Name	Chinese
Type	Logographic
Languages	Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese
Time	Bronze Age China to present
Fam1	Oracle Bone Script
Iso15924	}}

A Chinese character, also known as Hanzi (汉字 / 漢字; ''hànzì''; literally "Han character"), is a logogram used in writing Chinese ''(hanzi),'' Japanese ''(kanji),'' less frequently Korean ''(hanja),'' and formerly Vietnamese ''(hán tự),'' and other languages. Chinese characters are sometimes known as "sinographs", and the Chinese writing system as "sinography". Chinese characters are the oldest continuously used system of writing in the world.

The precise number of Chinese characters that have been in existence remains a mystery, although a large number of these are rarely used variants accumulated throughout history. Studies carried out in China have shown that full literacy in the Chinese language requires a knowledge of between three and four thousand characters.

In the Chinese writing system, the characters are largely monosyllabic, each corresponding to a spoken syllable with a basic meaning. Words in Mandarin Chinese may be formed by one or more syllables and thus one or more characters. The characters usually correspond to morphemes, that is, to the meanings of these syllables, but this is not systematic. The majority of Chinese words consists of multiple characters. In about 10% of native words the individual syllables do not have a separate meaning, but are nonetheless written as separate characters. Some characters (or perhaps ligatures) represent polysyllabic words, though this is the exception and is generally informal.

Cognates in the various Chinese languages/dialects which have the same or similar meaning but different pronunciations can be written with the same character. Chinese characters have also been used and in some cases continue to be used in other languages, most significantly Japanese (where a single character can represent several spoken syllables), Korean, and Vietnamese. Chinese characters are used both by meaning to represent native words, ignoring the Chinese pronunciation, and by meaning and sound, to represent Chinese loanwords. These foreign pronunciations of Chinese characters are known as Sinoxenic pronunciations, and have been useful in the reconstruction of Ancient Chinese.

History

Precursors

In recent decades, inscriptions have been found on Neolithic pottery in a variety of locations in China, such as Banpo near Xi'an, and on bone and bone marrows at Hualouzi, Chang'an District, Xi'an. These simple, often geometric marks are similar to some of the earliest known Chinese characters, potentially indicating that the history of Chinese writing extends back over six millennia.

However, because these marks occur singly, without any implied context, and because they are generally extremely crude and simple, Qiu Xigui (2000, p. 31) concluded that "we do not have any basis for stating that these constituted writing, nor is there reason to conclude that they were ancestral to Shang Dynasty Chinese characters." Nonetheless, isolated graphs and pictures continue to be found periodically, frequently accompanied by media reports that push back the purported beginnings of Chinese writing by thousands of years. For example, at Damaidi in Ningxia, 3,172 pictorial cliff carvings dating to 6000–5000 BC were discovered, leading to headlines such as "Chinese writing '8,000 years old.'" Similarly, archaeologists report finding a few inscribed symbols on tortoise shells at the Neolithic site of Jiahu in Henan, dated to around 6600–6200 BC, leading to headlines of "'Earliest writing' which was found in China.

In a comment released to the BBC, Professor David Keightley urged caution in the latter instance, pointing to the lack of any direct cultural connection to Shang culture, considering that the Shang Dynasty arose several millennia later. However, in the same BBC article, a supporting argument was provided by Dr Garman Harbottle, of the Brookhaven National Laboratory in New York City, who collaborated with a team of archaeologists at the University of Science and Technology of China in Anhui province in the discovery. Dr Harbottle pointed to the persistence of sign use at different sites along the Yellow River throughout the Neolithic and up to the Shang period, when a complex writing system appears.

One group of sites of interest is the Dawenkou culture sites (2800–2500 BC, only one millennium earlier than the early Shang culture sites, and positioned so as to be plausibly albeit indirectly ancestral to the Shang). There, a few inscribed pottery and jade pieces have been found, one of which combines pictorial elements (resembling, according to some, a sun, moon or clouds, and fire or a mountain) in a stack which brings to mind the compounding of elements in Chinese characters. Major scholars are divided in their interpretation of such inscribed symbols. Some, such as Yu Xingwu, Tang Lan and Li Xueqin, have identified these with specific Chinese characters. Others such as Wang Ningsheng interpret them as pictorial symbols such as clan insignia, rather than writing. But in the view of Wang Ningsheng, "True writing begins when it represents sounds and consists of symbols that are able to record language. The few isolated figures found on pottery still cannot substantiate this point."

Legendary origins

According to legend, Chinese characters were invented by Cangjie (c. 2650 BC), a bureaucrat under the legendary emperor, Huangdi. There are quite a few variations of the legend. One of them tells that Cangjie was hunting on Mount Yangxu (today Shanxi) when he saw a tortoise whose veins caught his curiosity. Inspired by the possibility of a logical relation of those veins, he studied the animals of the world, the landscape of the earth, and the stars in the sky, and invented a symbolic system called ''zì'' (字) — the first Chinese ''characters''. It was said that on the day the characters were born, Chinese heard the devil mourning, and saw crops falling like rain, as it marked the beginning of the world.

Oracle bone script

The oldest Chinese inscriptions that are indisputably writing are the so-called oracle bone script (甲骨文; ''jiǎgǔwén''; literally "shell-bone-script"). These were identified by scholars in 1899 on pieces of bone and turtle shell being sold as medicine, and by 1928, the source of the oracle bones had been traced back to modern Xiaotun (小屯) village at Anyang in Henan Province, where official archaeological excavations in 1928–1937 discovered 20,000 oracle bone pieces, about 1/5th of the total discovered. The inscriptions were records of the divinations performed for or by the royal Shang household. The oracle bone script is a well-developed writing system, attested from the late Shang Dynasty (1200–1050 BC). Only about 1,400 of the 2,500 known oracle bone script logographs can be identified with later Chinese characters and thus be deciphered by paleographers.

Bronze Age: Parallel script forms and gradual evolution

The traditional picture of an orderly series of scripts, each one invented suddenly and then completely displacing the previous one, has been conclusively demonstrated to be fiction by the archaeological finds and scholarly research of the later 20th and early 21st centuries. Gradual evolution and the coexistence of two or more scripts was more often the case. As early as the Shang Dynasty, oracle bone script coexisted as a simplified form alongside the normal script of bamboo books (preserved in typical bronze inscriptions), as well as the extra-elaborate pictorial forms (often clan emblems) found on many bronzes.thumb|left|250px|Left: Bronze fāngzūn (方樽) ritual wine container dated about 1000 BC. The written inscription cast in bronze on the vessel commemorates a [[Shell money|gift of cowrie shells (then used as currency in China) from someone of presumably elite status in Zhou Dynasty society. Right: Bronze fāngyí (方彝) ritual container dated about 1000 BC. A written inscription of some 180 Chinese characters appears twice on the vessel. The written inscription comments on state rituals that accompanied court ceremony, recorded by an official scribe.]] Based on studies of such bronze inscriptions, it is clear that from the Shang Dynasty writing to that of the Western Zhou and early Eastern Zhou, the mainstream script evolved in a slow, unbroken fashion, until taking the form now known as seal script in the late Eastern Zhou in the state of Qin, without any clear line of division. Meanwhile other scripts had evolved, especially in the eastern and southern areas during the late Zhou Dynasty, including regional forms, such as the guwen (“ancient forms”) of the eastern Warring States preserved in the Han Dynasty character dictionary Shuowen Jiezi as variant forms, as well as decorative forms such as bird and insect scripts.

Unification: Seal script, vulgar writing and proto-clerical

Seal script, which had evolved slowly in the state of Qin during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, became standardized and adopted as the formal script for all of China in the Qin Dynasty (leading to a popular misconception that it was invented at that time), and was still widely used for decorative engraving and seals (name chops, or signets) in the Han Dynasty period. However, despite the Qin script standardization, more than one script remained in use at the time. For example, a little-known, rectilinear and roughly executed kind of ''common (vulgar) writing'' had for centuries coexisted with the more formal seal script in the Qin state, and the popularity of this vulgar writing grew as the use of writing itself became more widespread. By the Warring States period, an immature form of clerical script called “early clerical” or “proto-clerical” had already developed in the state of Qin based upon this vulgar writing, and with influence from seal script as well. The coexistence of the three scripts – small seal, vulgar and proto-clerical, with the latter evolving gradually in the Qin to early Han dynasties into clerical script – runs counter to the traditional belief that the Qin Dynasty had one script only, and that clerical script was suddenly invented in the early Han Dynasty from the small seal script.

Han Dynasty

Proto-clerical evolving to clerical

Proto-clerical script, which had emerged by the time of the Warring States period from vulgar Qin writing, matured gradually, and by the early Western Han period, it was little different from that of the Qin. Recently-discovered bamboo slips show the script becoming mature clerical script by the middle-to-late reign of Emperor Wu of the Western Han, who ruled from 141 BC to 87 BC.

Clerical & clerical cursive

Contrary to the popular belief of there being only one script per period, there were in fact multiple scripts in use during the Han period. Although mature clerical script, also called 八分 (bāfēn) script, was dominant at that time, an early type of cursive script was also in use by the Han by at least as early as 24 BC (during the very late Western Han period), incorporating cursive forms popular at the time, well as many elements from the vulgar writing of the Warring State of Qin. By around the time of the Eastern Jin dynasty, this Han cursive became known as 章草 ''zhāngcǎo'' (also known as 隶草 / 隸草 ''lìcǎo'' today), or in English sometimes clerical cursive, ancient cursive, or draft cursive. Some believe that the name, based on 章 ''zhāng'' meaning "orderly", arose because the script was a more orderly form of cursive than the modern form, which emerged during the Eastern Jin Dynasty and is still in use today, called 今草 ''jīncǎo'' or "modern cursive".

Neo-clerical

Around the mid-Eastern Han period,

Semi-cursive

By the late Eastern Han period, an early form of semi-cursive script appeared, developing out of a cursively-written form of neo-clerical script and simple cursive. This semi-cursive script was traditionally attributed to Liu Desheng ca. 147–188 AD, although such attributions refer to early masters of a script rather than to their actual inventors, since the scripts generally evolved into being over time. Qiu gives examples of early semi-cursive script, showing that it had popular origins rather than being purely Liu’s invention.

Written styles

There are numerous styles, or scripts, in which Chinese characters can be written, deriving from various calligraphic and historical models. Most of these originated in China and are now common, with minor variations, in all countries where Chinese characters are used.

The Shang Dynasty oracle bone script and the Zhou Dynasty scripts found on Chinese bronze inscriptions are no longer used; the oldest script that is still in use today is the Seal Script (篆书 / 篆書; ''zhuànshū''). It evolved organically out of the Spring and Autumn period Zhou script, and was adopted in a standardized form under the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang. The seal script, as the name suggests, is now only used in artistic seals. Few people are still able to read it effortlessly today, although the art of carving a traditional seal in the script remains alive; some calligraphers also work in this style.

Scripts that are still used regularly are the "Clerical Script" (隶书 / 隸書; ''lìshū'') of the Qin Dynasty to the Han Dynasty, the Weibei (魏碑; ''wèibēi''), the "Regular Script" (楷书 / 楷書; ''kǎishū''), which is used mostly for printing, and the "Semi-cursive Script" (行书 / 行書; ''xíngshū''), used mostly for handwriting.

The cursive script (草书 / 草書; ''cǎoshū''; literally "grass script") is not in general use, and is a purely artistic calligraphic style. The basic character shapes are suggested, rather than explicitly realized, and the abbreviations are extreme. Despite being cursive to the point where individual strokes are no longer differentiable and the characters often illegible to the untrained eye, this script (also known as ''draft'') is highly revered for the beauty and freedom that it embodies. Some of the simplified Chinese characters adopted by the People's Republic of China, and some of the simplified characters used in Japan, are derived from the cursive script. The Japanese ''hiragana'' script is also derived from this script.

There also exist scripts created outside China, such as the Japanese ''Edomoji'' styles; these have tended to remain restricted to their countries of origin, rather than spreading to other countries like the Chinese scripts.

Wei to Jin period

Regular script

Regular script has been attributed to Zhong Yao, of the Eastern Han to Cao Wei period (ca. 151–230 AD), who has been called the “father of regular script”. However, some scholars postulate that one person alone could not have developed a new script which was universally adopted, but could only have been a contributor to its gradual formation. The earliest surviving pieces written in regular script are copies of Yao's works, including at least one copied by Wang Xizhi. This new script, which is the dominant modern Chinese script, developed out of a neatly-written form of early semi-cursive, with addition of the pause (顿 / 頓; ''dùn'') technique to end horizontal strokes, plus heavy tails on strokes which are written to the downward-right diagonal. Thus, early regular script emerged from a neat, formal form of semi-cursive, which had itself emerged from neo-clerical (a simplified, convenient form of clerical script). It then matured further in the Eastern Jin Dynasty in the hands of the "Sage of Calligraphy", Wang Xizhi, and his son Wang Xianzhi. It was not, however, in widespread use at that time, and most writers continued using neo-clerical, or a somewhat semi-cursive form of it, for daily writing,

Modern cursive

Meanwhile, modern cursive script slowly emerged out of the clerical cursive (''zhāngcǎo'') script during the Cao Wei to Jin period, under the influence of both semi-cursive and the newly emerged regular script. Cursive was formalized in the hands of a few master calligraphers, the most famous and influential of which was Wang Xizhi. However, because modern cursive is so ''cursive'', it is hard to read, and never gained widespread use outside of literary circles.

Dominance and maturation of regular script

It was not until the Southern and Northern Dynasties that regular script rose to dominant status. During that period, regular script continued evolving stylistically, reaching full maturity in the early Tang Dynasty. Some call the writing of the early Tang calligrapher Ouyang Xun (557–641) the first mature regular script. After this point, although developments in the art of calligraphy and in character simplification still lay ahead, there were no more major stages of evolution for the mainstream script.

Modern history

Although most of the simplified Chinese characters in use today are the result of the works moderated by the government of the People's Republic of China in the 1950s and 60s, character simplification predates the republic's formation in 1949. One of the earliest proponents of character simplification was Lu Feikui, who proposed in 1909 that simplified characters should be used in education. In the years following the May Fourth Movement in 1919, many anti-imperialist Chinese intellectuals sought ways to modernise China. In the 1930s and 1940s, discussions on character simplification took place within the Kuomintang government, and a large number of Chinese intellectuals and writers have long maintained that character simplification would help boost literacy in China. In many world languages, literacy has been promoted as a justification for spelling reforms. The People's Republic of China issued its first round of official character simplifications in two documents, the first in 1956 and the second in 1964. In the 1950s and 1960s, while confusion about simplified characters was still rampant, transitional characters that mixed simplified parts with yet-to-be simplified parts of characters together appeared briefly, then disappeared.

"Han unification" was an effort by the authors of Unicode and the Universal Character Set to map multiple character sets of the so-called CJK languages (Chinese/Japanese/Korean) into a single set of unified characters and was completed for the purposes of Unicode in 1991 (Unicode 1.0).

Formation of characters

+ Chinese character classification	Category !! Percentage of characters (approximation)
Phono-semantic compounds	82%
Ideogrammic compounds	13%
Pictograms	4%
Ideograms	Few (less than 1%)
Transformed cognates	Few
Rebus	Few

The earliest known Chinese texts, in the Oracle bone script, display a fully developed writing system, with little difference in functionality from modern characters. It is assumed that the early stages of the development of characters were dominated by pictograms, which were the objects depicted, and ideograms, in which meaning was expressed iconically. The demands of writing full language, including words which had no easy pictographic or iconic representation, forced an expansion of this system, presumably through use of rebus.

The presumed methods of forming characters were first classified c. 100 AD by the Chinese linguist Xu Shen (許慎), whose etymological dictionary ''Shuowen Jiezi'' (说文解字 / 說文解字) divides the script into six categories, the ''liùshū'' (六书 / 六書). While the categories and classification are occasionally problematic and arguably fail to reflect the complete nature of the Chinese writing system, this account has been perpetuated by its long history and pervasive use.

Four percent of Chinese characters are derived directly from individual pictograms, though in most cases the resemblance to an object is no longer clear. Others were derived as ideograms; as compound ideograms, where two ideograms are combined to give a third reading; and as rebuses. But most characters were devised as phono-semantic compounds, with one element to indicate the general category of meaning and the other to suggest the pronunciation. Again, in many cases the suggested sound is no longer accurate. All today are logograms, and are not actually used pictographically or ideographically.

Pictograms

; ''xiàngxíngzì'' Pictograms make up only a small portion of Chinese characters. While characters in this class derive from pictures, they have been standardized, simplified, and stylized to make them easier to write, and their derivation is therefore not always obvious. Examples include ''rì'' for "sun", ''yuè'' for "moon", and ''mù'' for "tree"....

There is no concrete number for the proportion of modern characters that are pictographic in nature; however, Xu Shen (c. 100 AD) estimated that 4% of characters fell into this category.

Ideograms

; ''zhǐshìzì'' Also called ''simple indicatives'' or ''simple ideographs,'' these characters either modify existing pictographs iconically, or are direct iconic illustrations. For instance, by modifying ''dāo,'' a pictogram for "knife", by marking the blade, an ideogram ''rèn'' for "blade" is obtained. Direct examples include ''shàng'' "up" and ''xià'' "down". This category is small.

Ideogrammic compounds

/ ; ''huìyìzì'' Translated literally as ''logical aggregates'' or ''associative compounds,'' these characters symbolically combine pictograms or ideograms to create a third character. For instance, doubling the pictogram ''mù'' "tree" produces ''lín'' "grove", while tripling it produces ''sēn'' "forest". (It is interesting to note (see below) that and both have the same reconstructed Old Chinese final ''*-ǐǝm''.) Similarly, combining ''rì'' "sun" and ''yuè'' "moon", the two natural sources of light, makes ''míng'' "bright". Other commonly cited examples include the characters ''xiū'' "rest", composed of the pictograms ''rén'' "person" and ''mù'' "tree", and also ''hǎo'' "good", composed of the pictograms ''nǚ'' "woman" and ''zǐ'' "son/child".

Xu Shen estimated that 13% of characters fall into this category.

Some scholars flatly reject the existence of this category, opining that failure of modern attempts to identify a phonetic in a compound is due simply to our not looking at ancient "secondary readings", which were lost over time. For example, the character ''ān'' "peace", a combination of "roof" and "woman" , is commonly cited as an ideogrammic compound, purportedly motivated by a meaning such as "all is peaceful with the woman at home". However, there is evidence that 女 was once a polyphone with a secondary reading of ''*an,'' as may be gleaned from the set ''yàn'' "tranquil", ''nuán'' "to quarrel", and ''jiān'' "licentious". Supporting this reasoning is the fact that modern interpretations often neglect archaic forms that were in use when the characters were created.

These arguments notwithstanding, there are some characters that do appear to genuinely belong to this category. It is doubtful that secondary readings can be found for many cases, and the characters , , , , and are all attested in oracle bone script, with the same components as the modern forms.

Further, some modern characters have certainly been coined by this method, such as some chemical names such as 鉑 (platinum, "white metal"), created in 19th century China – see chemical elements in East Asian languages – and the Japanese-coined (kokuji) Chinese characters for SI units for some (but not all) SI units, such as 粁 (米 "meter" + 千 "thousand, kilo-") for kilometer, coined in the late 19th century (Meiji era).

Phono-semantic compounds

/ ; ''xíngshēngzì'' By far the most numerous characters are the phono-semantic compounds, also called ''semantic-phonetic compounds'' or ''pictophonetic compounds''. These characters are composed of two parts: one of a limited set of characters called 'radicals', which are often graphically simplified and which suggests the general meaning of the character, and an existing character pronounced approximately as the new target word.

Examples are ''hé'' "river", ''hú'' "lake", ''liú'' "stream", ''chōng'' "riptide" (or "flush"), ''huá'' "slippery". All these characters have on the left a radical of three short strokes, which is a simplified pictograph for a river, indicating that the character has a semantic connection with water; the right-hand side in each case is a phonetic indicator. For example, in the case of ''chōng'' (Old Chinese ), the phonetic indicator is ''zhōng'' (Old Chinese ), which by itself means "middle". In this case it can be seen that the pronunciation of the character is slightly different from that of its phonetic indicator; this process means that the composition of such characters can sometimes seem arbitrary today. Further, the choice of radicals may also seem arbitrary in some cases; for example, the radical of ''māo'' "cat" is ''zhì'', originally a pictograph for worms, but in characters of this sort indicating an animal of any kind.

Xu Shen (c. 100 AD) placed approximately 82% of characters into this category, while in the Kangxi Dictionary (1716 AD) the number is closer to 90%, due to the extremely productive use of this technique to extend the Chinese vocabulary.

This method is still sometimes used to form new characters, for example ''bù'' "plutonium") is the metal radical ''jīn'' plus the phonetic component ''bù'', described in Chinese as " gives sound, gives meaning". Many Chinese names of elements in the periodic table and many other chemistry-related characters were formed this way.

In occasional cases, a 2-character compound word will share a radical across both characters (use the same radical on both characters), with the radical serving to disambiguate the entire word. A notable example is biwa (a Chinese lute, also a fruit, the loquat, of similar shape) – originally written as 批把 with the hand radical, referring to the down and up strokes when playing this instrument, which was then changed to 枇杷 (tree radical), which is still used for the fruit, while the character was changed to 琵琶 when referring to the instrument. Another example, this one in Japanese, is 醗酵 (fermentation – 酵 is a Japanese kokuji), which shares the wine bottle radical 酉, due to relation of wine to fermentation, though this may also be written 発酵. In other cases a compound word may coincidentally share a radical without this being meaningful.

Transformed cognates

/ ; ''zhuǎnzhùzì'' Characters in this category originally didn't represent the same meaning but have bifurcated through orthographic and often semantic drift. For instance, ''kǎo'' "to verify" and ''lǎo'' "old" were once the same character, meaning "elderly person", but detached into two separate words. Characters of this category are rare, so in modern systems this group is often omitted or combined with others.

Rebus

; ''jiǎjièzì''

Also called ''borrowings'' or ''phonetic loan characters,'' this category covers cases where an existing character is used to represent an unrelated word with similar pronunciation; sometimes the old meaning is then lost completely, as with characters such as ''zì'', which has lost its original meaning of "nose" completely and exclusively means "oneself", or ''wàn'', which originally meant "scorpion" but is now used only in the sense of "ten thousand".

Polysyllabic words and polysyllabic characters

Most Chinese morphemes (not necessarily words) are monosyllabic and are written with a single character. However, a number of basic morphemes are disyllabic, and this dates back to Classical Chinese. Excluding foreign loan words, these are typically words for plants and small animals. Usually the two characters, which may have no independent meaning apart from poetic abbreviation for the disyllabic word, will each have a phonetic for that syllable and share a common radical. Examples are 蝴蝶 ''húdié'' 'butterfly' and 珊瑚 ''shānhú'' 'coral'. Note that the 蝴 ''hú'' of ''húdié'' and the 瑚 ''hú'' of ''shānhú'' have the same phonetic, 胡, but different radicals (''insect'' and ''stone'', respectively). Neither exists as an independent morpheme except as an abbreviation.

With the fusion of the diminutive ''-er'' suffix in Mandarin, monosyllabic words may even be written with two characters, as in 花儿 ''huār'' 'flower'.

On the other hand, compound words and set phrases may be conflated into single characters. Common examples are 圕 ''túshūguǎn'' 'library', a contraction of 圖書館, and 瓩 ''qiānwǎ'' 'kilowatt', a contraction of 千瓦. A four-morpheme word, 社会主义 ''shèhuì zhǔyì'' 'socialism', is commonly written with a single character formed by combining the last character, 义, with the radical of the first, 社. This is not a recent phenomenon; in medieval manuscripts 菩薩 ''púsà'' 'bodhisattva' is sometimes written with a single character formed of four 十. In the Oracle Bone script, personal names and ritual items are commonly contracted into single characters, and although it is discouraged by language planners, in the modern language phrases such as 七十人 ''qīshí rén'' 'seventy people' and 受又(祐) ''shòu yòu'' 'receive blessings' are fused into single characters as well. There are elements here of true logographology, where characters represent whole words rather than syllable-morphemes, though some are phrases rather than words. They might be better seen as ligatures. (See Chinese ligatures.)

Variants

Just as Roman letters have a characteristic shape (lower-case letters mostly occupying the x-height, with ascenders or descenders on some letters), Chinese characters occupy a more or less square area in which the components of every character are written to fit in order to maintain a uniform size and shape, especially with small printed characters in Ming and sans-serif styles. Because of this, beginners often practise writing on squared graph paper, and the Chinese sometimes use the term "Square-Block Characters" (方块字 / 方塊字; ''fāngkuàizì''), sometimes translated as ''tetragraph'', in reference to Chinese characters.

Despite standardization, some nonstandard forms are commonly used, especially in handwriting.

Regional standards

The nature of Chinese characters makes it very easy to produce allographs for many characters, and there have been many efforts at orthographical standardization throughout history. In recent times, the widespread usage of the characters in several different nations has prevented any particular system becoming universally adopted and the standard form of many Chinese characters thus varies in different regions.

Mainland China adopted simplified Chinese characters in 1956. They are also used in Singapore. Traditional Chinese characters are used in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. Postwar Japan has used its own less drastically simplified characters, Shinjitai, since 1946, while South Korea has limited its use of Chinese characters, and Vietnam and North Korea have completely abolished their use in favour of Vietnamese alphabet and Hangul, respectively.

The standard character forms of each region are described in:

The List of Frequently Used Characters in Modern Chinese for Mainland China.

The List of Forms of Frequently Used Characters for Hong Kong.

The Standard Form of National Characters for Taiwan.

The list of Jōyō kanji for Japan.

The Kangxi Dictionary (''de facto'') for Korea.

In addition to strictness in character size and shape, Chinese characters are written with very precise rules. The most important rules regard the strokes employed, stroke placement, and stroke order. Just as each region that uses Chinese characters has standardized character forms, each also has standardized stroke orders, with each standard being different. Most characters can be written with just one correct stroke order, though some words also have many valid stroke orders, which may occasionally result in different stroke counts. Some characters are also written with different stroke orders due to character simplification.

Typography and design

There are three major families of typefaces used in Chinese typography:

Song / Ming

Sans-serif

Regular script

Ming and sans-serif are the most popular in body text and are based on regular script for Chinese characters akin to Western serif and sans-serif typefaces, respectively. Regular script typefaces emulate regular script.

The ''Song'' typeface (宋体 / 宋體; ''sòngtǐ'') is known as the ''Ming'' typeface (明朝; ''minchō'') in Japan, and it is also a bit more prevalent known as the ''Ming'' typeface (明体 / 明體; ''míngtǐ'') over the term ''Song'' typeface in Taiwan and Hong Kong. The names of these styles come from the Song and Ming dynasties, when block printing flourished in China. Because the wood grain on printing blocks ran horizontally, it was fairly easy to carve horizontal lines with the grain. However, carving vertical or slanted patterns was difficult because those patterns intersect with the grain and break easily. This resulted in a typeface that has thin horizontal strokes and thick vertical strokes. To prevent wear and tear, the ending of horizontal strokes are also thickened. These design forces resulted in the current Ming typeface characterized by thick vertical strokes contrasted with thin horizontal strokes; triangular ornaments at the end of single horizontal strokes; and overall geometrical regularity.

Sans-serif typefaces, called black typeface (黑体 / 黑體; ''hēitǐ'') in Chinese and Gothic typeface (ゴシック体) in Japanese, are characterized by simple lines of even thickness for each stroke, akin to sans-serif styles such as Arial and Helvetica in Western typography. This group of typefaces, first introduced on newspaper headlines, is commonly used where legibility and neutrality is desired.

Regular script typefaces are also commonly used, but not as common as Ming or sans-serif typefaces for body text. Regular script typefaces are often used to teach students Chinese characters, and often aim to match the standard forms of the region where they are meant to be used. Most typefaces in the Song Dynasty were regular script typefaces which resembled a particular person's handwriting (e.g. the handwriting of Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, or Liu Gongquan), while most modern regular script typefaces tend toward anonymity and regularity.

Reform

Chinese character simplification is the overall reduction of the number of strokes in the regular script of a set of Chinese characters.

Simplification in China

The use of traditional Chinese characters versus simplified Chinese characters varies greatly, and can depend on both the local customs and the medium. Before the official reform, character simplifications were not officially sanctioned and generally adopted vulgar variants and idiosyncratic substitutions. Orthodox variants were mandatory in printed works, while the (unofficial) simplified characters would be used in everyday writing or quick notes. Since the 1950s, and especially with the publication of the 1964 list, the People's Republic of China has officially adopted simplified Chinese characters for use in mainland China, while Hong Kong, Macau, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) were not affected by the reform. There is no absolute rule for using either system, and often it is determined by what the target audience understands, as well as the upbringing of the writer.

Although most often associated with the People's Republic of China, character simplification predates the 1949 communist victory. Caoshu, cursive written text, almost always includes character simplification, and simplified forms have always existed in print, albeit not for the most formal works. In the 1930s and 1940s, discussions on character simplification took place within the Kuomintang government, and a large number of Chinese intellectuals and writers have long maintained that character simplification would help boost literacy in China. Indeed, this desire by the Kuomintang to simplify the Chinese writing system (inherited and implemented by the Communist Party of China) also nursed aspirations of some for the adoption of a phonetic script, in imitation of the Roman alphabet, and spawned such inventions as the Gwoyeu Romatzyh.

The People's Republic of China issued its first round of official character simplifications in two documents, the first in 1956 and the second in 1964. A second round of character simplifications (known as ''erjian'', or "second round simplified characters") was promulgated in 1977. It was poorly received, and in 1986 the authorities rescinded the second round completely, while making six revisions to the 1964 list, including the restoration of three traditional characters that had been simplified: 叠 ''dié'', 覆 ''fù'', 像 ''xiàng''.

The majority of simplified characters are drawn from conventional abbreviated forms, or ancient standard forms. For example, the orthodox character 來 ''lái'' ("come") was written with the structure 来 in the clerical script (隶书 / 隸書; ''lìshū'') of the Han Dynasty. This clerical form uses one fewer stroke, and was thus adopted as a simplified form. The character 雲 ''yún'' ("cloud") was written with the structure 云 in the oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty, and had remained in use later as a phonetic loan in the meaning of "to say" while the 雨 radical was added to differentiate meanings. The simplified form adopts the original structure.

Japanese kanji

In the years after World War II, the Japanese government also instituted a series of orthographic reforms. Some characters were given simplified forms called ''shinjitai'' 新字体 (lit. "new character forms"; the older forms were then labelled the ''kyūjitai'' 旧字体, lit. "old character forms"). The number of characters in common use was restricted, and formal lists of characters to be learned during each grade of school were established, first the 1850-character ''tōyō kanji'' 当用漢字 list in 1945, and later the 1945-character ''jōyō kanji'' 常用漢字 list in 1981. Many variant forms of characters and obscure alternatives for common characters were officially discouraged. This was done with the goal of facilitating learning for children and simplifying kanji use in literature and periodicals. These are simply guidelines, hence many characters outside these standards are still widely known and commonly used, especially those used for personal and place names (for the latter, see jinmeiyō kanji).

Southeast Asian Chinese communities

Singapore underwent three successive rounds of character simplification. These resulted in some simplifications that differed from those used in mainland China. It ultimately adopted the reforms of the People's Republic of China in their entirety as official, and has implemented them in the educational system. However, unlike in China, personal names may still be registered in traditional characters.

Malaysia started teaching a set of simplified characters at schools in 1981, which were also completely identical to the Mainland China simplifications. Chinese newspapers in Malaysia are published in either set of characters, typically with the headlines in traditional Chinese while the body is in simplified Chinese.

Although in both countries the use of simplified characters is universal among the younger Chinese generation, a large majority of the older Chinese literate generation still use the traditional characters. Chinese shop signs are also generally written in traditional characters.

Comparisons of Traditional, Simplified, and Kanji

The following is a comparison of Chinese characters in the Standard Form of National Characters, a common traditional Chinese standard used in Taiwan; the Xiàndài Hànyǔ Chángyòng Zìbiǎo, the standard for Mainland Chinese simplified Chinese characters; and the jōyō kanji, the standard for Japanese kanji. "Simplified" refers to having significant differences from the Taiwan standard, not necessarily being a newly created character or a newly performed substitution. The characters in the Hong Kong standard and the Kangxi Dictionary are also known as "Traditional," but are not shown. {| class=wikitable style="font-size:200%" |+style="font-size:50%"|Comparisons of traditional Chinese characters, simplified Chinese characters, and simplified Japanese characters in their modern standardized forms |- ! ! style="font-size:50%"|Traditional Chinese ! style="font-size:50%"|Simplified Chinese ! style="font-size:50%"|Japanese Kanji !style="font-size:50%"| meaning |- ! rowspan=11 style="font-size:50%"| Simplified in mainland China, not Japan | | | | style="font-size:50%"|electricity |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|buy |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|open |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|east |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|car, vehicle |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|red (crimson in Japanese) |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|nothing |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|bird |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|hot |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|time |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|language |- ! rowspan=8 style="font-size:50%"| Simplified in Japan, not Mainland China(In some cases this represents the adoptionof different variants as standard) | | | | style="font-size:50%"|Buddha |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|favour |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|moral, virtue |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|kowtow, pray to, worship |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|black |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|ice |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|rabbit |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|jealousy |- ! rowspan=24 style="font-size:50%"| Simplified in Mainland China and Japan,but differently | | | | style="font-size:50%"|listen |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|certificate, proof |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|dragon |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|sell |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|turtle, tortoise |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|age, year |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|art, arts |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|fight, war |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|to close, relationship |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|iron, metal |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|picture, diagram |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|group, regiment |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|turn |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|wide, broad |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|bad, evil |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|abundant |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|brain |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|miscellaneous |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|pressure, compression |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|chicken |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|price |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|fun |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|air |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|hall, office |- ! rowspan=14 style="font-size:50%"| Simplified in Mainland China and Japanin the same way | | | | style="font-size:50%"|sound, voice |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|learn |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|body |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|dot, point |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|cat |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|insect |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|old |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|can (verb); meeting |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|ten-thousand |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|thief |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|treasure |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|country |- | | | | style="font-size:50%"|medicine |}

Dictionaries

Dozens of indexing schemes have been created for arranging Chinese characters in Chinese dictionaries. The great majority of these schemes have appeared in only a single dictionary; only one such system has achieved truly widespread use. This is the system of radicals.

Chinese character dictionaries often allow users to locate entries in several different ways. Many Chinese, Japanese, and Korean dictionaries of Chinese characters list characters in radical order: characters are grouped together by radical, and radicals containing fewer strokes come before radicals containing more strokes. Under each radical, characters are listed by their total number of strokes. It is often also possible to search for characters by sound, using pinyin (in Chinese dictionaries), zhuyin (in Taiwanese dictionaries), kana (in Japanese dictionaries) or hangul (in Korean dictionaries). Most dictionaries also allow searches by total number of strokes, and individual dictionaries often allow other search methods as well.

For instance, to look up the character where the sound is not known, e.g., 松 (pine tree), the user first determines which part of the character is the radical (here 木), then counts the number of strokes in the radical (four), and turns to the radical index (usually located on the inside front or back cover of the dictionary). Under the number "4" for radical stroke count, the user locates 木, then turns to the page number listed, which is the start of the listing of all the characters containing this radical. This page will have a sub-index giving remainder stroke numbers (for the non-radical portions of characters) and page numbers. The right half of the character also contains four strokes, so the user locates the number 4, and turns to the page number given. From there, the user must scan the entries to locate the character he or she is seeking. Some dictionaries have a sub-index which lists every character containing each radical, and if the user knows the number of strokes in the non-radical portion of the character, he or she can locate the correct page directly.

Another dictionary system is the four corner method, where characters are classified according to the "shape" of each of the four corners.

Most modern Chinese dictionaries and Chinese dictionaries sold to English speakers use the traditional radical-based character index in a section at the front, while the main body of the dictionary arranges the main character entries alphabetically according to their pinyin spelling. To find a character with unknown sound using one of these dictionaries, the reader finds the radical and stroke number of the character, as before, and locates the character in the radical index. The character's entry will have the character's pronunciation in pinyin written down; the reader then turns to the main dictionary section and looks up the pinyin spelling alphabetically.

Other languages

Besides Chinese/Sinitic languages, Japanese/Japonic languages, Korean, and Vietnamese language (chữ Nôm), a number of smaller Asian languages have been written or continue to be written using Hanzi, characters modified from Hanzi, or Hanzi in combination with native characters. They include:

Bai language

Dong language

Iu Mien language

Jurchen language, Jurchen script

Khitan language, Khitan script

Miao language

Nakhi (Naxi) language (Geba script)

Tangut language, Tangut script

Zhuang language (using Zhuang logograms, or "sawndip")

Sui script

In addition, the Yi script is similar to Hanzi, but is not known to be directly related to it.

Along with Persian and Arabic, Chinese characters were also used as a foreign script to write the Mongolian language, where characters were used to phonetically transcribe Mongolian sounds. Before the 13th century and the establishment of the Mongolian script, foreign scripts such as Chinese had to be used to write the Mongolian language. Most notably, the only surviving copies of ''The Secret History of the Mongols'' were written in such a manner; the Chinese characters 忙豁侖紐察 脫[卜]察安 (pinyin: mánghuōlúnniǔchá tuō[bo]chá'ān) is the rendering of ''Mongγol-un niγuca tobčiyan'', the title in Mongolian.

Historical spread

The Vietnamese hán tự were first used in Vietnam during the millennium of Chinese rule starting in 111 BC, while adaptation for the vernacular chữ Nôm script (based on Chinese characters) emerged around the 13th century AD.

The oldest known record of the Sawndip characters used by the Zhuang, a non-Han peoples from what is today known as Guangxi, is from a stele dating from 689, which predates the earliest example of Vietnamese chữ Nôm. The Zhuang word for characters used in the Chinese language is "sawgun" (saw ⿰書史 meaning character, and cognate to Chinese 字, and gun 倱 meaning the Han Chinese ethnicity, cognate to 漢), whilst "sawndip" (⿰書史⿰立生; lit. "immature character") refers to the characters used in the Zhuang language.

The Chinese script spread to Korea together with Buddhism from the 7th century (hanja). The Japanese kanji were adopted for recording the Japanese language from the 8th century AD.

Representation of foreign languages

The following is an extract from "ON THE BEST METHOD OF REPRESENTING THE UNASPIRATED MUTES OF THE MANDARIN DIALECT" By Rev. John Gulick. "The inhabitants of other Asiatic nations, who have had occasion to represent the words of their several languages by Chinese characters, have as a rule used unaspirated characters for the sounds, g, d, b. The Muslims from Arabia and Persia have followed this method... The Mongols, Manchu, and Japanese also constantly select unaspirated characters to represent the sounds g, d, b, and j of their languages. These surrounding Asiatic nations, in writing Chinese words in their own alphabets, have uniformly used g, d, b, &e.;, to represent the unaspirated sounds."

Number of Chinese characters

The total number of Chinese characters from past to present remains unknowable because new ones are developed all the time – for instance, brands may create new characters when none of the existing ones allow for the intended meaning. Chinese characters are theoretically an open set and anyone can create new characters as they see fit. Such inventions are however often excluded from officialized character sets. The number of entries in major Chinese dictionaries is the best means of estimating the historical growth of character inventory.

+Number of characters in Chinese dictionaries
! Year	Name of dictionary	Number of characters
! 100	''Shuowen Jiezi''	9,353
! 543?	''Yupian''	12,158
! 601	''Qieyun''	16,917
! 997	''Longkan Shoujian''	26,430
! 1011	''Guangyun''	26,194
! 1039	''Jiyun''	53,525
! 1615	''Zihui''	33,179
! 1675	''Zhengzitong''	33,440
! 1716	''Kangxi Zidian''	47,035
! 1916	''Zhonghua Da Zidian''	48,000
! 1989	''Hanyu Da Zidian''	54,678
! 1994	''Zhonghua Zihai''	85,568
! 2004		106,230

+Number of Chinese characters in non-Chinese dictionaries
! Year	! Country	Name of dictionary	Number of characters
! 2003	Japan	''Dai Kan-Wa jiten''	50,000+
! 2008	South Korea	''Han-Han Dae Sajeon''	53,667

Even the ''Zhonghua Zihai'', fails to be completely comprehensive, as it ignores the roughly 1,500 Japanese-made ''kokuji'' given in the ''Kokuji no Jiten'' as well as the chữ Nôm inventory only used in Vietnam in past days.

Modified radicals and new variants are two common reasons for the ever-increasing number of characters. There are about 300 radicals and 100 are in common use. Creating a new character by modifying the radical is an easy way to disambiguate homographs among ''xíngshēngzì'' pictophonetic compounds. This practice began long before the standardization of Chinese script by Qin Shi Huang and continues to the present day. The traditional 3rd-person pronoun ''tā'' (他 "he; she; it"), which is written with the "person radical", illustrates modifying significs to form new characters. In modern usage, there is a graphic distinction between ''tā'' (她 "she") with the "woman radical", ''tā'' (牠 "it") with the "animal radical", ''tā'' (它 "it") with the "roof radical", and ''tā'' (祂 "He") with the "deity radical", One consequence of modifying radicals is the fossilization of rare and obscure variant logographs, some of which are not even used in Classical Chinese. For instance, ''he'' 和 "harmony; peace", which combines the "grain radical" with the "mouth radical", has infrequent variants 咊 with the radicals reversed and 龢 with the "flute radical".

Chinese

It is usually said that about 2,000 characters are needed for basic literacy in Chinese (for example, to read a Chinese newspaper), and a well-educated person will know well in excess of 4,000 to 5,000 characters. Note that Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words, as the majority of modern Chinese words, unlike their Old Chinese and Middle Chinese counterparts, are multi-morphemic and multi-syllabic compounds, that is, most Chinese words are written with two or more characters; each character representing one syllable. Knowing the meanings of the individual characters of a word will often allow the general meaning of the word to be inferred, but this is not invariably the case.

In the People's Republic of China, which uses simplified Chinese characters, the ''Xiàndài Hànyǔ Chángyòng Zìbiǎo'' (现代汉语常用字表; Chart of Common Characters of Modern Chinese) lists 2,500 common characters and 1,000 less-than-common characters, while the ''Xiàndài Hànyǔ Tōngyòng Zìbiǎo'' (现代汉语通用字表; Chart of Generally Utilized Characters of Modern Chinese) lists 7,000 characters, including the 3,500 characters already listed above. GB2312, an early version of the national encoding standard used in the People's Republic of China, has 6,763 code points. GB18030, the modern, mandatory standard, has a much higher number. The New Hànyǔ Shuǐpíng Kǎoshì (汉语水平考试; Chinese Proficiency Test) proficiency test covers approximately 2,600 characters.

In the Republic of China (Taiwan), which uses traditional Chinese characters, the Ministry of Education's ''Chángyòng Guózì Biāozhǔn Zìtǐ Biǎo'' (常用國字標準字體表; Chart of Standard Forms of Common National Characters) lists 4,808 characters; the ''Cì Chángyòng Guózì Biāozhǔn Zìtǐ Biǎo'' (次常用國字標準字體表; Chart of Standard Forms of Less-Than-Common National Characters) lists another 6,341 characters. The ''Chinese Standard Interchange Code'' (CNS11643)—the official national encoding standard—supports 48,027 characters, while the most widely used encoding scheme, BIG-5, supports only 13,053.

In Hong Kong, which uses traditional Chinese characters, the Education and Manpower Bureau's ''Soengjung Zi Zijing Biu'' (常用字字形表), intended for use in elementary and junior secondary education, lists a total of 4,759 characters.

In addition, there is a large corpus of ''dialect characters'', which are not used in formal written Chinese but represent colloquial terms in non-Mandarin Chinese spoken forms. One such variety is Written Cantonese, in widespread use in Hong Kong even for certain formal documents, due to the former British colonial administration's recognition of Cantonese for use for official purposes. In Taiwan, there is also an informal body of characters used to represent the spoken Hokkien (Min Nan) dialect. Many dialects have specific characters for words exclusive to the dialect, for example, the vernacular character 22px, pronounced ''cii¹¹'' in Hakka, means "to kill". Furthermore, Shanghainese Chinese also has its own series of written text, but these are not widely used in actual texts, Mandarin being the preference for all mainland regions. (For instance, 㑚, 哎垯, and 呒没, all of which are widely known and used by Shanghainese.)

Japanese

In Japanese there are 2,136 ''jōyō kanji'' (, lit. "frequently used kanji") designated by the Japanese Ministry of Education; these are taught during primary and secondary school. The list is a recommendation, not a restriction, and many characters missing from it are still in common use.

The one area where character usage is officially restricted is in names, which may contain only government-approved characters. Since the ''jōyō kanji'' list excludes many characters which have been used in personal and place names for generations, an additional list, referred to as the ''jinmeiyō kanji'' (, lit. "kanji for use in personal names"), is published. It currently contains 983 characters, bringing the total number of government-endorsed characters to 2928. (See also the Names section of the kanji article.)

Today, a well-educated Japanese person may know upwards of 3,500 kanji. The ''kanji kentei'' (, ''Nihon Kanji Nōryoku Kentei Shiken'' or ''Test of Japanese Kanji Aptitude'') tests a speaker's ability to read and write kanji. The highest level of the ''kanji kentei'' tests on 6,000 kanji, though in practice few people attain (or need to attain) this level.

Written Japanese also includes a pair of syllabic scripts known as kana, which are used in combination with kanji. In Japanese, verb and adjective inflections, many small and common grammatical and function words, many loanwords, as well as miscellaneous other words, have no kanji forms and are instead written in kana. Therefore, written communication generally requires the use of kana as well as kanji.

Korean

In times past, until the 15th century, in Korea, Literary Chinese was the dominant form of written communication, prior to the creation of hangul, the Korean alphabet. Much of the vocabulary, especially in the realms of science and sociology, comes directly from Chinese, comparable to Latin or Greek root words in European languages. However due to the lack of tones in Korean, as the words were imported from Chinese, many dissimilar characters took on identical sounds, and subsequently identical spelling in hangul. Chinese characters are sometimes used to this day for either clarification in a practical manner, or to give a distinguished appearance, as knowledge of Chinese characters is considered a high class attribute and an indispensable part of a classical education. It is also observed that the preference for Chinese characters is treated as being conservative and Confucian.

In Korea, 한자 ''hanja'' have become a politically contentious issue, with some Koreans urging a "purification" of the national language and culture by totally abandoning their use. These individuals encourage the exclusive use of the native hangul alphabet throughout Korean society and the end to character education in public schools.

In South Korea, educational policy on characters has swung back and forth, often swayed by education ministers' personal opinions. At times, middle and high school students have been formally exposed to 1,800 to 2,000 basic characters, albeit with the principal focus on recognition, with the aim of achieving newspaper-literacy. Since there is little need to use hanja in everyday life, young adult Koreans are often unable to read more than a few hundred characters.

There is a clear trend toward the exclusive use of hangul in day-to-day South Korean society. Hanja are still used to some extent, particularly in newspapers, weddings, place names and calligraphy. Hanja is also extensively used in situations where ambiguity must be avoided, such as academic papers, high-level corporate reports, government documents, and newspapers; this is due to the large number of homonyms that have resulted from extensive borrowing of Chinese words.

The issue of ambiguity is the main hurdle in any effort to "cleanse" the Korean language of Chinese characters. Characters convey meaning visually, while alphabets convey guidance to pronunciation, which in turn hints at meaning. As an example, in Korean dictionaries, the phonetic entry for 기사 ''gisa'' yields more than 30 different entries. In the past, this ambiguity had been efficiently resolved by parenthetically displaying the associated hanja.

In the modern hangul-based Korean writing system, Chinese characters are no longer used to represent native morphemes.

In North Korea, the government, wielding much tighter control than its sister government to the south, has banned Chinese characters from virtually all public displays and media, and mandated the use of hangul in their place.

Vietnamese

Although now nearly extinct in Vietnam, varying scripts of Chinese characters (''hán tự'') were once in widespread use to write the language, although ''hán tự'' became limited to ceremonial uses beginning in the 19th century. Similarly to Japan and Korea, Chinese (especially Literary Chinese) was used by the ruling classes, and the characters were eventually adapted to write Vietnamese. To express native Vietnamese words which had different pronunciations from the Chinese, Vietnamese developed the chữ Nôm script which used various methods to distinguish native Vietnamese words from Chinese. Vietnamese is currently exclusively written in the Vietnamese alphabet, a derivative of the Latin alphabet.

Modern creation

New characters can in principle be coined at any time, just as new words can be, but they may not be adopted. Significant historically recent coinages date to scientific terms of the 19th century. Specifically, Chinese coined new characters for chemical elements – see chemical elements in East Asian languages – which continue to be used and taught in schools in China and Taiwan. In Japan, in the Meiji era (specifically, late 19th century), new characters were coined for some (but not all) SI units, such as 粁 (米 "meter" + 千 "thousand, kilo-") for kilometer. These kokuji (Japanese-coinages) have found use in China as well – see Chinese characters for SI units for details.

While new characters can be easily coined by writing on paper, they are difficult to represent on a computer – they must generally be represented as a picture, rather than as text – which presents a significant barrier to their use or widespread adoption. Compare with use of symbols as names in American 20th century musical albums such as ''Led Zeppelin IV'' (1971) and ''Love Symbol Album'' (1993) – an album cover may potentially contain any graphics, but in writing and other computation these symbols are difficult to use.

Rare and complex characters

Often a character not commonly used (a "rare" or "variant" character) will appear in a personal or place name in Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese (see Chinese name, Japanese name, Korean name, and Vietnamese name, respectively). This has caused problems as many computer encoding systems include only the most common characters and exclude the less oft-used characters. This is especially a problem for personal names which often contain rare or classical, antiquated characters.

One man who has encountered this problem is Taiwanese politician Yu Shyi-kun (traditional: ; pinyin: ''Yóu Xíkūn''), due to the rarity of the last character in his name. Newspapers have dealt with this problem in varying ways, including using software to combine two existing, similar characters, including a picture of the personality, or, especially as is the case with Yu Shyi-kun, simply substituting a homophone for the rare character in the hope that the reader would be able to make the correct inference. Taiwanese political posters, movie posters etc. will often add the bopomofo phonetic symbols next to such a character. Japanese newspapers may render such names and words in katakana instead of kanji, and it is accepted practice for people to write names for which they are unsure of the correct kanji in katakana instead.

There are also some extremely complex characters which have understandably become rather rare. According to Joël Bellassen (1989), the most complex Chinese character is 25px/𪚥 (U+2A6A5) ''zhé'' , meaning "verbose" and boasting sixty-four strokes; this character fell from use around the 5th century. It might be argued, however, that while boasting the most strokes, it is not necessarily the most complex character (in terms of difficulty), as it simply requires writing the same sixteen-stroke character 龍 ''lóng'' (lit. "dragon") four times in the space for one. Another 64-stroke character is 25px/𠔻 (U+2053B) ''zhèng'' composed of 興 ''xīng/xìng'' (lit. "flourish") four times.

One of the most complex characters found in modern Chinese dictionaries is 齉 (U+9F49) ''nàng'' (pictured below, middle image), meaning "snuffle" (that is, a pronunciation marred by a blocked nose), with "just" thirty-six strokes. However, this is not in common use. The most complex character that can be input using the Microsoft New Phonetic IME 2002a for traditional Chinese is 龘 ''tà'' "the appearance of a dragon walking"; it is composed of the dragon radical represented three times, for a total of 16 × 3 = 48 strokes. Among the most complex characters in modern dictionaries and also in ''frequent modern use'' are 籲 yù "to implore", with 32 strokes; 鬱 yù: "luxuriant, lush; gloomy", with 29 strokes, as in 憂鬱 yōuyù "depressed", with 15 and 29 strokes, respectively; 豔 yàn "colorful", with 28 strokes; and 釁 xìn "quarrel", with 25 strokes, as in 挑釁 tiǎoxìn "to pick a fight". Also in occasional modern use is 鱻 xiān “fresh” (variant of 鮮 xiān) with 33 strokes.

In Japanese, an 84-stroke ''kokuji'' exists—it is composed of three "cloud" (雲) characters on top of the abovementioned triple "dragon" character (龘). Also meaning "the appearance of a dragon in flight", it has been pronounced おとど ''otodo'', たいと ''taito'', and だいと ''daito''.

The most complex Chinese character still in use may be biáng (pictured right, bottom), with 57 strokes, which refers to Biang biang noodles, a type of noodle from China's Shaanxi province. This character along with syllable ''biang'' cannot be found in dictionaries. The fact that it represents a syllable that does not exist in any Standard Chinese word means that it could be classified as a dialectal character.

Chinese calligraphy

The art of writing Chinese characters is called Chinese calligraphy. It is usually done with ink brushes. In ancient China, Chinese calligraphy is one of the Four Arts of the Chinese Scholars. There is a minimalist set of rules of Chinese calligraphy. Every character from the Chinese scripts is built into a uniform shape by means of assigning it a geometric area in which the character must occur. Each character has a set number of brushstrokes; none must be added or taken away from the character to enhance it visually, lest the meaning be lost. Finally, strict regularity is not required, meaning the strokes may be accentuated for dramatic effect of individual style. Calligraphy was the means by which scholars could mark their thoughts and teachings for immortality, and as such, represent some of the more precious treasures that can be found from ancient China.

See also

List of languages written in Chinese characters and derivatives of Chinese characters

Romanization of Chinese

Transcription into Chinese characters

Wiktionary:Chinese total strokes index

Wiktionary:Chinese radical index

Eight Principles of Yong

Character amnesia

Chinese character encoding

Chinese input methods for computers

Chinese numerals, or how to write numbers with Chinese characters

Blissymbols (an international auxiliary logographic script)

Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts

Sinosphere

A Book from the Sky, an attempt by a world-famous artist to create new, meaningless Chinese characters

References

Sources

;Generalities [English translation by Gilbert L. Mattos and Jerry Norman of Wénzìxué Gàiyào 文字學概要, Shangwu, 1988.]

;Ancient characters

Further Reading

External links

;History and construction of Chinese characters

History of Chinese writing

Evolution of Chinese Characters

Zhongwen.com : a searchable dictionary with information about character formation

Chinese character etymologies

Chinese Characters: Explanation of the forms of Chinese Characters; of their ideographic nature. Based on the Shuo Wen, other traditional sources and modern archeological finds.

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Unihan Database: Chinese, Japanese, and Korean references, readings, and meanings for all the Chinese and Chinese-derived characters in the Unicode character set

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Chinese Text Project Dictionary Comprehensive character dictionary including data for all Chinese characters in Unicode, and exemplary usage from early Chinese texts.

Category:Writing systems without word boundaries Category:East Asian culture

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Name	Howard Stern
Birth name	Howard Allan Stern
Birth date	January 12, 1954
Birth place	Jackson Heights, New York City, New York, U.S.
Occupation	Radio personality, television host, author, actor, photographer
Years active	1975–present
Spouse	Alison Berns (1978–2001; div.)Beth Ostrosky (2008–present)
Party	Libertarian during 1994 Governor of New York campaign
Website	www.howardstern.com }}

Howard Allan Stern (born January 12, 1954) is an American radio personality, television host, author, actor, and photographer best known for his radio show, which was nationally syndicated from 1986 to 2005. He gained wide recognition in the 1990s where he was labeled a "shock jock" for his outspoken and sometimes controversial style. Stern has been exclusive to Sirius XM Radio, a subscription-based satellite radio service, since 2006. The son of a former recording and radio engineer, Stern wished to pursue a career in radio at the age of five. While at Boston University he worked at the campus station WTBU before a brief stint at WNTN in Newton, Massachusetts.

He developed his on-air personality when he landed positions at WRNW in Briarcliff Manor, WCCC in Hartford and WWWW in Detroit. In 1981, he was paired with his current newscaster and co-host Robin Quivers at WWDC in Washington, D.C. Stern then moved to WNBC in New York City in 1982 to host afternoons until his firing in 1985. He re-emerged on WXRK that year, and became one of the most popular radio personalities during his 20-year tenure at the station. Stern's show is the most-fined radio program, after the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) issued fines to station licensees for allegedly indecent material that totaled $2.5 million. Stern has won ''Billboard's'' Nationally Syndicated Air Personality of the Year award eight times, and is one of the highest-paid figures in radio.

Stern describes himself as the "King of All Media" for his ventures outside radio. Since 1987, he has hosted numerous late night television shows, pay-per-view events and home video releases. He embarked on a five-month political campaign for Governor of New York in 1994. His two books, ''Private Parts'' (1993) and ''Miss America'' (1995), spent 20 and 16 weeks respectively on ''The New York Times'' Best Seller list. The former was adapted into ''Private Parts'' (1997), a biographical comedy film that starred Stern and his radio show staff that earned $41.2 million in domestic revenue. Stern performs on its soundtrack which topped the ''Billboard'' 200 chart.

Early life and education

Stern was born on January 12, 1954 into a Jewish family who lived in Jackson Heights, Queens in New York City. His parents Ben and Ray (née Schiffman) are children of Austro-Hungarian immigrants, and his sister Ellen is four years older than he. The family moved to the hamlet of Roosevelt on Long Island in 1955, where Stern developed an interest in radio at five years of age. While Ray was a homemaker and later an inhalation therapist, Ben was a co-owner of Aura Recording, Inc., a recording studio in Manhattan where cartoons and commercials were produced. When he made occasional visits with his father, Stern witnessed actors Wally Cox, Don Adams and Larry Storch voice his favorite cartoon characters, which influenced him to later talk on the air rather than play records. Ben was also an engineer at WHOM, a radio station in Manhattan. On completion of sixth grade, Stern left Washington-Rose Elementary School for Roosevelt Junior-Senior High School. In June 1969, the family moved to nearby Rockville Centre and Stern transferred to South Side High School.

Stern spent the first two of four years at Boston University in the College of Basic Studies. In 1973, he started to work at WTBU, the campus radio station where he spun records, read the news, and hosted interviews. He also hosted a comedy program with three fellow students called ''The King Schmaltz Bagel Hour''. Stern gained admission to the School of Public Communications in 1974 and earned a diploma in July 1975 at the Radio Engineering Institute of Electronics in Fredericksburg, Virginia which allowed him to apply for a first class FCC radio-telephone license. With the license, Stern made his professional debut at WNTN in Newton, Massachusetts, performing airshift, newscasting and production duties between August and December 1975. He graduated magna cum laude from Boston University in May 1976 with a degree in Communications and now funds a scholarship at the university.

Career

Early professional radio career (1976–1981)

After his graduation in 1976, Stern declined an offer to work evenings at WRNW, a progressive rock station in Briarcliff Manor, Westchester County, New York. He was unsure of his talent, and questioned his future in the professional industry. Stern took creative and media planning roles at Benton & Bowles, a New York advertising agency, followed by a job in selling radio time to advertisers. He realized the mistake of declining on-air work and contacted WRNW a second time where he agreed to work covering shifts over the Christmas holiday period. Stern was hired full time in 1977 and worked a four-hour midday shift, six days per week a $96 weekly salary. He subsequently worked as the station's production and program director for an increased salary of $250.

In 1979, Stern spotted an advertisement for a "wild, fun morning guy" at rock station WCCC in Hartford, Connecticut. He submitted a more outrageous audition tape with Robert Klein and Cheech and Chong records mixed with flatulence routines and one-liners. Stern was hired with no change in salary with a more intense schedule. After four hours on the air he voiced and produced commercials for another four. On Saturdays, following a six-hour show, he did production work for the next three. As the station's public affairs director he also hosted a Sunday morning talk show which he favoured. In the summer of the 1979 energy crisis, Stern held a two-day boycott of Shell Oil Company which attracted media attention. Stern left WCCC a year later after he was declined a pay increase. Fred Norris, the overnight disc jockey, has been Stern's producer and writer since 1981.

Management at rock outlet WWWW in Detroit, Michigan praised Stern's audition tape in their search for a new morning man. Stern was hired for the job which he started on April 21, 1980. He learned to become more open on the air and "decided to cut down the barriers...strip down all the ego...and be totally honest", he later told ''Newsday''. His efforts earned him a ''Billboard'' award for "Album-Oriented Rock Personality of the Year For a Major Market" and the Drake-Chenault "Top Five Talent Search" title. The station however, ran into problems after Stern's quarterly Arbitron ratings had decreased while it struggled to compete with its stronger rock competitors. In January 1981, WWWW switched to a country music format much to Stern's dislike, who left the station soon after. He received offers to work at WXRT in Chicago and CHUM in Toronto, but did not take them.

Washington and WNBC New York (1981–1985)

Stern moved to Washington, D.C. to host mornings at rock station WWDC on March 2, 1981. He wanted to develop his show further, and looked for a co-worker with a sense of humor to riff with on news and current events. The station paired Stern with Robin Quivers, a newscaster and consumer affairs reporter from WFBR in Baltimore. Though he felt restricted and controlled by management who enforced a strict format, Stern had the second highest rated morning radio program in January 1982. Impressed with his ratings success, Stern was approached by NBC with an offer to work afternoons at WNBC in New York City. After he signed a five-year contract worth $1 million in March, Stern's relationship with WWDC management worsened, and his contract with the station was terminated on June 25. He had more than tripled the station's morning ratings during his stay. In its July issue ''The Washingtonian'' named Stern the area's best disc jockey. Stern released ''50 Ways to Rank Your Mother'', a comedy album of his radio bits. The record was re-released as ''Unclean Beaver'' in November 1994.

On April 2, 1982, a news report by Douglas Kiker on raunch radio featuring Stern aired on ''NBC Magazine''. The piece stimulated discussion among NBC management to withdraw Stern's contract. When he began his afternoon program in September, management closely monitored Stern, telling him to avoid talk of a sexual and religious nature. In his first month, Stern was suspended for several days for "Virgin Mary Kong", a segment featuring a video game where a group of men pursued the Virgin Mary around a singles bar in Jerusalem. An attorney was hired to man a "dump button", and cut Stern off the microphone should potentially offensive areas be discussed. This became the task of program director Kevin Metheny, who Stern nicknamed "Pig Virus". On May 21, 1984, Stern made his first appearance on ''Late Night with David Letterman'', launching him into the national spotlight. A year later he claimed the highest ratings at WNBC in four years with a 5.7% market share.

On September 30, 1985, Stern and Quivers were fired for what management termed "conceptual differences" regarding the show. said program director John Hayes, who Stern nicknamed "The Incubus". In 1992, Stern believed Thornton Bradshaw, chairman of WNBC's owner RCA, heard his "Bestiality Dial-a-Date" segment and ordered his firing. Stern and Quivers kept in touch with their audience throughout October and November where they toured club venues with a stage show.

K-Rock, early television endeavors and Fartman (1985–1992)

Stern signed a contract with Infinity Broadcasting worth around $500,000 and returned to afternoons on its New York rock station WXRK on November 18, 1985. The show moved to mornings on February 18, 1986 and entered national syndication on August 18 when WYSP in Philadelphia first simulcast the program. In the New York market ''The Howard Stern Show'' was the highest-rated morning program for seven consecutive years between 1994 and 2001. In 1994, ''Billboard'' magazine added the "Nationally Syndicated Air Personality of the Year" category to its annual radio awards based on entertainment value, creativity and ratings success. Stern was awarded the title from 1994 to 2002.

In May 1987, Stern recorded five television pilots for Fox when the network planned to replace ''The Late Show'' hosted by Joan Rivers. The series was never picked up; one executive having described the show as "poorly produced", "in poor taste" and "boring". Stern hosted his first pay-per-view event on February 27, 1988 named ''Howard Stern's Negligeé and Underpants Party''. Over 60,000 homes purchased the two-hour special that grossed $1.2 million. On September 7, 1989, over 16,000 fans packed out Nassau Coliseum for ''Howard Stern's U.S. Open Sores'', a live event that featured a tennis match between Stern and his radio show producer, Gary Dell'Abate. Both events were released for home video. From 1990 to 1992, Stern was the host of ''The Howard Stern Show'', a Saturday night program on WWOR-TV. The series ran for 69 episodes to 65 markets nationwide. In February 1991, Stern released ''Crucified by the FCC'', a collection of censored radio segments following the first fine issued to Infinity by the FCC over alleged indecency. He released a third video tape, ''Butt Bongo Fiesta'', in October 1992 that sold 260,000 copies for a gross of over $10 million. He returned to Saturday night television that November with ''The Howard Stern "Interview"'', a one-on-one celebrity interview series on E!.

Stern appeared at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards as Fartman, a fictional superhero that first appeared in the ''National Lampoon'' humor magazine series. According to the trademark he filed for the character that October, he first used Fartman in July 1981. Stern rejected multiple scripts for a proposed summer 1993 release of ''The Adventures of Fartman'' until a verbal agreement was reached with New Line Cinema. Screenwriter J. F. Lawton had prepared a script before relations soured over the film's rating, content and merchandising rights and the project was abandoned.

''Private Parts'', E! show and run for Governor (1993–1994)

In 1993, Stern signed a $1 million advance contract with Simon & Schuster to publish his first book. Co-authored with Larry Sloman and edited by Judith Regan, the release of ''Private Parts'' on October 7 saw its first printing of 225,000 copies being sold within hours of going on sale. It became the fastest-selling title in the history of Schuster after five days. In its eighth printing two weeks later, over one million copies had been distributed. Stern embarked on a book signing tour that attracted an estimated 10,000 fans at a Barnes & Noble store on Fifth Avenue in New York. In its first run, ''Private Parts'' spent 20 weeks on ''The New York Times'' Best-Seller list. Stern has written forewords for ''Steal This Dream'' (1998), a biography of Abbie Hoffman, ''Disgustingly Dirty Joke Book'' (1998) by Jackie Martling, ''Too Fat to Fish'' (2008) by Artie Lange, and ''Dear Mrs. Fitzsimmons: Tales of Redemption from an Irish Mailbox'' (2010) by Greg Fitzsimmons.

Stern hosted his second pay-per-view event, ''The Miss Howard Stern New Year's Eve Pageant'', on December 31, 1993. It broke the subscriber record for a non-sports event previously held by a New Kids on the Block concert in 1990. Around 400,000 households purchased the event that grossed an estimated $16 million. Stern released the program on VHS in early 1994 as ''Howard Stern's New Year's Rotten Eve 1994''. Between his book royalties and pay-per-view profits, Stern's earnings in the latter months of 1993 totalled around $7.5 million. In its 20th anniversary issue in 1993, ''Radio & Records'' named Stern the most influential air personality of the past two decades.

On March 21, 1994, Stern announced his candidacy for Governor of New York under the Libertarian Party ticket, challenging Mario Cuomo for re-election. He planned to reinstate the death penalty, stagger highway tolls to improve traffic flow, and limit road work to night hours. At the party's nomination convention in Albany on April 23, Stern won the required two-thirds majority on the first ballot, receiving 287 of the 381 votes cast (75.33%). James Ostrowski finished second with 34 votes (8.92%). To place his name on the November ballot, Stern was obliged to state his home address and to complete a financial disclosure form under the Ethics in Government Act of 1987. After denying to disclose his financial information, Stern was denied an injunction on August 2. He withdrew his candidacy two days later. Cuomo was defeated in the gubernatorial election on November 8 by George Pataki, who Stern backed. Pataki signed "The Howard Stern Bill" that limited construction on state roads to night hours in New York and Long Island, in 1995.

In June 1994, robotic cameras were installed at WXRK studios to film ''The Howard Stern Show'' for a condensed half-hour show on E!. ''Howard Stern'' ran for 11 years until the last taped episode aired on July 8, 2005. In conjunction with his move to satellite radio, Stern launched Howard Stern on Demand, a subscription video-on-demand service, on November 18. The service was relaunched as Howard TV on March 16, 2006.

''Miss America'' and ''Private Parts'' film (1995–1997)

On April 3, 1995, three days after the shooting of singer Selena, Stern's comments regarding her death and Mexican Americans caused an uproar in the Hispanic community. He criticized her music and gunfire sound effects were played over her songs. "This music does absolutely nothing for me. Alvin and the Chipmunks have more soul...Spanish people have the worst taste in music. They have no depth". On April 6, Stern responded with a statement in Spanish, stressing his comments were made in satire and not intended to hurt those who loved her. A day later, Justice of the Peace Eloy Cano of Harlingen, Texas issued an arrest warrant on Stern for disorderly conduct.

In 1995, Stern signed a deal with ReganBooks worth $3 million to write his second book, ''Miss America''. He wrote about his cybersex experiences on the Prodigy service, a private meeting with Michael Jackson, and his suffering with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Released on November 7, the book sold 33,000 copies at Barnes & Noble stores on the same day which set a new one-day record. ''Publishers Weekly'' reported over 1.39 million copies were sold by the year's end and ranked it the third best-selling book of 1995. ''Miss America'' spent a total of 16 weeks on ''The New York Times'' best-seller list.

Production for a film adaptation of ''Private Parts'' began in May 1996 with all shooting complete in four months. Its premiere was held at The Theatre at Madison Square Garden on February 27, 1997, where Stern performed "The Great American Nightmare" with Rob Zombie. Making its general release on March 7, ''Private Parts'' topped the box office sales in its opening weekend with a gross of $14.6 million, and went on to earn a total of $41.2 million in domestic gross revenue. The film holds a "fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes, a website that aggregates film reviews. 79% of critics gave ''Private Parts'' a positive review based on a sample of 48 reviews, with an average score of 6.6 out of 10. For his performance, Stern won a Blockbuster Entertainment Award for "Favorite Male Newcomer" and was nominated for a Golden Satellite Award for "Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture (Comedy)" and a Golden Raspberry Award for "Worst New Star". The soundtrack to ''Private Parts'' sold 178,000 copies in its first week of release, topping the ''Billboard'' 200 chart.

Stern filed a $1.5 million lawsuit against Ministry of Film Inc. in October 1997, claiming it recruited him for a film titled ''Jane'' starring Melanie Griffith while knowing it had insufficient funds. Stern, who was unpaid when production ceased, accused the studio of breach of contract, fraud and negligent representation. A settlement was reached in 1999 with Stern receiving $50,000.

Return to Saturday night television and productions (1998–2004)

In August 1998, Stern returned to Saturday night television with ''The Howard Stern Radio Show''. Broadcast across the country on CBS affiliates, it featured radio show highlights along with material unseen in his nightly E! show. The show competed for ratings with comedy shows ''Saturday Night Live'' on NBC and ''MADtv'' on Fox. Concerned with its risqué content, affiliates began to leave the show after two episodes. Making its launch on 79 stations on August 22, 1998, this number was reduced to 55 by June 1999. A total of 84 episodes were broadcast. The final re-run aired on November 17, 2001, to around 30 markets.

In 1994, Stern launched the Howard Stern Production Company for original and joint production and development ventures. He intended to make a film adaptation of ''Brother Sam'', the biography of the late comedian Sam Kinison. In September 1999, UPN announced the production of ''Doomsday'', an animated science-fiction comedy series executively produced by Stern. Originally set for a 2000 release, Stern starred as Orinthal, a family dog. The project was eventually abandoned. From 2000 to 2002, Stern was the executive producer of ''Son of the Beach'', a sitcom which ran for three seasons on FX. In late 2001, Howard Stern Productions was reportedly developing a new sitcom titled ''Kane''. The pilot episode was never filmed. In 2002, Stern acquired the rights to comedy films ''Rock 'n' Roll High School'' (1979) and ''Porky's'' (1982). He filed a $100 million lawsuit in March 2003 against ABC and the producers of ''Are You Hot?'', claiming the series was based on his radio segment called "The Evaluators". A settlement was reached on August 7.

Stern announced in early 2004 of talks with ABC to host a prime time interview special, which never materialized. In August 2004, cable channel Spike picked up 13 episodes of ''Howard Stern: The High School Years'', a second animated series Stern was to executive produce. On November 14, 2005, Stern announced the completion of episode scripts and 30 seconds of test animations. Stern eventually gave the project up. In 2007, he explained the episodes could have been produced "on the cheap" at $300,000 each, though the quality he demanded would have cost over $1 million. Actor Michael Cera was cast as the lead voice.

Satellite radio and ''America's Got Talent'' (2004–present)

On October 6, 2004, Stern announced the signing of a five-year contract with Sirius Satellite Radio, a medium free from FCC regulations, that started in January 2006. His decision to leave terrestrial radio occurred in the aftermath of the controversy surrounding the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show in February that caused a crackdown on perceived indecency in broadcasting. The incident prompted tighter control over content by station owners and managers to which Stern felt "dead inside" creatively. Stern hosted his final broadcast on terrestrial airwaves on December 16, 2005. During his 20 years at WXRK his show had syndicated in 60 markets across the United States and Canada and gained a peak audience of 20 million listeners.

With an annual budget of $100 million for all production, staff and programming costs, Stern launched two channels on Sirius in 2005 named Howard 100 and Howard 101. He assembled the Howard 100 News team that covered stories about his show and those associated with it, and a new dedicated studio was constructed at Sirius' headquarters in New York. On January 9, 2006, the day of his first broadcast, Stern and his agent received 34.3 million shares of stock from the company worth $218 million for exceeding subscriber targets set in 2004. A second stock incentive was paid in 2007, with Stern receiving 22 million shares worth $82.9 million.

On February 28, 2006, CBS Radio (formerly Infinity Broadcasting) filed a lawsuit against Stern, his agent and Sirius. The suit claimed Stern had misused CBS broadcast time to promote Sirius for unjust enrichment during the last 14 months of his terrestrial radio contract. In a press conference held hours before the suit was filed, Stern said it was nothing more than a "personal vendetta" against him by CBS president Leslie Moonves. A settlement was reached on May 25, with Sirius paying $2 million to CBS for control of Stern's 20-year broadcast archives. In the same month, ''Time'' magazine included Stern in its Time 100 list. He also ranked seventh in Forbes' Celebrity 100 list in June 2006, and reappeared in 2011 at number 26.

Stern signed a new contract with Sirius to continue his show for five more years in December 2010. Following the agreement, Stern and his agent filed a lawsuit against Sirius on March 22, 2011, for allegedly failing to pay stock bonuses promised to them from the past four years while helping the company exceed subscriber growth targets. Sirius said it was "surprised and disappointed" by the suit. In May, Stern announced that he would be broadcasting on a reduced schedule, alternating between three-day and four-day working weeks. On December 15, 2011, Stern announced that he will replace Piers Morgan as a judge for the seventh season of ''America's Got Talent''. Filming will take place in New York and will start in February 2012.

FCC fines

From 1990 to 2004, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has fined owners of radio stations that carried ''The Howard Stern Show'' a total of $2.5 million for indecent programming.

Personal life

Stern married his first wife, Alison (née Berns), on June 4, 1978 at Temple Ohabei Shalom in Brookline, Massachusetts. They have three daughters: Emily Beth (b. 1983), Debra Jennifer (b. 1986) and Ashley Jade (b. 1993). On October 22, 1999, Stern announced their decision to separate. The marriage ended in 2001 with an amicable divorce and settlement. In 2000, Stern began to date model Beth Ostrosky, co-host of ''Casino Cinema'' from 2004 to 2007. She also frequently appeared in the American edition of ''FHM''. On February 14, 2007 Stern announced their engagement. They married on October 3, 2008, at Le Cirque restaurant in New York City.

While attending Boston University, Stern developed an interest in Transcendental Meditation, which he practices to this day. He credits it with aiding him in quitting smoking and achieving his goals in radio. Stern interviewed the late Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, founder of the technique, twice. Stern also plays on the Internet Chess Club, and has taken lessons from chess master Dan Heisman, although he has recently claimed to have quit playing. Howard's latest passion is photography, where he does private shoots for friends and secured his first paid 'gig' shooting a layout for ''Hamptons'' magazine in July 2011. Stern has also shot photographs for ''WHIRL'' magazine and the North Shore Animal League.

Filmography

Films

{|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%;" border="2" cellpadding="4" background: #f9f9f9; |- align="center" ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Year ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Film ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Role ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Notes |- | 1986 | ''Ryder, P.I.'' | Ben Ben Wah - T.V. Commentator | |- | 1997 | ''Private Parts'' | Himself | Blockbuster Entertainment Award for "Favourite Male Newcomer" (1998) Nominated – Golden Raspberry Award for "Worst New Star" (1998)Nominated – Golden Satellite Award for "Best Male Actor Performance in a Comedy or Musical" (1998) |}

Home video releases

{|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%;" border="2" cellpadding="4" background: #f9f9f9; |- align="center" ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Year ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Title ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Role ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Notes |- | 1988 | ''Howard Stern's Negligeé and Underpants Party'' | rowspan="4"| Himself/Host |- | 1989 | ''Howard Stern's U.S. Open Sores'' | |- | 1992 | ''Butt Bongo Fiesta'' | |- | 1994 | ''Howard Stern's New Year's Rotten Eve 1994'' | |}

Television

{|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%;" border="2" cellpadding="4" background: #f9f9f9; |- align="center" ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Year ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Title ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Role ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Notes |- | 1981 | ''Petey Greene's Washington'' | Himself | |- | 1987 | ''Nightlife'' | Himself | |- | 1984–1993 | ''Late Night with David Letterman'' | Himself | Multiple appearances |- | 1987 | ''The Howard Stern Show'' | Himself - Host | Series of 5 pilot episodes that never aired |- | 1988 | ''The New Hollywood Squares'' | Announcer - Guest | |- | 1990–1992 | ''The Howard Stern Show'' | Himself - Host | |- | 1992 | ''1992 MTV Video Music Awards'' | Fartman | |- | 1992–1993 | ''The Howard Stern "Interview"'' | Himself - Host | |- | 1993 | ''The Larry Sanders Show'' | Himself | Season 2, episode 18 |- | 1993 | ''The Jon Stewart Show'' | Himself | Season 1, episode 1 |- | 1994–2005 | ''Howard Stern'' | Himself - Host | |- | 1997 | ''Saturday Night Live'' | Himself | Season 22, episode 14 |- | 1998 | ''The Magic Hour'' | Himself | |- | 1998 | ''The Roseanne Show'' | Himself | Season 1, episode 54 |- | 1998–2001 | ''The Howard Stern Radio Show'' | Himself - Host |- | 2001 | ''The Concert for New York City'' | Himself |- | 2004 | ''Extra'' | Himself | |- | 2005–present | ''Howard Stern On Demand'' | Himself - Host | Known as ''Howard TV'' since March 2006 |- |2011 | ''Piers Morgan Tonight'' | Himself - Guest | Episode 2 |- |2011 | ''The Daily Show with Jon Stewart'' | Himself - Guest | Season 16, episode 29 |- |2011 | ''The Late Show with David Letterman'' | Himself - Guest | Season 18, episode 3439 |- |2012–present | ''America's Got Talent'' | Himself | New judge, replacing Piers Morgan |}

Discography

{|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%;" border="2" cellpadding="4" background: #f9f9f9; |- align="center" ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Year ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Album ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Label ! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Notes |- | 1982 | ''50 Ways to Rank Your Mother'' | Wren Records | Re-released as ''Unclean Beaver'' (1994) on Ichiban/Citizen X labels |- | 1991 | ''Crucified By the FCC'' | Infinity Broadcasting | |- | 1997 | ''Private Parts: The Album'' | Warner Brothers | ''Billboard'' 200 Number-one album from March 15–21, 1997 |}

Bibliography

References

Sources

External links

Official Website

''The Howard Stern Show'' on Sirius XM Radio

Category:1954 births Category:Living people Category:People from Jackson Heights, Queens Category:Actors from New York City Category:American actor–politicians Category:American actors Category:American comedians Category:American libertarians Category:American people of Austrian-Jewish descent Category:American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent Category:American radio personalities Category:American talk radio hosts Category:American television personalities Category:American television producers Category:American television talk show hosts Category:American writers Category:Boston University alumni Category:Free speech activists Category:Jewish comedians Category:Jewish comedy and humor Category:Obscenity controversies Category:People from Nassau County, New York Category:People self-identifying as substance abusers Category:Photographers from New York Category:Radio personalities from New York City Category:Reality television judges Category:Religious skeptics Category:Sirius Satellite Radio Category:Transcendental Meditation practitioners

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