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Argentina
Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic (, ), is the second largest country in South America, constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth-largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations, though Mexico, Colombia and Spain are more populous.
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Bayamo
Bayamo is the capital city of the Granma Province of Cuba, and one of the largest cities in the Oriente region.
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Berlin Wall
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Camagüey
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Cauto River
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Ciego de Ávila
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Cienfuegos
Cienfuegos is a city on the southern coast of Cuba, capital of the province of Cienfuegos. It is located about 250 km (155 miles) from Havana, and has a population of 150,000. The city is dubbed "La Perla del Sur" (Pearl of the South). Cienfuegos literally translates to "Hundred fires".
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Cuba
The Republic of Cuba (; , ) is an island country in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos.
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Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic (; , ) is a nation on the island of Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are shared by two countries. Both by area and population, the Dominican Republic is the second largest Caribbean nation (after Cuba), with and an estimated 10 million people.
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Granma (yacht)
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Guantánamo
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Guisa
Guisa is a municipality and city in the Granma Province of Cuba. It is located south-east of Bayamo, the provincial capital.
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Havana
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Holguín
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Isla de la Juventud
Isla de la Juventud
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Isla de Pinos
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Matanzas
Matanzas is the capital of the Cuban province of Matanzas. It is famed for its Afro-Cuban folklore.
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Mexico
Mexico, (pronounced ; ), officially known as the United Mexican States (), is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost 2 million square kilometres (over 760,000 sq mi), Mexico is the fifth-largest country in the Americas by total area and the 14th largest independent nation in the world. With an estimated population of 111 million, it is the 11th most populous country and the most populous Hispanophone country on Earth. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, the capital city.
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Moncada Barracks
The Moncada Barracks was a military barracks in Santiago de Cuba, named after General Guillermon Moncada, a hero of the War of Independence. On July 26, 1953, the barracks was the site of an armed attack by a small group of revolutionaries led by Fidel Castro. This armed attack is widely accepted as the beginning of the Cuban Revolution. The date on which the attack took place, July 26, was adopted by Castro as the name for his revolutionary movement (Movimiento 26 Julio or M 26-7) which eventually toppled the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1959.
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO ( ; ), also called the "(North) Atlantic Alliance", is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The NATO headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, and the organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party.
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Poznań 1956 protests
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The Presidio Modelo was a "model prison" of Panopticon design, built on Isla de Pinos (now the Isla de la Juventud) in Cuba.
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Santa Clara is the capital city of the Cuban province of Villa Clara. It is located in the most central region of the province and almost in the most central region of the country.
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Santiago de Cuba is the capital city of Santiago de Cuba Province in the south-eastern area of the island nation of Cuba, some east south-east of the Cuban capital of Havana.
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Sierra Maestra
:For the Cuban band,see Sierra Maestra (band).
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The United States of America (also referred to as the United States, the U.S., the USA, or America) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Caribbean and Pacific.
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Wall Street is a street in Lower Manhattan, New York City. It runs east from Broadway to South Street on the East River, through the historical center of the Financial District. It is the first permanent home of the New York Stock Exchange, the world's largest stock exchange by market capitalization of its listed companies. Over time, Wall Street became the name of the surrounding geographic neighborhood and also shorthand (or a metonym) for the "influential financial interests" of the American financial industry, which is centered in the New York City area. Anchored by Wall Street, New York City vies with the City of London to be the financial capital of the world.
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Abel Santamaria
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Abel Santamaría
Abel Santamaria Cuadrado (20 October 1927 in Encrucijada, Las Villas, Cuba - 26 July 1953 in Santiago de Cuba) was an important leader in the Cuban Revolutionary movement.
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Afro-Cuban
The term Afro-Cuban refers to Cubans of Sub Saharan African ancestry, and to historical or cultural elements in Cuba thought to emanate from this community. The term can refer to the combining of African and other cultural elements found in Cuban society such as religion, music, language, the arts, and class culture.
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The Cambodian Civil War was a conflict that pitted the forces of the Communist Party of Kampuchea (known as the Khmer Rouge) and their allies the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and the Viet Cong against the government forces of Cambodia (after October 1970, the Khmer Republic), which were supported by the United States (U.S.) and the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam).
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Celia Sánchez
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Che Guevara
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Chinese Cuban
A Chinese Cuban (, Cantonese Jyutping: Gu2 Baa1 Waa4 jan4; ) is a Cuban of Chinese ancestry who was born in or has immigrated to Cuba. They are part of the ethnic Chinese diaspora (or Overseas Chinese).
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Ciboney people
The Ciboney were pre-Columbian indigenous inhabitants of the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean Sea. The name Ciboney derives from the indigenous Taino people which means Cave Dwellers; evidence has shown that a number of the Ciboney people have lived in caves at some time. Over the years, many theories has been brought forth as to how the Ciboney people arrived to the Caribbean. Many of these theories have a weak foundation due to insufficient evidence. It is explained in the book Liberties Lost: Caribbean Indigenous Societies and Slave Systems, "The most popular view now is that the Ciboney were from pre-farming cultures that entered the Antilles from South America, not as one ethnic group, but as waves of different migrants over a very long period of time."
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Compay Segundo
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Congo Crisis
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Cuban American
A Cuban American () is a United States citizen who traces his or her "national origin" to Cuba. Cuban Americans are also considered native born Americans with Cuban parents or Cuban-born persons who were raised and educated in US. Cuban Americans form the third-largest Hispanic group in the United States and also the largest group of Hispanics of European ancestry as a percentage within the group in the US.
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Cuban Five
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Cubans
This article is about the native people of Cuba. For citizens of Cuban "national origin" inhabiting the United States of America, see Cuban American.
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Cultural Revolution
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Desi Arnaz
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Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Fidel Castro
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born August 13, 1926) is a Cuban politician. One of the primary leaders of the Cuban Revolution, Castro served as the Prime Minister of Cuba from February 1959 to December 1976, and then as the President of the Council of State of Cuba and the President of Council of Ministers of Cuba until his resignation from the office in February 2008. He currently serves as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, a position he has held since 1965.
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Frank País
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Fulgencio Batista
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Félix Varela
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German Cuban
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Goulash Communism
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Ibrahim Ferrer
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Igor Gouzenko
Igor Sergeyevich Gouzenko (January 13, 1919 – June 28, 1982) was a cipher clerk for the Soviet Embassy to Canada in Ottawa, Ontario. He defected on September 5, 1945, with 109 documents on Soviet espionage activities in the West. This forced Prime Minister Mackenzie King to call a Royal Commission to investigate espionage in Canada.
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Isleño
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John F. Kennedy
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José Martí
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Juan Almeida Bosque
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Korean War
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Luis Posada Carriles
Luis Clemente Faustino Posada Carriles (born February 15, 1928) (nicknamed Bambi by some Cuban exiles) is a Cuban-born Venezuelan anti-communist activist. A former Central Intelligence Agency agent, Posada has been convicted in absentia of involvement in various terrorist attacks and plots in the Western hemisphere, including: involvement in the 1976 bombing of a Cuban airliner that killed seventy-three people; admitted involvement in a string of bombings in 1997 targeting fashionable Cuban hotels and nightspots; involvement in the Bay of Pigs invasion; involvement in the Iran-Contra affair; and, according to conspiracy theorists, involvement in the assassination of John F. Kennedy. In addition, he was jailed under accusations related to an assassination attempt on Fidel Castro in Panama in 2000, although he was later pardoned by Panamanian President Mireya Moscoso in the final days of her term.
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Manuel Urrutia Lleó
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Mozambican Civil War
The Mozambican Civil War began in 1977, two years after the end of the war of independence. The ruling party, Front for Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO), was violently opposed from 1977 by the Rhodesian- and (later) South African-funded Mozambique Resistance Movement (RENAMO). Over 900,000 died in fighting and from starvation, five million civilians were displaced, many were made amputees by landmines, a legacy from the war that continues to plague Mozambique. Fighting ended in 1992 and the country's first multi-party elections were held in 1994.
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Máximo Gómez
http://wn.com/Máximo_Gómez -
Nicolás Guillén
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Omara Portuondo
http://wn.com/Omara_Portuondo -
Pablo Milanés
http://wn.com/Pablo_Milanés -
Peaceful coexistence
Peaceful coexistence ( or, "Peaceful co-existence - as a form of the continuation of the class struggle") was a theory developed and applied by the Soviet Union at various points during the Cold War in the context of its ostensibly Marxist-Leninist foreign policy and was adopted by Soviet-influenced Communist states that they could peacefully coexist with the "capitalist" bloc (i.e., non-communist states). This was in contrast to the antagonistic contradiction principle that Communism and capitalism could never coexist in peace. The Soviet Union applied it to relations between the western world and in particular, the United States and NATO countries and the nations of the Warsaw Pact.
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Ping Pong Diplomacy
http://wn.com/Ping_Pong_Diplomacy -
Raúl Castro
http://wn.com/Raúl_Castro -
Raúl Castro Ruz
http://wn.com/Raúl_Castro_Ruz -
Reinaldo Arenas
http://wn.com/Reinaldo_Arenas -
Silvio Rodríguez
http://wn.com/Silvio_Rodríguez -
Sino-Albanian split
The Sino-Albanian split () in 1978 saw the parting of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and Socialist People's Republic of Albania, which was the only Eastern European nation to side with the PRC in the Sino-Soviet split of the early 1960s.
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Sino-Indian War
The Sino-Indian War (), also known as the Sino-Indian Border Conflict (), was a war between China and India that occurred in 1962. A disputed Himalayan border was the main pretext for war, but other issues played a role. There had been a series of violent border incidents after the 1959 Tibetan uprising, when India had granted asylum to the Dalai Lama. India initiated a Forward Policy in which it placed outposts along the border, including several north of the McMahon Line, the eastern portion of a Line of Actual Control proclaimed by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in 1959.
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Sino-Vietnamese War
http://wn.com/Sino-Vietnamese_War -
Spanish Civil War
http://wn.com/Spanish_Civil_War -
Vietnam War
http://wn.com/Vietnam_War -
Vilma Espín
http://wn.com/Vilma_Espín -
Walter Lippmann
http://wn.com/Walter_Lippmann -
Warsaw Pact
http://wn.com/Warsaw_Pact
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| History of Cuba | |
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  This article is part of a series |
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| New Spain | |
| Captaincy General of Cuba | |
| Cuban War of Independence | |
| Spanish–American War | |
| United States Protectorate | |
| Republic of Cuba (1902–1959) | |
| Cuban Revolution | |
| Topical | |
| Military history | |
|
Cuba Portal |
The Cuban Revolution was an armed revolt by Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement against the regime of Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista. The revolution began in July 1953,[1] and finally ousted Batista on 1 January 1959, replacing his regime with Castro's revolutionary government. This government later reformed along communist lines, becoming the present Communist Party of Cuba in October 1965.[2]
Contents |
Early stages: 1953-1956[link]
The first phase of the Cuban Revolution began when Fidel Castro's armed rebels attacked the Moncada Barracks in Santiago and the barracks in Bayamo on 26 July 1953.[3][1] The exact number of rebels killed in the battle is debatable; however, in his autobiography, Castro claimed that nine were killed in the fighting, and an additional fifty-six were killed later by the Batista regime.[4] Among the dead was Abel Santamaría, second-in-command of the assault on the Moncada Barracks, who was imprisoned, tortured, and executed on the same day as the attack.[5] The survivors, among them Fidel Castro and his brother Raúl Castro Ruz, were captured shortly afterwards. In a highly political trial, Fidel Castro spoke for nearly four hours in his defense, ending with the words; "Condemn me, it does not matter. History will absolve me." Fidel Castro was sentenced to 15 years in the Presidio Modelo prison, located on Isla de Pinos, while Raúl was sentenced to 13 years.
In 1955, under broad political pressure, the Batista regime freed all political prisoners in Cuba – including the Moncada attackers. Batista was persuaded to include the Castro brothers in this release in part by Fidel's Jesuit childhood teachers.[6]
Thereafter, the Castro brothers joined with other exiles in Mexico to prepare a revolution to overthrow Batista, receiving training from Alberto Bayo, a leader of Republican forces in the Spanish Civil War. In June 1955, Fidel met and joined forces with the Argentine revolutionary Ernesto "Che" Guevara.[7] The revolutionaries named themselves the "26th of July Movement", in reference to the date of their attack on the Moncada Barracks in 1953.
December 1956 to mid-1958[link]
"I believe that there is no country in the world including any and all the countries under colonial domination, where economic colonization, humiliation and exploitation were worse than in Cuba, in part owing to my country’s policies during the Batista regime. I approved the proclamation which Fidel Castro made in the Sierra Maestra, when he justifiably called for justice and especially yearned to rid Cuba of corruption. I will even go further: to some extent it is as though Batista was the incarnation of a number of sins on the part of the United States. Now we shall have to pay for those sins. In the matter of the Batista regime, I am in agreement with the first Cuban revolutionaries. That is perfectly clear."
— U.S. President John F. Kennedy, interview with Jean Daniel, 24 October 1963[8]
The yacht Granma arrived in Cuba on 2 December 1956, carrying the Castro brothers and 80 other members of the 26th of July Movement. It arrived two days later than planned because the boat was heavily loaded, unlike during the practice sailing runs.[9] This dashed any hopes for a coordinated attack with the llano wing of the movement. After arriving and exiting the ship, the band of rebels began to make their way into the Sierra Maestra mountains, a range in southeastern Cuba. Three days after the trek began, Batista's army attacked and killed most of the Granma participants – while the exact number is disputed, no more than twenty of the original eighty-two men survived the initial bloody encounters with the Cuban army and escaped into the Sierra Maestra mountains.[10] The group of survivors included Fidel Castro, Che Guevara, Raúl Castro, and Camilo Cienfuegos. The dispersed survivors, alone or in small groups, wandered through the mountains, looking for each other. Eventually, the men would link up again – with the help of peasant sympathizers – and would form the core leadership of the guerrilla army. Celia Sanchez and Haydee Santamaria (the sister of Abel Santamaria) were among the female revolutionaries who assisted Fidel Castro in the mountains.
On 13 March 1957, a separate group of revolutionaries – the anticommunist Revolutionary Directorate (RD; Directorio Revolucionario), composed mostly of students – stormed the Presidential Palace in Havana, attempting to assassinate Batista and decapitate the regime. The attack was suicidal. The RD's leader, student Jose Antonio Echeverria, died in a shootout with Batista's forces at the Havana radio station he had seized to spread the news of Batista's death. The handful of survivors included Dr. Humberto Castello (who later became the Inspector General in the Escambray), and Rolando Cubela and Faure Chomon (later Commandantes of the 13 March Movement, centered in the Escambray Mountains of Las Villas Province).[11]
Thereafter, the United States imposed an economic embargo on the Cuban government and recalled its ambassador, weakening the government's mandate further.[12] Batista's support among Cubans began to fade, former supporters either joining the revolutionaries or distancing themselves from Batista. The Mafia and US businessmen continued their support.[13]
The regime resorted to often brutal methods to keep Cuba's cities under government control. However, in the Sierra Maestra mountains, Castro, aided by Frank País, Ramos Latour, Huber Matos, and many others, staged successful attacks on small garrisons of Batista's troops. Che Guevara and Raúl Castro helped Fidel to consolidate his political control in the mountains, often through execution of suspected Batista loyalists or other rivals of Castro's.[14] In addition, poorly armed irregulars known as escopeteros harassed Batista's forces in the foothills and plains of Oriente Province. The escopeteros also provided direct military support to Castro's main forces by protecting supply lines and by sharing intelligence. Ultimately, the mountains came under Castro's control.
In addition to armed resistance, the rebels sought to use propaganda to their advantage. A pirate radio station called Rebel Radio (Radio Rebelde) was set up in February 1958, allowing Castro and his forces to broadcast their message nationwide within enemy territory. The radio broadcasts were made possible by Carlos Franqui, a previous acquaintance of Castro who subsequently became a Cuban exile in Puerto Rico.
During this time, Castro's forces remained quite small in numbers, sometimes fewer than 200 men, while the Cuban army and police force numbered between 30,000 and 40,000 in strength. Yet, nearly every time the Cuban military fought against the revolutionaries, the army was forced to retreat. An arms embargo – imposed on the Cuban government by the United States on 14 March 1958 – contributed significantly to the weakness of Batista's forces. The Cuban air force rapidly deteriorated: it could not repair its airplanes without importing parts from the United States.
Batista finally responded to Castro's efforts with an attack on the mountains called Operation Verano, known to the rebels as la Ofensiva. The army sent some 12,000 soldiers, half of them untrained recruits, into the mountains. In a series of small skirmishes, Castro's determined guerrillas defeated the Cuban army. In the Battle of La Plata, which lasted from 11 July to 21 July 1958, Castro's forces defeated an entire battalion, capturing 240 men while losing just 3 of their own. However, the tide nearly turned on 29 July 1958, when Batista's troops almost destroyed Castro's small army of some 300 men at the Battle of Las Mercedes. With his forces pinned down by superior numbers, Castro asked for, and received, a temporary cease-fire on 1 August. Over the next seven days, while fruitless negotiations took place, Castro's forces gradually escaped from the trap. By 8 August, Castro's entire army had escaped back into the mountains, and Operation Verano had effectively ended in failure for the Batista government.
Mid-1958 to January 1959[link]
""The enemy soldier in the Cuban example which at present concerns us, is the junior partner of the dictator; he is the man who gets the last crumb left by a long line of profiteers that begins in Wall Street and ends with him. He is disposed to defend his privileges, but he is disposed to defend them only to the degree that they are important to him. His salary and his pension are worth some suffering and some dangers, but they are never worth his life. If the price of maintaining them will cost it, he is better off giving them up; that is to say, withdrawing from the face of the guerrilla danger."— Che Guevara, guerrilla commander, 1958[15]
On 21 August 1958, after the defeat of Batista's ofensiva, Castro's forces began their own offensive. In the "Oriente" province (in the area of the present-day provinces of Santiago de Cuba, Granma, Guantánamo and Holguín) Fidel Castro, Raúl Castro and Juan Almeida Bosque directed attacks on four fronts. Descending from the mountains with new weapons captured during the ofensiva and smuggled in by plane, Castro's forces won a series of initial victories. Castro's major victory at Guisa, and the successful capture of several towns including Maffo, Contramaestre, and Central Oriente, brought the Cauto plains under his control.
Meanwhile, three rebel columns, under the command of Che Guevara, Camilo Cienfuegos and Jaime Vega, proceeded westward toward Santa Clara, the capital of Villa Clara Province. Batista's forces ambushed and destroyed Jaime Vega's column, but the surviving two columns reached the central provinces, where they joined efforts with several other resistance groups not under the command of Castro. According to Faria, when Che Guevara's column passed through the province of Las Villas, and specifically through the Escambray Mountains – where the anticommunist Revolutionary Directorate forces (who became known as the 13 March Movement) had been fighting Batista's army for many months – friction developed between the two groups of rebels. Nonetheless, the combined rebel army continued the offensive, and Cienfuegos won a key victory in the Battle of Yaguajay on 30 December 1958, earning him the nickname "The Hero of Yaguajay".
On 31 December 1958, the Battle of Santa Clara took place in a scene of great confusion. The city of Santa Clara fell to the combined forces of Che Guevara, Cienfuegos, Revolutionary Directorate (RD) rebels led by Comandantes Rolando Cubela, Juan ("El Mejicano") Abrahantes, and William Alexander Morgan. News of these defeats caused Batista to panic. He fled Cuba for the Dominican Republic just hours later on 1 January 1959. Comandante William Alexander Morgan, leading RD rebel forces, continued fighting as Batista departed, and had captured the city of Cienfuegos by 2 January.[16] Castro learned of Batista's flight in the morning and immediately started negotiations to take over Santiago de Cuba. On 2 January, the military commander in the city, Colonel Rubido, ordered his soldiers not to fight, and Castro's forces took over the city. The forces of Guevara and Cienfuegos entered Havana at about the same time. They had met no opposition on their journey from Santa Clara to Cuba's capital. Castro himself arrived in Havana on 8 January after a long victory march. His initial choice of president, Manuel Urrutia Lleó, took office on January 3.[17]
Aftermath[link]
"Our revolution is endangering all American possessions in Latin America. We are telling these countries to make their own revolution."— Che Guevara, October 1962[18]
In 1959, Castro travelled to the United States to explain his revolution. He said, "I know what the world thinks of us, we are Communists, and of course I have said very clearly that we are not Communists; very clearly."[19]
Hundreds of suspected Batista-era agents, policemen and soldiers were put on public trial for human rights abuses and war crimes, including murder and torture. Most of those convicted in revolutionary tribunals of political crimes were executed by firing squad, and the rest received long prison sentences. One of the most notorious examples of revolutionary justice was the execution of over 70 captured Batista regime soldiers, directed by Raúl Castro after the capture of Santiago. For his part in Havana, Che Guevara was appointed supreme prosecutor in La Cabaña Fortress. This was part of a large-scale attempt by Fidel Castro to cleanse the security forces of Batista loyalists and potential opponents of the new revolutionary regime. Others were fortunate enough to be dismissed from the army and police without prosecution, and some high-ranking officials in the ancien régime were exiled as military attachés.[20]
In 1961, after the abortive US-backed Bay of Pigs Invasion, the new Cuban government nationalized all property held by religious organizations, including the dominant Roman Catholic Church. Hundreds of members of the church, including a bishop, were permanently expelled from the nation, with the new Cuban government being declared officially atheist. Education also saw significant changes – private schools were banned and the progressively socialist state assumed greater responsibility for children.[21]
According to geographer and Cuban Comandante Antonio Núñez Jiménez, 75% of Cuba’s best arable land was owned by foreign individuals or foreign (mostly American) companies at the time of the revolution. One of the first policies of the newly formed Cuban government was eliminating illiteracy and implementing land reforms. Land reform efforts helped to raise living standards by subdividing larger holdings into cooperatives. Comandante Sori Marin, nominally in charge of land reform, objected and fled, but was eventually executed. Many other non-Marxist, anti-Batista rebel leaders were forced into exile, purged in executions, or eliminated in failed uprisings such as that of the Beaton brothers.[22]
Shortly after taking power, Castro also created a revolutionary militia to expand his power base among the former rebels and the supportive population. Castro also created the informant Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (CDRs) in late September 1960. CDRs were tasked with keeping "vigilance against counter-revolutionary activity," with local CDRs keeping a detailed record of each neighborhood’s inhabitants' spending habits, level of contact with foreigners, work and education history, and any "suspicious" behavior.[23] Among the increasingly persecuted groups were homosexual men.[24] The Cuban dissident and exile Reinaldo Arenas wrote about such persecution in his autobiography, Antes Que Anochezca, the basis for the film Before Night Falls.
In February 1959, the Ministry for the Recovery of Misappropriated Assets (Ministerio de Recuperación de Bienes Malversados) was created. Cuba began expropriating land and private property under the auspices of the Agrarian Reform Law of 17 May 1959. Farms of any size could be and were seized by the government, while land, businesses, and companies owned by upper- and middle-class Cubans were nationalized (notably, including the plantations owned by Fidel Castro's family). By the end of 1960, the revolutionary government had nationalized more than $25 billion worth of private property owned by Cubans.[25] The Cuban government formally nationalized all foreign-owned property, particularly American holdings, in the nation on 6 August 1960. The United States responded by freezing all Cuban assets on American soil, severing diplomatic ties,[26] and tightening its embargo on Cuba, which is still in place as of 2012.[27] In response to the acts of the Eisenhower administration, Cuba turned to the Soviet Union for support.[28]
"The greatest threat presented by Castro’s Cuba is as an example to other Latin American states which are beset by poverty, corruption, feudalism, and plutocratic exploitation ... his influence in Latin America might be overwhelming and irresistible if, with Soviet help, he could establish in Cuba a Communist utopia."
In July 1961, the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations (IRO) was formed by the merger of Fidel Castro’s 26th of July Movement, the People's Socialist Party led by Blas Roca, and the Revolutionary Directorate of 13 March led by Faure Chomón.[30] On 26 March 1962, the IRO became the United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution (PURSC) which, in turn, became the Communist Party of Cuba on 3 October 1965, with Castro as First Secretary.
In the wake of the revolution, thousands of disaffected anti-Batista rebels, former Batista supporters, and campesinos (Cuban peasants) fled to Cuba's Las Villas province, where an anticommunist underground had been forming since early 1960. Operating out of the Escambray mountain range, these counterrevolutionary rebels, also known as Alzados, made a number of desperate yet unsuccessful attempts to overthrow the Cuban government, including the abortive, United States-backed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961. In the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, the United States promised not to invade Cuba in the future; in compliance with this agreement, the U.S. withdrew all support from the Alzados, effectively crippling the resource-starved resistance. The counterrevolutionary conflict lasted until about 1965, and has been branded the War Against the Bandits by the Castro regime. It is alternately known as the Escambray Rebellion.
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ a b Faria, Miguel A. Fidel Castro and the 26th of July Movement. NewsMax.com, July 27, 2004.
- ^ Audio: Cuba Marks 50 Years Since 'Triumphant Revolution' by Jason Beaubien, NPR All Things Considered, 1 January 2009
- ^ July Penguin Books: 2007, p. 121
- ^ Ramonet, Ignacio, ibid, p. 133
- ^ Ramonet, Ignacio, ibid, p. 672
- ^ Ramonet, Ignacio, ibid, p. 174
- ^ Ramonet, Ignacio, ibid, p. 174
- ^ Spartacus Educational entry for Jean Daniel
- ^ Ramonet, Ignacio, ibid, p. 182
- ^ Thomas, Hugh (1998). Cuba or The Pursuit of Freedom (Updated Edition). New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80827-7.
- ^ Faria, Cuba in Revolution, 2002, Notes pp.40–41
- ^ Louis A. Pérez. Cuba and the United States.
- ^ English, T.J. (2008) Havana nocturne : how the mob owned Cuba-- and then lost It to the revolution
- ^ "The Killing Machine: Che Guevara, from Communist Firebrand to Capitalist Brand". Independent.org. 2005-07-11. http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=1535l. Retrieved 2012-04-14. "Guevara murdered or oversaw the executions in summary trials of scores of people—proven enemies, suspected enemies, and those who happened to be in the wrong place at the wrong time."
- ^ The Life & Times of Che Guevara by David Sandison, 1996, Paragon, ISBN 0-7525-1776-7 pg 41
- ^ Faria, Cuba in Revolution, 2002, pp.69
- ^ Thomas, Hugh, Cuba: The pursuit of freedom, pp. 691–3
- ^ Attack us at your Peril, Cocky Cuba Warns US, Henry Brandon, The Sunday Times, 28 October 1962.
- ^ Year in Review - 1959. UPI. Retrieved 2011-12-24.
- ^ Juan Clark Cuba: Mito y Realidad: Testimonio de un Pueblo (1992), Saeta Ediciones, Miami, pp. 53–70.
- ^ Faria (2002), op. cit. pp. 215–28.
- ^ "Cuba Orders Rebel's Death". The Milwaukee Journal, 14 June 1960 (via Google News archive). Retrieved 2012-04-28.
- ^ Juan Clark Cuba: Mito y Realidad (1992), pp. 131–58.
- ^ Young, Allen (1982). Gays under the Cuban revolution. Grey Fox Press. ISBN 0-912516-61-5.
- ^ Lazo, Mario, American Policy Failures in Cuba – Dagger in the Heart (1970) Twin Circle Publishing Co., New York, pp. 198–200, 204, Library of Congress Card Catalog Number:68-31632
- ^ Nash, Gary B., Julie Roy Jeffrey, John R. Howe, Peter J. Frederick, Allen F. Davis, Allan M. Winkler, Charlene Mires, and Carla Gardina Pestana. The American People, Concise Edition Creating a Nation and a Society, Combined Volume (6th Edition). New York: Longman, 2007.
- ^ Faria (2002), op.cit. p. 105.
- ^ Nash, Gary B., Julie Roy Jeffrey, John R. Howe, Peter J. Frederick, Allen F. Davis, Allan M. Winkler, Charlene Mires, and Carla Gardina Pestana. The American People, Concise Edition Creating a Nation and a Society, Combined Volume (6th Edition). New York: Longman, 2007.
- ^ "Cuba Once More", by Walter Lippmann, Newsweek magazine, 27 April 1964, pg 23
- ^ Faria, Miguel (2002-06-14). "Interview With Dr. Miguel Faria (Part I) by Myles Kantor". Hacienda Publishing. http://haciendapublishing.com/articles/interview-dr-miguel-faria-part-i-myles-b-kantor. Retrieved 2002-06-14.
Further reading[link]
- Castro and the Cuban Revolution, by Thomas M. Leonard, Greenwood Press, 1999, ISBN 0-313-29979-X
- Cuban Revolution Reader: A Documentary History of Key Moments in Fidel Castro's Revolution, by Julio García Luis, Ocean Press, 2008, ISBN 1-920888-89-6
- Dynamics of the Cuban Revolution: A Marxist Appreciation, by Joseph Hansen, Pathfinder Press, 1994, ISBN 0-87348-559-9
- Havana Nocturne: How the Mob Owned Cuba and Then Lost It to the Revolution, by T. J. English, William Morrow, 2008, ISBN 0-06-114771-0
- Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground, by Julia E. Sweig, Harvard University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-674-01612-2
- Cuba in Revolution - Escape from a Lost Paradise, by Miguel A. Faria, Hacienda Publishing, 2002, ISBN 0-9641077-3-2 http://www.haciendapublishing.com
- Latin America in the Era of the Cuban Revolution, by Thomas C. Wright, Praeger Paperback, 2000, ISBN 0-275-96706-9
- The Cuban Revolution: Origins, Course, and Legacy, by Marifeli Perez-Stable, Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-19-512749-8
- The Cuban Revolution: Past, Present and Future Perspectives, by Geraldine Lievesley, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004, ISBN 0-333-96853-0
- The Cuban Revolution: Years of Promise, by Teo A. Babun, University Press of Florida, 2005, ISBN 0-8130-2860-4
- The Moncada Attack: Birth of the Cuban Revolution, by Antonio Rafael De LA Cova, University of South Carolina Press, 2007, ISBN 1-57003-672-1
- The Origins of the Cuban Revolution Reconsidered, by Samuel Farber, The University of North Carolina Press, 2006, ISBN 0-8078-5673-8
- The United States and the Origins of the Cuban Revolution, by Jules R. Benjamin, Princeton University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-691-02536-3
External links[link]
- What Cuba's Rebels Want by Fidel Castro, The Nation, 30 November 1957
- The Cuban Revolution (1952–1958) by the Latin American Studies Organization
- Reliving Cuba's Revolution by Michael Voss, BBC, 29 December 2008
- The History of Socialist Revolution in Cuba (1953–1959) from the World History Archives
- Cuba Celebrates 50 years of Revolution by Christian Gutierrez, The Sun, 5 March 2009 Issue
- Memories of Boyhood in the Heat of the Cuban Revolution by Arthur Brice, CNN
- 1959 – 2009 Celebrating 50 years of the Cuban Revolution by the Cuba Solidarity Campaign
- A film clip "Castro Triumphs. Havana Crowds Hail Success Of Revolt, 1959/01/05 (1959)" is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
- A film clip "Castro 'Resigns' Mass Demonstrations Show His Power Secure, 1959/07/20 (1959)" is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
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