent witness. She testified about a hippie group and its leader Charles Manson, a thwarted musician who believed that a race war was imminent. He believed that the music of The Beatles warned of the coming holocaust, which he referred to as "Helter Skelter", after the Beatles song, and also believed that only the "chosen", his "family", would survive. Briefly associated with Terry Melcher, Manson had believed that Melcher would foster his musical aspirations; when this did not occur, Manson felt infuriated and betrayed. Manson believed that he would bring about the race war by having his followers slaughter wealthy people in their homes and cast suspicion on militant groups such as the Black Panthers. Manson expected these groups to win the race war, and predicted that they would make him their leader when they realized they were too inept to govern the new society. He had been to 10050 Cielo Drive, and although he knew that Melcher had moved, the house represented his rejection by the show business establishment. He instructed Watson, Atkins, Krenwinkel, and Kasabian to go to the house "and kill everyone there", while he remained in their camp at Spahn's Movie Ranch.

Kasabian's and Atkins' testimony provided details that had not previously been reported to the public. When the group scaled a fence surrounding the property, they were seen by Steven Parent, who was leaving in his car. Watson approached the vehicle and ordered it to stop. Parent asked Watson not to hurt him, and promised that he would not say anything, but Watson's response was to slash Parent with a knife and shoot him four times. Watson then instructed Kasabian to remain outside and keep watch while the others entered the house. The four occupants were rounded up into the living room and tied together at gunpoint. When Watson ordered the occupants to lie on their stomachs, Jay Sebring urged the intruders to consider Tate's pregnancy and not harm her. Watson immediately shot Sebring. Wojciech Frykowski and Abigail Folger escaped, running in different directions onto the front lawn, where they were each overtaken and killed. Tate remained in the house and begged for her child's life, pleading that the group abduct Tate and allow her to give birth before murdering her. Atkins testified that she had told Tate she would receive no mercy. Tate was stabbed sixteen times, and Atkins dipped a towel in Tate's blood to write "PIG" on the front door. They left Tate's house after midnight and returned to Spahn Ranch.

During the penalty phase of the trial, Atkins was again questioned about her attitude to Tate and her role in Tate's death. She said, "They didn't even look like people... I didn't relate to Sharon Tate as being anything but a store mannequin... [Tate] sounded just like an IBM machine... She kept begging and pleading and pleading and begging, and I got sick of listening to her, so I stabbed her." The defendants were found guilty and sentenced to death on March 29, 1971. Watson was tried separately after extradition from Texas. Psychiatrists testified that he appeared to be feigning insanity, and while he admitted his role in all of the killings, he refused to acknowledge his responsibility, and was widely quoted by the press when he stated that he had not noticed that Sharon Tate was pregnant. He was found guilty and sentenced to death on October 21, 1971. The death sentences were later automatically commuted to life in prison after the California Supreme Court's People v. Anderson decision resulted in the invalidation of all death sentences imposed in California before 1972. , Manson, Watson, Krenwinkel, and Van Houten remain incarcerated. Atkins died in prison on September 24, 2009.

Legacy

In the early 1980s, Stephen Kay, who had worked for the prosecution in the trial, became alarmed that Leslie Van Houten had gathered 900 signatures on a petition for her parole. He contacted Sharon Tate's mother, who said she was sure she could do better, and the two mounted a publicity campaign, collecting over 350,000 signatures supporting the denial of parole. Van Houten had been seen as the most likely of the killers to be paroled; following Kay's and Tate's efforts, her petition was denied. Doris Tate became a vocal advocate for victims' rights and, in discussing her daughter's murder and meeting other crime victims, assumed the role of counselor, using her profile to encourage public discussion and criticism of the corrections system.

For the rest of her life, she strongly campaigned against the parole of each of the Manson killers, and worked closely with other victims of violent crime. Several times, she confronted Charles Watson at parole hearings, explaining, "I feel that Sharon has to be represented in that hearing room. If they're [the killers] pleading for their lives, then I have to be there representing her." She addressed Watson directly during her victim impact statement in 1984: "What mercy, sir, did you show my daughter when she was begging for her life? What mercy did you show my daughter when she said, 'Give me two weeks to have my baby and then you can kill me'?.... When will Sharon come up for parole? Will these seven victims and possibly more walk out of their graves if you get paroled? You cannot be trusted."

In 1992, President George H. W. Bush recognized Doris Tate as one of his "thousand points of light" for her volunteer work on behalf of victims' rights. By this time Tate had been diagnosed with a malignant brain tumor and her health and strength were failing; her meeting with Bush marked her final public appearance. When she died later that year, her youngest daughter Patti continued her work. She contributed to the 1993 foundation of the Doris Tate Crime Victims Bureau, a non-profit organization which aims to influence crime legislation throughout the United States and to give greater rights and protection to victims of violent crime. In 1995, the "Doris Tate Crime Victims Foundation" was founded as a non-profit organization to promote public awareness of the judicial system and to provide support to the victims of violent crime.

Patti Tate confronted David Geffen and board members of Geffen Records in 1993 over plans to include a song written by Charles Manson on the Guns N' Roses album ''"The Spaghetti Incident?"''. She commented to a journalist that the record company was "putting Manson up on a pedestal for young people who don't know who he is to worship like an idol."

After Patti's death from breast cancer in 2000, her older sister Debra continued to represent the Tate family at parole hearings. Debra Tate said of the killers: "They don't show any personal responsibility. They haven't made atonement to any one of my family members." She has also unsuccessfully lobbied for Sharon Tate to be awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

Colonel Paul Tate preferred not to make public comments; however, he was a constant presence during the murder trial, and in the following years attended parole hearings with his wife, and wrote letters to authorities in which he strongly opposed any suggestion of parole. He died in May 2005.

Roman Polanski gave away all of his possessions after the murders, unable to bear any reminders of the period that he called "the happiest I ever was in my life". He remained in Los Angeles until the killers were arrested and then traveled to Europe. His 1979 film ''Tess'' was dedicated "For Sharon", as Tate had read Thomas Hardy's ''Tess of the d'Urbervilles'' during her final stay with Polanski in London, and had left it for him to read with the comment that it would be a good story for them to film together. He tried to explain his anguish after the murder of his wife and unborn son in his 1984 autobiography ''Roman by Polanski'', saying "Since Sharon's death, and despite appearances to the contrary, my enjoyment of life has been incomplete. In moments of unbearable personal tragedy some people find solace in religion. In my case the opposite happened. Any religious faith I had was shattered by Sharon's murder. It reinforced my faith in the absurd."

In July 2005, Polanski successfully sued ''Vanity Fair'' magazine for libel after it stated that he had tried to seduce a woman on his way to Tate's funeral. Among the witnesses who testified on his behalf were Debra Tate and Mia Farrow. Describing Polanski immediately after Tate's death, Farrow testified, "Of this I can be sure — of his frame of mind when we were there, of what we talked about, of his utter sense of loss, of despair and bewilderment and shock and love — a love that he had lost." At the conclusion of the case, Polanski read a statement, saying in part, "The memory of my late wife Sharon Tate was at the forefront of my mind in bringing this action."

The murders committed by the Manson "Family" have been described by social commentators as one of the defining moments of the 1960s. Joan Didion wrote, "Many people I know in Los Angeles believe that the Sixties ended abruptly on August 9, 1969, ended at the exact moment when word of the murders on Cielo Drive traveled like brushfire through the community, and in a sense this is true. The tension broke that day. The paranoia was fulfilled."

Sharon Tate's work as an actress has been reassessed after her death, with contemporary film writers and critics such as Leonard Maltin describing her potential as a comedienne. A restored version of ''The Fearless Vampire Killers'' more closely resembles Polanski's intention. Maltin lauded the film as "near-brilliant" and Tate's work in ''Don't Make Waves'' and ''The Wrecking Crew'' as her two best performances, as well as the best indicators of the career she might have established. ''Eye of the Devil'' with its supernatural themes, and ''Valley of the Dolls'', with its overstated melodrama, have each achieved a degree of cult status.

Tate's biographer, Greg King, holds a view often expressed by members of the Tate family, writing in ''Sharon Tate and the Manson Murders'' (2000): "Sharon's real legacy lies not in her movies or in her television work. The very fact that, today, victims or their families in California are able to sit before those convicted of a crime and have a voice in the sentencing at trials or at parole hearings, is largely due to the work of Doris [and Patti] Tate. Their years of devotion to Sharon's memory and dedication to victims' rights... have helped transform Sharon from mere victim, [and] restore a human face to one of the twentieth century's most infamous crimes." .

Filmography

+ List of acting performances in film and television
Title	Year	Role	Notes
! scope="row"		Patrician in Arena	uncredited
''Hemingway's Adventures of a Young Man''		undetermined role	uncredited
''''		Janet Trego	TV series, 15 episodes
''Mister Ed''
''''		Beautiful Girl	uncredited
''''		Therapist	TV series, episode: "The Girls of Nazarone Affair"
''Eye of the Devil''		Odile de Caray
''''		Sarah Shagal
''Don't Make Waves''		Malibu
! scope="row"		Jennifer North
! scope="row"		Girl at Party	uncredited
''''		Freya Carlson
''''(also known as ''12+1'')		Pat	released posthumously

References

Sources

External links

; Informational sites ; Crime sites

CieloDrive.com – The Story of the Manson Family and Their Victims

The Crime Library

Category:1943 births Category:1969 deaths Category:Actors from Texas Category:American female models Category:American film actors Category:American murder victims Category:American television actors Category:Burials at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City Category:Deaths by stabbing Category:Manson Family victims Category:Murdered entertainers Category:People from Dallas, Texas Category:People from the Greater Los Angeles Area Category:People murdered in California

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