Kowloon Walled City
An aerial view of Kowloon Walled City in 1989
Traditional Chinese	九龍城寨
Simplified Chinese	九龙城寨
Transcriptions Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Jiǔlóng Chéng Zhài Cantonese (Yue) - Jyutping gau2 lung4 seng4 zaai6
Original name
Traditional Chinese	九龍寨城
Simplified Chinese	九龙寨城
Transcriptions Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Jiǔlóng Zhài Chéng Cantonese (Yue) - Jyutping gau2 lung4 zaai6 seng4

Kowloon Walled City was a densely populated, largely ungoverned settlement in Kowloon, Hong Kong. Originally a Chinese military fort, the Walled City became an enclave after the New Territories were leased to Britain in 1898. Its population increased dramatically following the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong during World War II. In 1987, the Walled City contained 33,000 residents within its 6.5-acre (0.03 km²; 0.01 sq mi) borders. From the 1950s to the 1970s, it was controlled by Triads and had high rates of prostitution, gambling, and drug use.

In January 1987, the Hong Kong government announced plans to demolish the Walled City. After an arduous eviction process, demolition began in March 1993 and was completed in April 1994. Kowloon Walled City Park opened in December 1995 and occupies the area of the former Walled City. Some historical artifacts from the Walled City, including its yamen building and remnants of its South Gate, have been preserved there.

History[link]

Military outpost[link]

Lung Tsun Stone Bridge and Lung Tsun Pavilion (Pavilion for Greeting Officials) of Kowloon Walled City in 1898.

The history of the Walled City can be traced back to the Song Dynasty (960–1279), when an outpost was set up to manage the trade of salt. Little took place for hundreds of years afterward, although 30 guards were stationed there in 1668.^[1] A small coastal fort was established around 1810.^[2] In 1842, during Qing Emperor Daoguang's reign, Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Nanjing. As a result, the Qing authorities felt it necessary to improve the fort in order to rule the area and check further British influence. The improvements, including the formidable defensive wall, were completed in 1847. The Walled City was captured by rebels during the Taiping Rebellion in 1854 before being retaken a few weeks later.^[1]

1915 map of the Hong Kong region with the Kowloon Walled City listed as "Chinese Town" at the upper right-hand corner.

The Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory of 1898 handed additional parts of Hong Kong (the New Territories) to Britain for 99 years, but excluded the Walled City, which at the time had a population of roughly 700. China was allowed to continue to keep officials there as long as they did not interfere with the defence of British Hong Kong. The following year, the Governor, Sir Henry Blake, suspected that the Viceroy of Canton was using troops to aid resistance to the new arrangements. On 16 May 1899, British forces attacked the Walled City, only to find the Viceroy's soldiers gone, leaving behind only the mandarin and 150 residents.^[1]

Though the British claimed ownership of the Walled City, they did little with it over the following few decades. The Protestant church established an old people's home in the Yamen, as well as a school and almshouse in other former offices. Aside from such institutions, however, the Walled City became a mere curiosity for British colonials and tourists to visit. In 1933, the Hong Kong authorities announced plans to demolish most of the decaying Walled City's buildings, compensating the 436 squatters that lived there with new homes. By 1940 only the Yamen, the school, and one house remained. During its World War II occupation of Hong Kong, Japan demolished the City's wall and used the stone to extend the nearby Kai Tak Airport.^[1]

Urban settlement[link]

After Japan's surrender, China announced its intent to reclaim its rights to the Walled City. Refugees poured in to take advantage of Chinese protection, and 2,000 squatters occupied the Walled City by 1947. After a failed attempt to drive them out in 1948, the British adopted a 'hands-off' policy in most matters concerning the Walled City.^[1]

With no government enforcement from the Chinese or the British save for a few raids by the Hong Kong Police, the Walled City became a haven for crime and drugs. It was only during a 1959 trial for a murder that occurred within the Walled City that the Hong Kong government was ruled to have jurisdiction there. By this time, however, the Walled City was virtually ruled by the organized crime syndicates known as Triads.^[1]

Beginning in the 1950s, Triad groups such as the 14K and Sun Yee On gained a stranglehold on the Walled City's countless brothels, gambling parlors, and opium dens. The Walled City had become such a haven for criminals that police would venture into it only in large groups. It was not until 1973–74, when a series of more than 3,500 police raids resulted in over 2,500 arrests and over 4,000 pounds of seized drugs, that the Triads' power began to wane. With public support, particularly from younger residents, the continued raids gradually eroded drug use and violent crime. In 1983, the police commander of the Kowloon City District declared the Walled City's crime rate to be under control.^[1]

One of the outer edges of the City.

The City also underwent massive construction during the 1960s and 1970s.^[4] Eight municipal pipes provided water to the entire structure (although more could have come from wells).^[5] A few of the streets were illuminated by fluorescent lights, as sunlight rarely reached the lower levels.^[1] Although the rampant crime of earlier decades diminished in later years, the Walled City was still known for its high number of unlicensed doctors and dentists, who could operate there without threat of prosecution.^[6]

Although the Walled City was for many years a hotbed of criminal activity, most residents were not involved in any crime and lived peacefully within its walls. Numerous small factories and businesses thrived inside the Walled City, and some residents formed groups to organize and improve daily life there. An attempt by the government in 1963 to demolish some shacks in a corner of the City gave rise to an "antidemolition committee" that served as the basis for a Kaifong association. Charities, religious societies, and other welfare groups were gradually introduced to the City. While medical clinics and schools went unregulated, the Hong Kong government did provide some services, such as water supply and mail delivery.^[1]

Eviction and demolition[link]

Over time, both the British and the Chinese governments found the City to be increasingly intolerable, despite the low reported crime rate.^{[citation needed]} The quality of life in the City—sanitary conditions in particular—was far behind the rest of Hong Kong. The Sino-British Joint Declaration in 1984 laid the groundwork for the City's demolition.^[1] The mutual decision to tear down the Walled City was announced on 14 January 1987.^[7]

The government spent some HK$2.7 billion (US$350 million) in compensation to the estimated 33,000 residents and businesses in a plan devised by a special committee of the Hong Kong Housing Authority.^[8] Some residents were not satisfied with the compensation, and were forcibly evicted between November 1991 and July 1992.^[9][10] After four months of planning,^[11] demolition of the Walled City began on 23 March 1993^[6] and concluded in April 1994. Construction work on Kowloon Walled City Park started the following month.^[12]

Layout and architecture[link]

Kowloon Walled City

The City's former location within Hong Kong

The Walled City was located in what became known as the Kowloon City area of Kowloon. In spite of its transformation from a fort into an urban enclave, the Walled City retained the same basic layout. The original fort was built on a slope^[13] and consisted of a 6.5-acre (0.3 km²; 0.1 sq mi) plot measuring about 210 by 120 m (700 by 400 ft). The stone wall surrounding it had four entrances and measured 4 m (13 ft) tall and 4.6 m (15 ft) thick before it was dismantled in 1943.^[2][14]

Construction surged dramatically during the 1960s and 1970s, until the formerly low-rise City consisted almost entirely of buildings with 10 stories or more (with the notable exception of the Yamen in its center).^[4][7] However, due to the Kai Tak Airport's position 0.8 km (0.5 mi) south of the City, buildings did not exceed 14 stories.^[15] The two-story Sai Tau Tsuen settlement bordered the Walled City to the south and west until it was cleared in 1985 and replaced with Carpenter Road Park.^[16][17]

The City's dozens of alleyways were often only 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) wide, and had poor lighting and drainage.^[18] An informal network of staircases and passageways also formed on upper levels, which was so extensive that one could travel north to south through the entire City without ever touching solid ground.^[4] Construction in the City went unregulated, and most of the roughly 350 buildings were built with poor foundations and few or no utilities.^[19] Because apartments were so small—about 60% were 23 m² (250 sq ft)—space was maximized with wider upper floors, caged balconies, and rooftop additions.^[7][20][21] Roofs in the City were full of television antennas, clotheslines, water tanks, and garbage, and could be crossed using a series of ladders.^[22][23]

Population[link]

Kowloon Walled City's early population fluctuated between zero and a few hundred, and began growing steadily shortly after World War II. However, there is no accurate population information available for much of the Walled City's later existence. Official census numbers estimated the Walled City's population at 10,004 in 1971 and 14,617 in 1981, but these figures were commonly considered to be much too low. Informal estimates, on the other hand, often mistakenly included the neighboring squatter village of Sai Tau Tsuen.^[18][24]

A thorough government survey in 1987 gave a clearer picture: an estimated 33,000 people resided within the Walled City.^[7] Based on this survey, the Walled City had a population density of approximately 1,255,000/km² (3,249,000/sq mi) in 1987. For comparison, Hong Kong as a whole (itself one of the most densely populated areas on earth) had a population density of about 6,700/km² (17,000/sq mi) as of July 2009.^[25]

Culture[link]

Numerous dental clinics at an edge of the Walled City in 1991

Contrary to what many outsiders believed, most residents of the Walled City behaved similarly to other Hong Kong natives.^[26] In response to difficult living conditions, the residents formed a tightly knit community, helping one another endure various hardships.^[27] Within families, wives often did housekeeping, while grandmothers cared for their grandchildren and other children from surrounding households.^[28] The City's rooftops were an important gathering place, especially for residents who lived on upper floors. Parents used them to relax, and children would play or do homework there after school.^[29]

The Yamen in the heart of the City was also a major social centre, a place for residents to talk, have tea or watch television, and to take classes such as calligraphy. The Old People's Centre also held religious meetings for Christians and others.^[30] Other religious institutions included the Fuk Tak and Tin Hau temples, which were used for a combination of Buddhist, Taoist, and animist practices.^[31]

Kowloon Walled City Park[link]

Lung Nam Pavilion in the southwest corner of the park

The area where the Walled City once stood is now Kowloon Walled City Park (九龍寨城公園), located in today's Kowloon City District. The 31,000 m² (330,000 sq ft) park was completed in August 1995, and opened officially a few months later on 22 December. Construction of the park cost a total of HK$76 million (US$9.8 million).^[12] It is adjacent to Carpenter Road Park.^[32]

The park's design is modeled on Jiangnan gardens of the early Qing Dynasty. It is divided into eight landscape features,^[12] with the fully restored Yamen as its centrepiece. The park's paths and pavilions are named after streets and buildings in the Walled City.^[33] Artifacts from the Walled City, such as five inscribed stones and three old wells, are also on display in the park.^[32]

Remnants of the City's South Gate and its entrance plaques

Components of the park include:

• The Eight Floral Walks, each named after a different plant or flower^[34]
• The Chess Garden, featuring four 3 by 5 m (9.8 by 16 ft) Chinese chessboards^[35]
• The Garden of Chinese Zodiac, containing stone statues of the 12 Chinese zodiac animals^[36]
• The Garden of Four Seasons (named Guangyin Square after the small open area in the Walled City), a 300 m² (3,200 sq ft) garden with plants that symbolize the four seasons^[37]
• The Six Arts Terrace, a 600 m² (6,500 sq ft) wedding area containing a garden and the Bamboo Pavilion^[32]
• The Kuixing Pavilion, including a moon gate framed by two stone tablets and the towering Guibi Rock, which represents Hong Kong's return to China^[38]
• The Mountain View Pavilion, a two-story structure resembling a docked boat that provides a good view of the entire park^[32][39]
• The Lung Tsun, Yuk Tong, and Lung Nam Pavilions^[40]
• The Yamen and the remains of the South Gate (see below).

Declared monuments[link]

Front of the restored Yamen building with one of the original cannons

Children of early 20th century Kowloon Walled City residents playing on the Yamen cannons

The Antiquities and Monuments Office conducted archaeological examinations as the Walled City was being demolished, and several cultural remains were discovered.^[41] Among them were the Walled City's Yamen and remnants of its South Gate, which were officially designated as declared monuments of Hong Kong on 4 October 1996.^[42]

The South Gate had originally served as the Walled City's main entrance. Along with its foundations, other remains included two stone plaques inscribed with "South Gate" and "Kowloon Walled City" from the South Gate and a flagstone path that had led up to it. The foundations of the City's wall and East Gate were also discovered.^[12] The Hong Kong government preserved the South Gate remnants next to a square in front of the Yamen.^[43]

The Yamen building is made up of three halls; originally the middle hall served as the Assistant Magistrate of Kowloon's administrative office, and the rear block was his residence. After the government officials left the area in 1899, it was used for several other purposes, including an old people's home, a refuge for widows and orphans, a school, and a clinic. It was restored in 1996 and is now found near the center of the park.^[44] It contains a photo gallery of the Walled City, and two cannons dating back to 1802 sit at the sides of its entrance.^[33]

Cultural depictions[link]

A few people who spent time in Kowloon Walled City have written accounts of their experiences. Evangelist Jackie Pullinger wrote a 1989 memoir, Crack in the Wall, about her involvement in treating drug addicts within the Walled City.^[46] In his 2004 autobiography Gweilo, Martin Booth describes his exploration of the Walled City as a child in the 1950s.^[47] In addition to such accounts, many authors, game designers, and filmmakers have used the Walled City to convey a sense of oppressive urbanization or unfettered criminality.

In literature, Robert Ludlum's novel The Bourne Supremacy uses the Walled City as one of its settings.^[45] The City appears as a virtual reality environment (described by Steven Poole as an "oasis of political and creative freedom") in William Gibson's Bridge trilogy, and as a contrast with Singapore in his Wired article "Disneyland with the Death Penalty".^[48][49] In the manga Crying Freeman, the titular character's wife travels to the Walled City to master her swordsmanship and control a cursed sword.^[50] The manga Blood+: Kowloon Nights uses the Walled City as the setting for a series of murders.^[51]

The 1984 gangster film Long Arm of the Law features the Walled City as a refuge for gang members before they are gunned down by police.^[47] In the 1988 film Bloodsport, starring Jean-Claude Van Damme, the Walled City is the setting for a martial arts tournament.^[52] The 1992 non-narrative film Baraka features several highly detailed shots of the Walled City shortly before its demolition. The 1993 film Crime Story starring Jackie Chan was partly filmed in the deserted Walled City, and includes real scenes of building explosions.^[53] A walled neighborhood called the Narrows in the 2005 film Batman Begins was inspired by the Walled City.^[54] The 2006 Hong Kong horror film Re-cycle features a decrepit, nightmarish version of the Walled City, complete with tortured souls from which the protagonist must flee.^[55] The anime series Street Fighter II V featured Kowloon Walled City as the location of an underground fighting circuit.

Kowloon Walled City is also featured in several games, including Kowloon's Gate,^[47] Shenmue II^[56] and Call of Duty: Black Ops. Several missions in the Hitman series take place within it. The game Stranglehold, a sequel to the film Hard Boiled, features a version of the Walled City filled with hundreds of Triad members.^[56] In the games Fear Effect and Fear Effect 2, photographs of the Walled City were used as inspiration "for moods, camera angles and lighting."^[57] Concept art for the MMORPG Guild Wars: Factions depicts massive, densely packed structures inspired by the Walled City.^[58] The pen-and-paper RPG Shadowrun includes a crime-ridden, rebuilt version of the Walled City set in 2070.^[59]

See also[link]

	China portal
	Hong Kong portal
	Architecture portal

• Lung Tsun Stone Bridge
• Chungking Mansions, a building in Hong Kong
• History of Hong Kong
• List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong
• List of urban public parks and gardens of Hong Kong
• Shibam, a densely populated city in Yemen of similar nature and construction

References[link]

General

Specific

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Kowloon Walled City or Kowloon Walled City Park

Kowloon Walled City

• Historical, architectural and political overview
• A team's exploration of the City before demolition
• Video clip of the City (Japanese)
• Cross-section image of the City
• What's Left of the Kowloon Walled City on URBANPHOTO

Kowloon Walled City Park

• Official page with map at the LCSD website
• Photographs of the park
• Photographs published by the Daily Mail

Coordinates: 22°19′56.21″N 114°11′25″E / 22.3322806°N 114.19028°E / 22.3322806; 114.19028

"Kowloon" is a transliteration of 九龍. For other transliterations, see 九龍 (disambiguation).

Kowloon 九龍
Location within Hong Kong
Population (2006)
• Total	2,019,533
• Density	43,033/km2 (111,450/sq mi)
Time zone	Hong Kong Time (UTC+8)

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

Kowloon (/ˌkaʊˈluːn/; traditional Chinese: 九龍; jyutping: gau²lung⁴) is an urban area in Hong Kong comprising the Kowloon Peninsula and New Kowloon. It is bordered by the Lei Yue Mun strait in the east, Mei Foo Sun Chuen and Stonecutter's Island in the west, the mountain range including Tate's Cairn and Lion Rock in the north, and Victoria Harbour in the south. It had a population of 2,019,533 and a population density of 43,033/km² in 2006. Kowloon is located north of Hong Kong Island and south of the mainland part of the New Territories. The peninsula's area is approximately 47 km² or 18.1 mi². Together with Hong Kong Island, it contains 48 percent of Hong Kong's total population.

The systematic transcription Kau Lung or Kau-lung was often used in derived place names before World War II, for example Kau-lung Bay instead of Kowloon Bay. Other spellings include Kauloong, Kawloong^[1]

History[link]

Kowloon in 1915

Kowloon Peninsula at dusk

High-rise buildings and former quarry in East Kowloon

Kowloon (including New Kowloon) is an area bounded north by a mountain range. Lion Rock in the middle is one of its peaks

Skyscrapers in West Kowloon

The name Kowloon stems from the nine dragons, a term which refers to eight mountains and a Chinese emperor: Kowloon Peak, Tung Shan, Tate's Cairn, Temple Hill, Unicorn Ridge, Lion Rock, Beacon Hill, Crow's Nest and Emperor Bing (Song Dynasty).^[2]

The part of Kowloon south of Boundary Street, together with Stonecutters Island, was ceded by Qing China to the United Kingdom under the Convention of Peking of 1860. For many years the area remained largely undeveloped, used by the British mainly for tiger-hunting expeditions.^{[citation needed]}

The part of Kowloon north of Boundary Street (New Kowloon) was leased by the British as part of the New Territories in 1898 for 99 years. Within New Kowloon is Kowloon City, which refers to an area where the Kowloon Walled City used to be located. The Kowloon Walled City itself was demolished in 1993. The same area was called 官富場 (Pinyin: Guanfuchang) during the Song Dynasty.

Statutorily, "Kowloon" is used to refer to the area south of Boundary Street and the Stonecutters Island. "New Kowloon" has also remained part of the New Territories.

In modern day culture, however, New Kowloon is often not regarded as part of the New Territories, but as an integral part of the Kowloon urban area on both sides of Boundary Street. For tax purposes, New Kowloon is not considered part of Kowloon and is part of the New Territories, as is reflected in the statutes. Properties in New Kowloon are subject to payment of land leases, as in the New Territories.

Large-scale development of Kowloon began in the early 20th century, with the construction of the Kowloon-Canton Railway and the Kowloon Wharf, but due to Kowloon's close proximity to Kai Tak Airport, building construction was limited by flight paths. As a result, compared to Hong Kong Island, Kowloon has a much lower skyline.^[2] After World War II, Kowloon became extremely congested when slums for refugees from the newly established People's Republic of China gave way to public housing estates, mixed with private residential, commercial and industrial areas.

West Kowloon was once home to a dockyard for the Royal Navy. The area has been reclaimed and is now the site of several developments.

Administration[link]

Kowloon comprises the following districts:

• Kowloon City
• Kwun Tong
• Sham Shui Po
• Wong Tai Sin
• Yau Tsim Mong

Politics[link]

Kowloon covers two geographical constituencies for the Legislative Council of Hong Kong:

• Kowloon East includes Wong Tai Sin and Kwun Tong.
• Kowloon West includes Yau Tsim Mong, Sham Shui Po and Kowloon City.

City landscape[link]

Kowloon Peninsula panorama

See also[link]

Hong Kong portal

• Argyle Street
• List of mountains, peaks and hills in Hong Kong
• Nathan Road
• West Kowloon Cultural District

References[link]

External links[link]

Media related to Kowloon and Kowloon West at Wikimedia Commons

• The West Kowloon Cultural Village website - New Project!
• Cap 1 Sched 4 Area of Kowloon

Coordinates: 22°19′N 114°11′E / 22.317°N 114.183°E / 22.317; 114.183

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2008)

Part of the Great Wall of China, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

9th century BC relief of an Assyrian attack on a walled town

Lugo's Roman walls, Galicia, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

City walls in Ávila, Spain, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Walls of Dubrovnik, Croatia

A city gate with its towers, the defensive walls, and the city ditch from the 13th century in Metz, France.

Defensive wall in Stargard Szczeciński, Poland

Part of the Wall in San Francisco de Campeche, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Defensive wall, Taroudant, Morocco

Model of the Lines of Communication built around London in 1642 at the start of the First English Civil War and demolished at the end of the war in 1647.

Aerial view of Neuf-Brisach (Alsace) with walls and fortifications built by Vauban after 1697.

View of the Berlin Wall

The medieval fortress overlooking the city of Ohrid in the Republic of Macedonia.

Medieval churches visible beyond the Renaissance defensive walls of Famagusta, Cyprus

A defensive wall is a fortification used to protect a city or settlement from potential aggressors. In ancient to modern times, they were used to enclose settlements. Generally, these are referred to as city walls or town walls, although there were also walls, such as the Great Wall of China, Hadrian's Wall, and the metaphorical Atlantic Wall, which extended far beyond the borders of a city and were used to enclose regions or mark territorial boundaries. Beyond their defensive utility, many walls also had important symbolic functions — representing the status and independence of the communities they embraced.

Existing ancient walls are almost always masonry structures, although brick and timber-built variants are also known. Depending on the topography of the area surrounding the city or the settlement the wall is intended to protect, elements of the terrain (e.g. rivers or coastlines) may be incorporated in order to make the wall more effective.

Walls may only be crossed by entering the appropriate city gate and are often supplemented with towers. In the Middle Ages, the right of a settlement to build a defensive wall was a privilege, and was usually granted by the so-called "right of crenellation"^{[citation needed]} on a medieval fortification. The practice of building these massive walls, though having its origins in prehistory, was refined during the rise of city-states, and energetic wall-building continued into the medieval period and beyond in certain parts of Europe.

History[link]

Derawar Wall located in Bahawlpur, Pakistan

From very early history to modern times, walls have been a near necessity for every city. Uruk in ancient Sumer (Mesopotamia) is one of the world's oldest known walled cities. Before that, the city (or rather proto-city) of Jericho in what is now the West Bank had a wall surrounding it as early as the 8th millennium BC.

The Assyrians deployed large labour forces to build new palaces, temples and defensive walls.^[1]

Some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were also fortified. By about 3500 B.C., hundreds of small farming villages dotted the Indus floodplain. Many of these settlements had fortifications and planned streets. The stone and mud brick houses of Kot Diji were clustered behind massive stone flood dykes and defensive walls, for neighboring communities quarreled constantly about the control of prime agricultural land.^[2] Mundigak (c. 2500 B.C.) in present day south-east Afghanistan has defensive walls and square bastions of sun dried bricks.^[3]

Babylon was one of the most famous cities of the ancient world, especially as a result of the building program of Nebuchadnezzar, who expanded the walls and built the Ishtar Gate.

Exceptions were few — notably, ancient Sparta and ancient Rome did not have walls for a long time, choosing to rely on their militaries for defense instead. Initially, these fortifications were simple constructions of wood and earth, which were later replaced by mixed constructions of stones piled on top of each other without mortar.

In Central Europe, the Celts built large fortified settlements known as oppida, whose walls seem partially influenced by those built in the Mediterranean. The fortifications were continuously expanded and improved.

In ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, such as the ancient site of Mycenae (famous for the huge stone blocks of its 'cyclopean' walls). In classical era Greece, the city of Athens built a long set of parallel stone walls called the Long Walls that reached their guarded seaport at Piraeus.

Large tempered earth (i.e. rammed earth) walls were built in ancient China since the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1050 BC), as the capital at ancient Ao had enormous walls built in this fashion (see siege for more info). Although stone walls were built in China during the Warring States (481-221 BC), mass conversion to stone architecture did not begin in earnest until the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD). In terms of China's longest and most impressive fortification, the Great Wall had been built since the Qin Dynasty (221-207 BC), although its present form was mostly an engineering feat and remodeling of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD) during the 15th and 16th centuries. The large walls of Pingyao serve as one example. Likewise, the famous walls of the Forbidden City in Beijing were established in the early 15th century by the Yongle Emperor.

The Romans fortified their cities with massive, mortar-bound stone walls. The most famous of these are the largely extant Aurelian Walls of Rome and the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople, together with partial remains elsewhere. These are mostly city gates, like the Porta Nigra in Trier or Newport Arch in Lincoln.

Apart from these, the early Middle Ages also saw the creation of some towns built around castles. These cities were only rarely protected by simple stone walls and more usually by a combination of both walls and ditches. From the 12th century AD hundreds of settlements of all sizes were founded all across Europe, who very often obtained the right of fortification soon afterwards.

The founding of urban centers was an important means of territorial expansion and many cities, especially in eastern Europe, were founded precisely for this purpose during the period of Eastern Colonisation. These cities are easy to recognise due to their regular layout and large market spaces. The fortifications of these settlements were continuously improved to reflect the current level of military development.

During the Renaissance era, the Venetians raised great walls around cities threatened by the Ottoman empire. Among the finest examples are the walled cities of Nicosia and Famagusta in Cyprus and the fortifications of Candia and Chania in Crete, which still stand to this day.

Composition[link]

At its most simple, a defensive wall consists of a wall enclosure and its gates. For the most part, the top of the walls were accessible, with the outside of the walls having tall parapets with embrasures or merlons. North of the Alps, this passageway at the top of the walls occasionally had a roof.

In addition to this, many different enhancements were made over the course of the centuries:

• City ditch: a ditch dug in front of the walls, occasionally filled with water.
• Gate tower: a tower built next to, or on top of the city gates to better defend the city gates.
• Wall tower: a tower built on top of a segment of the wall, which usually extended outwards slightly, so as to be able to observe the exterior of the walls on either side. In addition to arrow slits, ballistae, catapults and cannons could be mounted on top for extra defence.
• Pre-wall: wall built outside the wall proper, usually of lesser height — the space in between was usually further subdivided by additional walls.
• Additional obstacles in front of the walls.

The defensive towers of west and south European fortifications in the Middle Ages were often very regularly and uniformly constructed (cf. Ávila, Provins), whereas Central European city walls tend to show a variety of different styles. In these cases the gate and wall towers often reach up to considerable heights, and gates equipped with two towers on either side are much rarer. Apart from having a purely military and defensive purpose, towers also played a representative and artistic role in the conception of a fortified complex. The architecture of the city thus competed with that of the castle of the noblemen and city walls were often a manifestation of the pride of a particular city.

Urban areas outside the city walls, so-called Vorstädte, were often enclosed by their own set of walls and integrated into the defense of the city. These areas were often inhabited by the poorer population and held the "noxious trades". In many cities, a new wall was built once the city had grown outside of the old wall. This can often still be seen in the layout of the city, for example in Nördlingen, and sometimes even a few of the old gate towers are preserved, such as the white tower in Nuremberg. Additional constructions prevented the circumvention of the city, through which many important trade routes passed, thus ensuring that tolls were paid when the caravans passed through the city gates, and that the local market was visited by the trade caravans. Furthermore, additional signaling and observation towers were frequently built outside the city, and were sometimes fortified in a castle-like fashion. The border of the area of influence of the city was often partially or fully defended by elaborate ditches, walls and/or hedges. The crossing points were usually guarded by gates or gate houses. These defenses were regularly checked by riders, who often also served as the gate keepers. Long stretches of these defenses can still be seen to this day, and even some gates are still intact. To further protect their territory, rich cities also established castles in their area of influence. A famous example of this practice is the Romanian "Dracula Castle" at Bran/Törzburg, which was intended to protect Kronstadt (today's Braşov).

The city walls were often connected to the fortifications of hill castles via additional walls . Thus the defenses were made up of city and castle fortifications taken together. Several examples of this are preserved, for example in Germany Hirschhorn on the Neckar, Königsberg and Pappenheim, Franken, Burghausen in Oberbayern and many more. A few castles were more directly incorporated into the defensive strategy of the city (e.g. Nuremberg, Zons, Carcassonne), or the cities were directly outside the castle as a sort of "pre-castle" (Coucy-le-Chateau, Conwy and others). Larger cities often had multiple stewards — for example Augsburg was divided into a Reichstadt and a bishopal (clerical) city. These different parts were often separated by their own fortifications.

Chinese and Korean troops assault the Japanese forces of Hideyoshi in the Siege of Ulsan Castle during the Imjin War (1592–1598).

With the development of firearms came the necessity to expand the existing installation, which occurred in multiples stages. Firstly, additional, half-circular towers were added in the interstices between the walls and pre-walls (s.a.) in which a handful of cannons could be placed. Soon after, reinforcing structures — or "bastions" — were added in strategically relevant positions, e.g. at the gates or corners. A well-preserved example of this is the Spitalbastei in Rothenburg or the bastions built as part of the 17th-century walls surrounding Derry, a city in Ulster in the north of Ireland; however, at this stage the cities were still only protected by relatively thin walls which could offer little resistance to the cannons of the time. Therefore new, star forts with numerous cannons and thick earth walls reinforced by stone were built. These could resist cannon fire for prolonged periods of time. However, these massive fortifications severely limited the growth of the cities, as it was much more difficult to move them as compared to the simple walls previously employed — to make matters worse, it was forbidden to build "outside the city gates" for strategic reasons and the cities became more and more densely populated as a result.

Decline[link]

In the wake of city growth and the ensuing change of defensive strategy, focusing more on the defense of forts around cities, most city walls were demolished. Also, the invention of gunpowder rendered walls less effective, as siege cannons could then be used to blast through walls, allowing armies to simply march through. Nowadays, the presence of former city fortifications can often only be deduced from the presence of ditches or parks.

Furthermore, some street names hint at the presence of fortifications in times past, for example when words such as "wall" or "glacis" occur.

In the 19th century, less emphasis was placed on preserving the fortifications for the sake of their architectural or historical value — on the one hand, complete fortifications were restored (Carcassonne), on the other hand many structures were demolished in an effort to modernize the cities. A notable exception in this is the "monument preservation" law by the Bavarian King Ludwig I of Bavaria, which led to the nearly complete preservation of many impressive monuments such as the Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Nördlingen and Dinkelsbühl. The countless small fortified towns in the Franconia region were also preserved as a consequence of this edict.

Modern era[link]

Walls and fortified wall structures were still built in the modern era. They did not, however, have the original purpose of being a structure able to resist a prolonged siege or bombardment.

Berlin's city wall from the 1730s to the 1860s was partially made of wood. Its primary purpose was to enable the city to impose tolls on goods and, secondarily, also served to prevent the desertion of soldiers from the garrison in Berlin.

The Berlin Wall was a different form of wall, in that it did not exclusively serve the purpose of protection of an enclosed settlement. One of its purposes was to prevent the crossing of the Berlin border between the GDR and the West German exclave of west-Berlin.

Defensive walls have been built in Korea along the De-militarised Zone.

In the 20th century and after, many enclaves Jewish settlements in Israel were and are surrounded by fortified walls, as are many parts of Belfast, Northern Ireland by the Belfast Peace Lines.

Additionally, in some countries, different embassies may be grouped together in a single "embassy district," enclosed by a fortified complex with walls and towers — this usually occurs in regions where the embassies run a high risk of being target of attacks. An early example of such a compound was the Legation Quarter in Beijing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Most of these "modern" city walls are made of steel and concrete. Vertical concrete plates are put together so as to allow the least space in between them, and are rooted firmly in the ground. The top of the wall is often protruding and beset with barbed wire in order to make climbing them more difficult. These walls are usually built in straight lines and covered by watchtowers at the corners. Double walls, i.e. two walls with an interstitial "zone of fire" (cf. the Berlin wall) are rare.

The only extant city walls in North America are the historic ones in Old Quebec City, Canada.

See also[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Defensive walls

• List of cities with defensive walls
• List of town walls in England and Wales
• Chinese city wall
• Citadel
• City gate
• Fortification
• List of walls
• Wall
• Stone wall
• Medieval fortification
• Siege
• Murus Gallicus
• Murus Dacicus
• Mural crown

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Monika Porsche: Stadtmauer und Stadtentstehung — Untersuchungen zur frühen Stadtbefestigung im mittelalterlichen Deutschen Reich. - Hertingen, 2000. ISBN 3-930327-07-4
• Defensive Walls in German Wikipedia

Coordinates: 22°16′42″N 114°09′32″E / 22.27833°N 114.15889°E / 22.27833; 114.15889

Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China[note 1] 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區
Flag Emblem
Anthem: March of the Volunteers 《義勇軍進行曲》
View at night from Victoria Peak
Official language(s)		Chinese, English[note 2]
Spoken languages		Cantonese, English
Writing systems		Traditional Chinese, English alphabet
Demonym		Hong Konger
Government		Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China
-	Chief Executive	Donald Tsang
-	Chief Executive-elect	CY Leung
-	Chief Justice	Geoffrey Ma
-	President of the Legislative Council	Jasper Tsang
Legislature		Legislative Council
Establishment
-	Treaty of Nanking	29 August 1842
-	Japanese occupation	25 December 1941 – 15 August 1945
-	Conveyance from British sovereignty to Chinese sovereignty	1 July 1997
Area
-	Total	1,104 km2 (179th) 426 sq mi
-	Water (%)	4.58 (50 km²; 19 mi²)[3]
Population
-	2010 census	7,061,200[4]
-	Density	6,480[5]/km2 (4th) 16,576/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$351.119 billion[6]
-	Per capita	$49,137[6]
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$243.302 billion[6]
-	Per capita	$34,049[6]
Gini (2007)		43.4[7]
HDI (2011)		0.898[8] (very high) (13th)
Currency		Hong Kong dollar (HKD)
Time zone		HKT (UTC+8)
Date formats		yyyy年m月d日 (Chinese) dd-mm-yyyy (English)
Drives on the		left
ISO 3166 code		HK
Internet TLD		.hk and .香港
Calling code		+852

Hong Kong
Chinese	香港
Cantonese Jyutping	Hoeng1gong2
Cantonese Yale	Hēunggóng
Hanyu Pinyin	Xiānggǎng
Literal meaning	Fragrant harbour
Transcriptions Hakka - Romanization Hiông-kóng Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Xiānggǎng - Wade–Giles Hsiang1-kang3 - IPA [ɕjáŋkàŋ] Min - Hokkien POJ Hiong-kang Wu - Romanization shian平kaon上 Cantonese (Yue) - Jyutping Hoeng1gong2 - IPA [hœ̂ːŋkɔ̌ːŋ] - Yale Romanization Hēunggóng
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
Traditional Chinese	香港特別行政區 (or 香港特區)
Simplified Chinese	香港特别行政区 (or 香港特区)
Transcriptions Hakka - Romanization Hiông-kóng Thi̍t-phe̍t Hàng-tsṳn-khî Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Xiānggǎng Tèbié Xíngzhèngqū Min - Hokkien POJ Hiong-kang Te̍k-pia̍t Hêng-chèng-khu Wu - Romanization shian平kaon上 deh入bih入 ghan平tsen去chiu平 Cantonese (Yue) - Jyutping Hoeng1gong2 Dak6bit6 Hang4zing3 Keoi1

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

Full view of Kowloon and Hong Kong. The old Kai Tak Airport can be seen on the left.

The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb Museum located in northwest Kowloon was built in 1969 after the tomb's discovery in 1955.

Hong Kong^{[note 3]} (Chinese: 香港) is one of two special administrative regions (SARs) of the People's Republic of China (PRC), the other being Macau. A city-state^[9] situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea,^[10] it is known for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour. With a land mass of 1,104 km² (426 sq mi) and a population of seven million people, Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated areas in the world.^[11] Hong Kong's population is 95 percent ethnic Chinese and 5 percent from other groups.^[12] Hong Kong's Han Chinese majority originate mainly from the cities of Guangzhou and Taishan in the neighbouring Guangdong province.^[13]

Hong Kong became a colony of the British Empire after the First Opium War (1839–42). Originally confined to Hong Kong Island, the colony's boundaries were extended in stages to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and then the New Territories in 1898. It was occupied by Japan during the Pacific War, after which the British resumed control until 1997, when China resumed sovereignty.^[14][15] The region espoused minimum government intervention under the ethos of positive non-interventionism during the colonial era.^[16] The time period greatly influenced the current culture of Hong Kong, often described as "East meets West",^[17] and the educational system, which used to loosely follow the system in England^[18] until reforms implemented in 2009.^[19]

Under the principle of "one country, two systems", Hong Kong has a different political system from mainland China.^[20] Hong Kong's independent judiciary functions under the common law framework.^[21][22] Hong Kong Basic Law, its constitutional document, stipulates that Hong Kong shall have a "high degree of autonomy" in all matters except foreign relations and military defence, governs its political system.^[23][24] Although it has a burgeoning multi-party system, a small-circle electorate^{[clarification needed]} controls half of its legislature. The Chief Executive of Hong Kong, the head of government, is selected by a Selection Committee / Election Committee with 400 to 1200 members, during the first 20 years.^{[25] [26][27] [28]}

As one of the world's leading international financial centres, Hong Kong has a major capitalist service economy characterised by low taxation and free trade, and the currency, Hong Kong dollar, is the eighth most traded currency in the world.^[29] The lack of space caused demand for denser constructions, which developed the city to a centre for modern architecture and the world's most vertical city.^[30][31] Hong Kong has one of the highest per capita income in the world.^[6] The dense space also led to a highly developed transportation network with public transport travelling rate exceeding 90 percent,^[32] the highest in the world.^[33] Hong Kong has numerous high international rankings in various aspects. For instance, its economic freedom, financial and economic competitiveness, quality of life, corruption perception, Human Development Index, etc., are all ranked highly.^{[34][35][36][37][38][39][40]} According to both UN and WHO estimates, Hong Kong has the second longest life expectancy of any country in the world. ^[41][42]

Etymology[link]

The name "Hong Kong" is an approximate phonetic rendering of the pronunciation of the spoken Cantonese or Hakka name "香港", meaning "fragrant harbour".^[43] Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet – now Aberdeen Harbour or 香港仔 hoeng¹ gong² zai² "Little Hong Kong" – between the Aberdeen Island and the south side of Hong Kong Island, which was one of the first points of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.^[44]

The reference to fragrance may refer to the harbour waters sweetened by the fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River, or to the incense from factories lining the coast to the north of Kowloon, which was stored around Aberdeen Harbour for export before the development of Victoria Harbour.^[43] In 1842, the Treaty of Nanking was signed, and the name Hong Kong was first recorded on official documents to encompass the entirety of the island.^[45]

History[link]

Pre-colonial[link]

Archaeological studies support a human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago, and in Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago.^[46][47][48] Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the two earliest sites of human habitation in the Paleolithic period. It is believed the Three Fathom Cove was a river valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggest cultural differences from the Longshan culture in northern China and settlement by the Che people prior to the migration of the Baiyue.^[49][50] Eight petroglyphs were discovered on surrounding islands, which dated to the Shang Dynasty in China.^[51]

In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China, conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern Liangguang region) and incorporated the territory into imperial China for the first time. Modern Hong Kong is located in Nanhai commandery (modern Nanhai District) and near the ancient capital city Pun Yue.^[52][53][54] The area was consolidated under the kingdom of Nanyue, founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC after the Qin Dynasty collapsed.^[55] When the kingdom was conquered by Emperor Wu of Han in 111 BC, the land was assigned to the Jiaozhi commandery under the Han Dynasty. Archaeological evidence indicates the population increased and early salt production flourished in this time period. Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb in the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built during the Han Dynasty.^[56]