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The kingdom of God (Greek: βασιλεία τοῦ θεοῦ, Basileia tou Theou^[1]; Latin: Regnum Dei ^[2]) or kingdom of Heaven (Hebrew: מלכות השמים‎, Malkuth haShamayim; Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ουρανῶν, Basileia tōn Ouranōn, Latin: Regnum caelorum^[3]) is a foundational concept in the Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

The term "kingdom of God" is found in all four canonical gospels and in the Pauline epistles. The Gospel of Matthew uses the phrase "kingdom of Heaven" more often, perhaps to avoid offending Jews in the early church^[4] or perhaps simply a translation of the rabbinical expression "Malkut Shamayim".^[5] The term is also found in various writing styles such as parable, beatitude, prayer, miracle story and aphorism.^[6]

English translation[link]

From Hebrew[link]

The related phrase in the Hebrew Bible, "kingdom of Jehovah," is usually rendered "kingdom of the LORD" in English translations of the Bible.^[7] Jehovah and LORD are two ways to express the Tetragrammaton.

From Greek[link]

In the synoptic Gospels, Mark and Luke use the Greek term "Basileia tou Theou", commonly translated in English as "kingdom of God." Matthew, on the other hand, employs the Greek term "Basileia tōn Ouranōn" (Βασιλεία τῶν Ουρανῶν),^[Mt 13:45] which is translated as "kingdom of Heaven" 31 times and "kingdom of God" only 6 times, with "the kingdom" with no qualifier appearing a further ten, and "in my Father's kingdom" once. Some Biblical scholars^[who?] speculate that the Matthean text adopted the Greek word for "heaven" instead of the Greek word for "God" because, unlike Mark and Luke, it was written by a Jew for a Jewish audience. It is a Jewish practice to avoid using God's name as an act of piety. In Matthew, "heaven" stands for "God."^[8][9]

The word “kingdom” is a translation of the Greek word basileia which in turn is a translation of the words malkuth (Hebrew) and malkutha (Aramaic). According to C. H. Dodd, the common translation of malkuth with basileia in Greek and hence kingdom in English is problematic. A translation with “kingship,” "kingly rule," “reign”, “queen”, or “sovereignty” should be preferred.^[10] The Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) states that the word basileia can be translated as "kingship," "kingdom" or "reign".^[11] In contrast, the Hebrew word "malkuth", has a very physical world meaning, implying that the translation "kingdom" may be understood as both realm and a temporal kingdom.^{[citation needed]}

Scholars during the current third quest for the historical Jesus have translated the phrase as "God's imperial rule", or sometimes "God's domain", to better grasp its sense in today's language.^{[citation needed]}

The Jesus Seminar has chosen to translate basileia as "empire". John B. Cobb points out that this has the disadvantage of implying a hierarchical nature to the realm of God, a concept clearly lacking from Jesus thought, in Cobb’s view.^[12] Fr. Richard Chilson, C.S.P., suggests the term "Love's Domain," "Love's Dominion," or "Love's Rule" because the kingdom of God is where the God who is Love rules.^[13] Even with the debate over the translation of the term, modern scholars see the concept of the kingdom of God as the main message of Jesus,^[14] though other scholars see eternal life as the central theme of Jesus' preaching in the Gospel of John.^[15][16][17]

Hebrew Bible[link]

The "kingdom of the LORD" is referred to in the Tanakh (see 1 Chronicles, 1Chronicles 29:10-12 and Daniel 4:3 for example). It is tied to Jewish understanding that God will restore the nation of Israel to the land, following the Abrahamic covenant.

When speaking to Moses on Mount Sinai, God tells Moses that the Israelites "will be for me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation." The priest as king is mentioned in early Judaic writings. "Then Melchizedek king of Salem [Jerusalem] brought out bread and wine. He was priest of God Most High".^[Ex 19:3-6] In Second Chronicles the LORD said, "My Name will remain in Jerusalem forever."^{[2 Chr 33:4]} Cyrus king of Persia agreed and is quoted as saying: " 'The LORD, the God of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth and he has appointed me to build a temple for him at Jerusalem in Judah.^{[2 Chr 36:23]} The prophet Zechariah taught of a king of Jerusalem, stating "Shout, Daughter of Jerusalem! See, your king comes to you, righteous and having salvation, gentle and riding on a donkey.^[Zech 9:9]

Second Temple Judaism[link]

The kingdom of the Lord occurs in the Greek Septuagint where the Hebrew Bible has Solomon reigning over the "kingdom of YHWH."

Hellenistic Judaism, and Alexandria[link]

The phrase "kingdom of God" occurs once in the deuterocanonical books of the "Apocrypha", Wisdom of Solomon (10:10) where Wisdom (personification) shows a straying man "the kingdom of God."^[18][19] This is similar to Philo who refers to "kingdom of God" in a sapiential, wisdom-sense "formed in the image of its archetype the kingdom of God" (On The Special Laws 4:164)^[20]

Palestinian Judaism, and Dead Sea scrolls[link]

In the pseudepigrapha, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs refer to the "kingdom of the Lord" (Testament of Benjamin 9.1)^[21] The "kingdom" in the War Scroll of the Dead Sea scrolls, and other mentions of "kingdom" and "rule" are linked with Messianic expectations, and the establishment of a military-political kingdom on earth.^[22][23]

Aramaic Targums[link]

The Aramaic Targums, paraphrase-translations of the Hebrew Bible for use in Palestinian synagogues, contain several expansions and additional references to "the kingdom of God" not emphasized in the Hebrew Masoretic Text. An example is Targum Neofiti's paraphrase of Exodus 15:18. Where the Hebrew has only "The LORD shall reign for ever and ever", the Aramaic paraphrase has "How the crown of the kingdom (Aramaic "kingdom" malku מַלְכּוּ, corresponds to Hebrew malkut מַלְכוּת) becomes you, O Lord! ... Of the Lord is the kingdom before the world and forever and ever." The turning of Hebrew Bible references to God "reigning" into concrete references to a "kingdom" of God occurs in many Targum passages.^[24]

Rabbinical Judaism[link]

Listings of kingdom references in the Mishnah and subsequent rabbinic literature can be found in Dalman, Words of Jesus, pages 96–101, and Hermann Leberecht Strack, Paul Billerbeck Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch (1965)^[25]

Christianity[link]

Eusebius identified basileia with monarchy while Augustine foresaw a merger of the church and basileia.^[26] Aquinas ignores the concept and it was relatively little discussed by Christian theologians until Johannes Cocceius (1660) and Hermann Samuel Reimarus in the 18th century, during what has become known as the "first quest" for the historical Jesus.^[27][28]

Critical approaches[link]

C. H. Dodd and John Dominic Crossan argued that the “kingdom” was fully manifest in the present teaching and actions of Jesus. Through his words and deeds the "kingdom" was brought into the present reality of Palestine. Dodd coined the term "realized eschatology"^[29] and largely based his argument on Luke 11:20, and Luke 17:21, claiming that "the kingdom of God has come to you" and “the kingdom of God is within you”. Crossan imagined Jesus as a cynic-like peasant who focused on the sapiential aspects of the "kingdom" and not on any apocalyptic conceptions.^[30]

Albert Schweitzer, Rudolf Bultmann, Norman Perrin and Johannes Weiss argued that Jesus’ "kingdom" was intended to be a wholly futuristic kingdom. These scholars looked to the apocalyptic traditions of various Jewish groups existing at the time of Jesus as the basis of their study.^{[31][32][33][34]} In this view, Jesus was an apocalyptic preacher who would bring about the end times and when he did not see the end of the cosmic order coming Jesus embraced death as a tool in which to provoke God into action.

The most common view of the "kingdom" in recent scholarship is to embrace the truths of both these parties─present reality and future manifestation, known as Inaugurated eschatology. Some scholars who take this view are N.T. Wright and G.R. Beasley-Murray. In their views, the “kingdom” that Jesus spoke of will be fully realized in the future but it is also in a process of “in-breaking” into the present. This means that Jesus’ deeds and words have an immediate effect on the “kingdom” even though it was not fully manifested during his life. Even greater attention has been paid to the concept of the “kingdom of God” by scholars during the current third quest for the historical Jesus (with which N.T. Wright is associated).

Another important recent observation on the meaning of the “kingdom” was made by Rudolph Otto who took a feminist approach to the study of Jesus. He claimed that “it is not Jesus who brings the kingdom; on the contrary; the kingdom brings him with it…”^[35] This approach attempts to take Jesus out of the Jesus movement that followed after his death and resurrection; by doing this the communal aspects of the “kingdom” become emphasized and not just the focus on Jesus as a man.

Catholic interpretations[link]

The Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) teaches that the coming Reign of God will be a kingdom of love, peace, and justice.^[36] Justice is defined as a virtue whereby one respects the rights of all persons, living in harmony and equity with all.^[37] The kingdom of God began with Christ's death and Resurrection and must be further extended by Christians until it has been brought into perfection by Christ at the end of time.^[38] The Christian does this by living the way Christ lived, by thinking the way Christ thought,^[36] and by promoting peace and justice.^[39] This can be accomplished by discerning how the Holy Spirit (God) is calling one to act in the concrete circumstances of one's life.^[39] Christians must also pray, asking God for what is necessary to cooperate with the coming of God's kingdom.^[40] Jesus gathered disciples to be the seed and the beginning of God's Reign on earth, and Jesus sent the Holy Spirit to guide them.^[41] Jesus continues to call all people to come together around him^[42] and to spread the kingdom of God across the entire world.^[43] However, the ultimate triumph of Christ's kingdom will not come about until Christ's return to earth at the end of time.^[44] During Christ's second coming, he will judge the living and the dead. Only those who are judged to be righteous and just will reign with Christ forever.^[45] Christ's second coming will also mark the absolute defeat of all evil powers, including Satan.^[46] Until then, the coming of the kingdom will continue to be attacked by evil powers as Christians wait with hope for the second coming of their Savior.^[47] This is why Christians pray to hasten Christ's return by saying to him "Maranatha!" which means "Come, Lord Jesus!".^[48]

According to Fr. William Barry, S.J., we can understand the kingdom of God as God's intention for the universe. God has revealed that God's intention for our world is that all humans live as brothers and sisters, as sons and daughters of God. Our thoughts and actions can either be in tune with God's intention or not. Only by being in tune with God's intention will we ever know true fulfillment or happiness in this life. Prayer, discernment and knowledge of God's revealed Word are needed to discover how one can be in tune with God's intention.^[49]

According to Fr. Daniel J. Harrington, S.J., the kingdom of God primarily refers to the era when Christ comes again to bring the final establishment of God’s rule over all creation, which will include a final judgment where the righteous are rewarded and the wicked are punished. The concept of the kingdom of God offers the goal for Christian life: those who follow the example and teachings of Jesus will be vindicated when the kingdom of God comes and will reign with Christ forever.^[50]

In Biblical scholar John P. Meier's Mentor, Message, and Miracles (A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, v. 2, 1994, pp. 235–506), the 'Message' is the kingdom of God. The book examines that the subject as found in:

• The Old Testament and Pseudepigrapha and at Qumran
• Jesus' proclamation of a future kingdom
• The kingdom proclaimed by Jesus' words and deeds as already present in his ministry (pp. 451-53).

Pope Benedict XVI in his book Jesus of Nazareth, says there are "three dimensions" to the Church Fathers' interpretation of the term kingdom of God. The first, which comes from Origen, is that Jesus is himself the kingdom in person.^[51] The second "sees man's interiority as the essential location of the Kingdom."^[51] This second dimension also comes from Origen. "The third dimension of the interpretation of the kingdom of God we could call the ecclesiastical: the kingdom of God and the Church are related in different ways and brought into more or less close proximity."^[51] That is to say that the Church is the kingdom of God.

Eastern Orthodoxy[link]

Kingdom of Heaven, Russian icon.

Within the theological tradition of the Eastern Orthodox Church the kingdom of God is the future of all humankind and the created world, the world to come, in that God will be in direct communion with the cosmos.

Anabaptists, Early Unitarians, Dissenters[link]

In the Reformation the Radical Reformation of Anabaptists and Early Unitarians, and later Dissenters combined Christian mortalism with eschatological views emphasizing the future aspect of the kingdom of God and the Second Coming. For example the Rev. John Disney in his Reasons for quitting the Church of England (1873) speaks of "the future everlasting kingdom of God".^[52][53]

Pre-millennial approaches[link]

A number of groups take a political/eschatological approach to the kingdom of God emphasizing a physical reign of Jesus Christ on earth after the parousia. These groups often place special emphasis on the role of a restored kingdom of Israel.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints considers the church itself as the kingdom of God on the earth. However, this is limited to a spiritual or ecclesiastical kingdom until the Millennium when Christ will also establish a political kingdom of God. This will have worldwide political jurisdiction when the Lord has made "a full end of all nations" (Doctrine & Covenants 87:6). However, Latter-day Saints believe that this theocratic "kingdom" will in fact be quasi-republican in organization, and will be freely chosen by the survivors of the millennial judgments rather than being imposed upon an unwilling populace.

The Seventh-day Adventist Church accepts the doctrine of the kingdom of God dividing it into two phases. These are the kingdom of Grace which was established immediately after Adam and Eve sinned, and the kingdom of Glory which will be fully established when Christ returns to earth for the second time.

Jehovah's Witnesses[link]

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the kingdom of God is the central theme of the Bible, of Jesus' message while on earth, and of their own door-to-door preaching.^[54] They believe their door-to-door preaching is part of a "sign" before God's kingdom destroys the world's governments, in order to have God's will done on earth as it is in heaven.^[55]

God's kingdom is said to be an actual government, set up by God in heaven, that will rule over the earth after removing all human governments at Armageddon. Jesus Christ initially rules as king of the kingdom, with all authority in heaven and on earth delegated to him by Jehovah, with only God himself having more authority than Jesus. Jesus rules along with 144,000 humans raised to heaven. These are said to be part of the "First Resurrection", as immortal spirit creatures. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus began ruling as king of God's kingdom in 1914, based on their interpretations of biblical chronology.^[56] They believe that the sons of Israel, or biological Jews under the "Law Covenant", were initially given the exclusive privilege of being selected to rule as kings in the kingdom of God, but that they lost this privilege by breaking God's covenant and killing the messiah. The gentiles, or non-Jewish people, were subsequently chosen to fill those kingly positions as "Spiritual Israel" as part of the "New covenant".

Jesus' rulership of the kingdom is to last for one thousand years, during which time earth will be transformed into a paradise.^[57] During that time, righteous and unrighteous humans—excluding those who died at Armageddon or other specific judgments by God—will be resurrected in perfect human bodies, which they call the "Second Resurrection". Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Satan will be imprisoned during the thousand year reign, unable to influence humans. Perfect humans on earth will not get sick or age, but will not be immortal, and will need to eat and breathe in order to keep living.^[58] Humans who do not submit to the kingdom of God during the thousand year reign of Christ will die with no chance of resurrection.

After the thousand year reign, Satan will be released, to tempt the perfect human race a final time. He will convince some to rebel against God and attack those who remain faithful. Jehovah will then destroy Satan and those who take his side, with no hope of resurrection. Jesus will then hand the kingdom over to God, who will then rule forever over the perfect human race in an earthly paradise.

Other Christian viewpoints[link]

Inaugurated eschatology is a term used to describe the belief that the end times (or latter days) were inaugurated at the life, death and resurrection of Jesus. Sometimes called "already and not yet", it argues that the kingdom is already here, but it has yet to be consummated as the world to come. It is a cornerstone doctrine of kingdom theology, popularized in the modern day by George Eldon Ladd. It is espoused by the Vineyard Movement and the Fuller Theological Seminary.

Leo Tolstoy was a fervent Christian anarchist and pacifist. His ideas on nonviolent resistance, expressed in such works as The Kingdom of God Is Within You, were to have a profound impact on such pivotal twentieth-century figures as Gandhi^[59] and Martin Luther King, Jr.

Leading feminist theologians, especially Elizabeth Schussler Fiorenza emphasize the feminine gender of the word basileia and the feminist nature of the early teachings of Jesus and the important and counter-cultural role and contributions of women in the Jesus sect.^[60]

Jesus' use of the phrase "kingdom of God" is believed by the liberation theologians to have been a deliberate but indirect criticism of the Roman system of domination.^{[citation needed]}

Islam[link]

The phrase "kingdom of God" does not occur in the Quran. The modern Arabic word for kingdom is mamlaka (المملكة), but in the Quran mul'kan (مُّلْكًا), which occurs in 4:54 (Yusuf Ali) "Or do they envy mankind for what Allah hath given them of his bounty? but We had already given the people of Abraham the Book and Wisdom, and conferred upon them a great kingdom." and 6:75 (Pickthall) "Thus did We show Abraham the kingdom of the heavens and the earth that he mighty be of those possessing certainty:"

For Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, belief in the "kingdom of God" may refer to the belief in God's absolute dominion over all things. Thus, in Islam every place, all creation, may be considered God's kingdom if those that live there "hold onto good qualities and good actions".^[61]

The notion of God's kingdom on Earth, however, constitutes the establishment of and adherence to Allah's laws within human society, in order to maintain a lasting peace and unity within the lives of the devout, at all levels. These include personal, criminal, state and international levels. As such, some Muslim groups hold the view that the kingdom of God constitutes a caliphate/Imamate, a geographical region unified under the faith of Islam, and Matthew 13:31-33 has been suggested by Islamic scholars to be in fact referring to a caliphate which will be spread across three continents.^{[citation needed]} According to mainstream Islamic beliefs, the Second Coming of Jesus and the arrival of the Mahdi will usher in this ideal caliphate/Imamate, which will put an end to the "tyranny of the Antichrist", and this reign will ensure tranquility and peace for the world.

A third perspective among Muslims is that the kingdom of God is a spiritual concept entirely, rather than a material one. After the Day of Judgment, when Allah judges all humankind based on their deeds, one either goes to hell or to heaven; the latter being the eternal kingdom.^{[citation needed]}

Bahá'í Faith[link]

The term "kingdom of God" appears in the writings of the Bahá'í Faith, including the religious works of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the religion, and his son `Abdu'l-Bahá.^{[62][63][64][65]} In the Bahá'í teachings, the kingdom of God is seen both as a state of individual being, and the state of the world. Bahá'u'lláh claimed that the scriptures of the world's religions foretell a coming messianic figure that will bring a golden age of humanity, the kingdom of God on earth. He claimed to be that figure, and that his teachings would bring about the kingdom of God; he also noted that the prophecies relating to the end times and the arrival of the kingdom of God were symbolic and referred to spiritual upheaval and renewal.^[66] The Bahá'í teachings also state as people perform good deeds they become closer to God spiritually, so that the can attain eternal life and enter the kingdom of God while alive.^[67]

See also[link]

• Apocalypse
• Christian eschatology
• Christ the King
• Eschatology
• Queen of Heaven
• Sermon on the Mount
• Tikkun olam

References and notes[link]

External links[link]

• Catholic Encyclopedia: Kingdom of God
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Kingdom of God
• Strong’s Greek Dictionary
• Kingdom of God related resources
• The Kingdom of God (Bible Study Resources)

Smith Wigglesworth (June 8, 1859 – March 12, 1947), was a British evangelist who was important in the early history of Pentecostalism.

Early life[link]

Smith Wigglesworth was born on June 8, 1859 in Menston, Yorkshire, England, to an impoverished family. As a small child, he worked in the fields pulling turnips alongside his mother; he also worked in factories. During his childhood he was illiterate.

Nominally a Methodist, he became a born again Christian at the age of eight. His grandmother was a devout Methodist; his parents, John and Martha, were not practicing Christians although they took young Smith to Methodist and Anglican churches on regular occasions. He was confirmed by a Bishop in the Church of England, baptized by immersion in the Baptist Church and had the grounding in Bible teaching in the Plymouth Brethren while learning the plumbing trade as an apprentice from a man in the Brethren movement.^[1]

Wigglesworth married Polly Featherstone on May 2, 1882. At the time of their marriage, she was a preacher with the Salvation Army, and had come to the attention of General William Booth. They had one daughter, Alice, and four sons, Seth, Harold, Ernest and George. Polly died in 1913.^[2]

Wigglesworth learned to read after he married Polly; she taught him to read the Bible. He often stated that it was the only book he ever read, and did not permit newspapers in his home, preferring the Bible to be their only reading material.

Wigglesworth worked as a plumber, but he abandoned this trade because he was too busy for it after he started preaching. In 1907 Wigglesworth visited Alexander Boddy during the Sunderland Revival, and following a laying-on of hands from Alexander's wife Mary Boddy he experienced speaking in tongues (glossolalia).^[3] He spoke at some of the Assemblies of God events, though he never joined the denomination.

Ministry[link]

Wigglesworth believed that healing came through faith, and he was flexible about the methods he employed. When he was forbidden to lay hands on audience members by the authorities in Sweden, he preached for a "corporate healing", by which people laid hands on themselves. He also practiced anointing with oil, and the distribution of prayer handkerchiefs (one of which was sent to King George V). Wigglesworth sometimes attributed ill-health to demons.^[4]

Wigglesworth ministered at many churches throughout Yorkshire, often at Bethesda Church on the outskirts of Sheffield, where he claimed to have had many prophecies. He also had an international ministry: as well as Sweden, he ministered in the U.S., Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the Pacific Islands, India, Ceylon, and several countries in Europe. Some of his sermons were transcribed for Pentecostal magazines, and these were collected into two books: Ever Increasing Faith^[5] and Faith that Prevails.

Wigglesworth said he had made a commitment to God that he would not sleep at night before he had won a soul for Christ every day. He claimed that on one occasion he could not sleep because he had not met this commitment, and that he went out into the night and met an alcoholic to whom he spoke and persuaded to become a believer.

Wigglesworth is considered one of the most influential evangelists in the early history of Pentecostalism and is also credited with helping give the movement a large religious audience.

David du Plessis recounted that Wigglesworth prophesied over him that God would pour out his Spirit on the established churches, and that David du Plessis would be greatly involved in it. Later du Plessis was very much involved in the Charismatic movement.

Wigglesworth continued to minister up until the time of his death on March 12, 1947.

Healing[link]

Wigglesworth claimed that God had healed him of appendicitis and much of his ministry was focused on faith healing. There were many miracles attributed to him, some reported in the popular press and in Pentecostal magazines such as 'Confidence' which had been founded by Boddy. Wigglesworth avoided all medical treatment, despite suffering from kidney stones in his later years. These eventually passed naturally. He refused any surgical procedure, and stated that no knife would ever touch his body either in life or death. Wigglesworth was said to have raised several persons from the dead - including his wife Polly,^[6] a man called Mitchell, and a Baptist Pastor's wife, a Mrs. Clarke. His friend and biographer Walter Hibbert adds the claim of a man raised from the dead who had been embalmed and was in a funeral parlour, and Wilson in his biography tells of a woman who, brought into a meeting in a coffin, slapped Wigglesworth's face after being raised up, stating that she had had a far better time in the hereafter.^{[citation needed]} Wigglesworth was said to have raised between three and twenty-three persons from the dead.

References[link]

Sources[link]

• Bickle, Michael. "Smith Wigglesworth Biography". Archived from the original on 2006-05-18. http://web.archive.org/web/20060518010249/http://www.mklangl.com/wigglesworthrbio.html. Retrieved 2006-05-18. 
• Frodsham, Stanley Howard (1948). Smith Wigglesworth: Apostle of Faith. Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing House. 
• Wigglesworth, Smith (1924). Ever Increasing Faith. Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing House. http://www.worldinvisible.com/library/wigglesworth/5f00.0930/5f00.0930.c.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-13. 
• Cartwright, Des. "Life of Smith Wigglesworth". http://www.smithwigglesworth.com/life.htm. Retrieved 2009-11-21. 
• Hibbert, Albert. (1982) Smith Wigglesworth: The Secret of His Power. Harrison House: Tulsa, Oklahoma.
• Sumrall, Lester. "Yes Jesus .TV "Smith wigglesworth"". http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iOfIV53FHWI&feature. Retrieved 2010-12-14. 
• http://www.enterhisrest.org/history/healing_revivalists.pdf

Works[link]

• Ever Increasing Faith. (PDF) 1924. Zao Ministries International.
• Faith That Prevails. 1938. Biblioteca di eVangelo.
• The Smith Wigglesworth Blog; sermons by Wigglesworth

and his website http://www.smithwigglesworth.com

Further reading[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Smith Wigglesworth

• Christian Preservation Society. Wigglesworth bio.
• Colin Melbourne. Smith Wigglesworth (1859-1947) at Born-Again-Christian.Info
• McGee, Gary B. "The Revival Legacy of Smith Wigglesworth." Assemblies of God USA Enrichment Journal
• Pentecostal Pioneers; Smith Wigglesworth and other pioneers with whom he ministered
• Wind and Fire Ministries. Smith Wigglesworth, Spiritual Leader Bio. Cedar Rapids, Iowa.
• Major Smith Wigglesworth Resource; a comprehensive array of Wigglesworth sermons, histories, reports and bibliographies

In the Sioux way of life, Wakan Tanka (Standard Lakota Orthography: Wakȟáŋ Tȟáŋka) is the term for "the sacred" or "the divine". This is usually translated as "The Great Spirit". However, according to Russell Means, its meaning is closer to "Great Mystery" as Lakota spirituality is not monotheistic.

Before their attempted conversion to Christianity, the Sioux used Wakȟáŋ Tȟáŋka to refer to an organization of sacred entities whose ways were mysterious: thus, "The Great Mystery". It is typically understood as the power or the sacredness that resides in everything, similar to many animistic and pantheistic beliefs. This term describes every creature and object as wakȟáŋ ("holy") or having aspects that are wakȟáŋ.^[1]

Wakan Tanka was supposed to have placed the stones and minerals in the ground. They were also supposed to change the seasons and weather, and plants were supposed to have come out of the ground by their hand.^{[citation needed]}

Cognate terms in other Siouan languages[link]

Wakan Tanka or Wakan is also known as Wakanda in the Omaha-Ponca, Ioway-Otoe-Missouri, Kansa and Osage languages; and Wakatakeh in Quapaw. In addition, there is Ho-Chunk Mahanah, Mandan Omahank, and Tutelo Mahomny.

References[link]

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Sons of God (B'nai HaElohim, בני האלהים) is a phrase used in Levantine Bronze and Iron Age texts to describe the "divine council" of the major gods.^{[citation needed]}

The term "sons of God"[link]

In the pantheon of 2nd millennium Ugarit the El, the father-god and head of the pantheon, and the 70 "sons of El", make up a "Divine Council" which deliberates over major decisions. In the 1st millennium the El had been demoted and each of the "sons of El" was held to have been given a "nation" as his charge: Chemosh, for example, was the god of Moab. Yahweh, not originally included in the Ugaritic pantheon, was the God of Judah and of Israel. In the Book of Genesis, Yahweh is seen as the single deity, with "sons of elohim" as his assistants.

By the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC further hypotheses were developed to explain this passage in Genesis. One hypothesis was that the sons of God were the descendants of Seth, the pure line of Adam, and the "daughters of men" as the descendants of Cain.^{[citation needed]}

In the Hebrew Bible the phrase "sons of God" occurs:

• Gen 6:2 b'ney ha-Elohim (בְנֵי־הָֽאֱלֹהִים) sons of the God.
• Job 1:6 b'ney ha-Elohim (בְּנֵי הָאֱלֹהִים) sons of the God.
• Job 38:7 b'ney elohiym (בְּנֵי אֱלֹהִֽים) without the definite article - sons of gods.^[1]
• Psalm 29:1 b'ney elim (בְּנֵי אֵלִים ) without the definite article - sons of elim.

Bronze Age Canaanite origins[link]

In Ugaritic one cognate phrase is bn 'il.^[2] This may occur in the Ugaritic Baal cycle.^[3] Scharbert assigns the text to later editorial activity,^[4] whereas Westermann claims that the text of Genesis 6 is based on an Ugaritic urtext.^[5]

• KTU² 1.40 demonstrates the use of bn il to mean "sons of gods".^[6]
• KTU² 1.65 (which may be a scribal exercise) uses bn il three times in succession: il bn il / dr bn il / mphrt bn il "El, the sons of gods, the circle of the sons of gods / the totality of the sons of gods."^[7]

The phrase bn ilm "sons of the gods" is also attested in Ugaritic texts.^{[8][9][10][11][12]} As is the phrase phr bn ilm "assembly of the sons of the gods".^[13]

History of interpretation of Genesis 6[link]

Second Temple Judaism[link]

In 1 Enoch and Book of Jubilees the Genesis 6 text was developed into a complicated mythology of fallen angels. The 3rd century BC Book of Enoch turns the "sons of God" into fallen angels, referred to as Watchers, who came to earth and had children with human women, resulting in a race of half-angel, half-human beings known as the "Giants" (Nephilim).^{[citation needed]} The view is found in Philo^[14] and in Josephus Antiquities 1:73 (or 1:3.1).^[15]

In the 1st century, CE Rabbi Shimeon ben Yochai pronounced a curse on any Jew teaching the Enochite interpretation^{[citation needed]}, and later, Trypho the Jew^[16] rejected the interpretation. This was followed by Rashi and Nachmanides. Some commentators^[17] on Luke 20:34-36 believe that Jesus was also familiar with the Enochic interpretation, and can be counted with Shimeon ben Yochai, since Jesus rejected that angels could marry and in the same passage equated the "sons of God" with humans.

Early Christianity[link]

The pseudepigraphic Epistle of Barnabas 4:3 appears to accept the Enochic version.^[18] As do Justin Martyr, Eusebius, Clement of Alexandria, Origen and Commodianus.^[19]

Against this first Julius Africanus, then Augustine in City of God, argued that the sons of God were the descendants of Seth, the pure line of Adam, and the "daughters of men" as the descendants of Cain.^[20]

Some manuscripts of the Septuagint have emendations to read "sons of God" as "angels" in Genesis 6. Codex Vaticanus contains "angels" originally. In Codex Alexandrinus "sons of God" has been erased and replaced by "angels".^[21] The Peshitta reads "sons of God".^[22] The 5th century Christian work Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan follows this view.

Popular culture[link]

• Sons of God - A short video trilogy by British independent film producers Jaffa Entertainment, 2010.^[23]
• Sons of God MC - A Christian motorcycle club which is loosely affiliated with the Hells Angels in North America.^[24]

See also[link]

• Watcher (angel)
• Nephilim
• Son of God

References[link]

External links[link]

• Catholic Encyclopedia: Son of God
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Son of God

Dr. Henry Walton "Indiana" Jones, Jr.^[12] is a fictional character and the protagonist of the Indiana Jones franchise. George Lucas and Steven Spielberg created the character in homage to the action heroes of 1930s film serials. The character first appeared in the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark, to be followed by Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom in 1984, Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade in 1989, The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles from 1992 to 1996, and Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull in 2008. Alongside the more widely known films and television programs, the character is also featured in novels, comics, video games, and other media. Jones is also featured in the theme park attraction Indiana Jones Adventure, which exists in similar forms at Disneyland and Tokyo DisneySea.

Jones is most famously played by Harrison Ford and has also been portrayed by River Phoenix (as the young Jones in The Last Crusade), and in the television series The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles by Corey Carrier, Sean Patrick Flanery, and George Hall. Doug Lee has supplied Jones's voice to two LucasArts video games, Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis and Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine, while David Esch supplied his voice to Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb and John Armstrong in Indiana Jones and the Staff of Kings^[13].

Particularly notable facets of the character include his iconic look (bullwhip, fedora, and leather jacket), sense of humor, deep knowledge of many ancient civilizations and languages, and fear of snakes.

Indiana Jones remains one of cinema's most revered movie characters. In 2003, he was ranked as the second greatest movie hero of all time by the American Film Institute.^[14] He was also named the sixth greatest movie character by Empire magazine.^[15] Entertainment Weekly ranked Indy 2nd on their list of The All-Time Coolest Heroes in Pop Culture.^[16] Premiere magazine also placed Indy at number 7 on their list of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time.^[17] Since his first appearance in Raiders of the Lost Ark, he has become a worldwide star. On their list of the 100 Greatest Fictional Characters, Fandomania.com ranked Indy at number 10.^[18] In 2010, he ranked #2 on Time Magazine's list of the greatest fictional characters of all time, surpassed only by Sherlock Holmes.^{[citation needed]}

Appearances[link]

Indiana Jones is from Princeton, NJ and was first introduced in the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark, set in 1936. The character is presented as an adventurer reminiscent of the 1930s film serial treasure hunters and pulp action heroes, whose research is funded by Marshall College (named after producer Frank Marshall)^[19] a fictional college in Connecticut, where he is a professor of archaeology. In this first adventure, he is pitted against the Nazis, traveling the world to prevent them from recovering the Ark of the Covenant (see also Biblical archaeology). He is aided by Marion Ravenwood and Sallah. The Nazis are led by Jones's archrival, a Nazi-sympathizing French archaeologist named René Belloq, and Arnold Toht, a sinister Gestapo agent.

The 1984 prequel, Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, set in 1935, took the character into a more horror-oriented story, skipping his legitimate teaching job and globe trotting, and taking place almost entirely in India. This time, Jones attempts to recover children and the Sankara stones from the bloodthirsty Thuggee cult. He is aided by Short Round and accompanied by Willie Scott (Kate Capshaw).

The third film, 1989's Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, set in 1938, returned to the formula of the original, reintroducing characters such as Sallah and Marcus Brody, a scene from Professor Jones's classroom (he now teaches at Barnett College), the globe trotting element of multiple locations, and the return of the infamous Nazi mystics, this time trying to find the Holy Grail. The film's introduction, set in 1912, provided some back story to the character, specifically the origin of his fear of snakes, his use of a bullwhip, the scar on his chin, and his hat; the film's epilogue also reveals that "Indiana" is not Jones's first name, but a nickname he took from the family dog. The film was a buddy movie of sorts, teaming Jones with his father, often to comical effect. Although Lucas intended at the time to do five films, this ended up being the last for over eighteen years, as Lucas could not think of a good plot element to drive the next installment.^[20]

The 2008 film, Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, became the latest film in the series. Set in 1957, 19 years after the third film, it pits an older, wiser Indiana Jones against Soviet agents bent on harnessing the power of a crystal skull associated with extraterrestrials discovered in South America by his former colleague Harold Oxley (John Hurt). He is aided in his adventure by an old lover, Marion Ravenwood (Karen Allen), and her son—a young greaser named Henry "Mutt" Williams (Shia LaBeouf), later revealed to be his biological child, Henry Jones III. There were rumors that LaBeouf will take over the Indy franchise.^[21] This film also reveals that Jones was recruited by the Office of Strategic Services (a predecessor department to the CIA) during World War II, attaining the rank of Colonel in the United States Army and running covert operations with MI6 agent George McHale on the Soviet Union.

Television[link]

From 1992 to 1996, George Lucas executive-produced a television series named The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, which was designed as an educational program for children, spotlighting historical figures and important events, using the concept of a prequel to the films as a draw. The show featured a standard formula of a 93-year-old Jones (George Hall), wearing an eye patch, introducing a story, and then an adventure with either a 17-year-old Jones (Sean Patrick Flanery) or a 10-year-old Jones (Corey Carrier), and even a baby Indy (Neil "Boulie" Boulane). Historical figures featured on the show include Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Leo Tolstoy, Pancho Villa, Charles de Gaulle, Mata Hari, Eliot Ness, Ernest Hemingway, Jiddu Krishnamurti, Patrick Pearse, Emperor Karl and Empress Zita of Austria-Hungary, Vladimir Lenin, T. E. Lawrence, Pablo Picasso, Igor Stravinsky, Winston Churchill, Herman Göring, Sigmund Freud, Theodore Roosevelt, Manfred von Richthofen, and John Ford, in such diverse locations as Egypt, India, China, and the whole of Europe.

One episode, "Young Indiana Jones and the Mystery of the Blues", is bookended by Harrison Ford, reprising his role as the character. Indiana loses one of his eyes sometime between 1957 and when the "Old Indy" segments take place.

The show provided some backstory for the films, as well as new information regarding the character. He was born July 1, 1899, and his middle name is Walton (Lucas's middle name). It is also mentioned that he had a sister called Suzie who died as an infant of fever, and that he eventually has a daughter and grandchildren who appear in some episode introductions and epilogues. His relationship with his father, first introduced in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, was further fleshed out with stories about his travels with his father as a young boy. A large portion of the series centered around his activities during World War I.

In 1999, Lucas removed the episode introductions and epilogues by George Hall for the VHS and DVD releases, as he re-edited the episodes into chronologically ordered feature-length stories. The series title was also changed to The Adventures of Young Indiana Jones.

Video games[link]

The character has appeared in several officially licensed games, including LEGO Indiana Jones video games, beginning with adaptations of Raiders of the Lost Ark, Temple of Doom, two adaptations of The Last Crusade (one with purely action mechanics, one with an adventure and puzzle based structure) and Indiana Jones' Greatest Adventures which included the storylines from all three of the original films.

Following this, the games branched off into original storylines with Indiana Jones in the Lost Kingdom, Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis, Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine, Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb and Indiana Jones and the Staff of Kings.^[22] Emperor's Tomb sets up Jones's companion Wu Han and the search for Nurhaci's ashes seen at the beginning of Temple of Doom. The first two games were developed by Hal Barwood and starred Doug Lee as the voice of Indiana Jones; Emperor's Tomb had David Esch fill the role and Staff of Kings starred John Armstrong.

Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine was the first Indy-based game presented in three dimensions, as opposed to 8-bit graphics and side-scrolling games before.

There is also a small game from Lucas Arts Indiana Jones and His Desktop Adventures. A video game was made for young Indy called Young Indiana Jones and the Instruments of Chaos, as well as a video game version of The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles.

Two Lego Indiana Jones games have also been released. Lego Indiana Jones: The Original Adventures was released in 2008^[23] and follows the plots of the first three films. It was followed by LEGO Indiana Jones 2: The Adventure Continues in late 2009. The sequel includes an abbreviated reprise of the first three films, but focuses on the plot of Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull.

Indiana Jones has also made cameo appearances as an unlockable character in the games Mercenaries: Playground of Destruction and Lego Star Wars: The Complete Saga.

Social gaming company Zynga introduced Indiana Jones to their "Adventure World" game in late 2011.^[24]

Theme parks[link]

Indiana Jones is featured at several Walt Disney theme park attractions. The Indiana Jones Adventure attractions at Disneyland and Tokyo DisneySea ("Temple of the Forbidden Eye" and "Temple of the Crystal Skull," respectively) place Indy at the forefront of two similar archaeological discoveries. These two temples each contain a wrathful deity who threatens the guests who ride through in World War II troop transports. The attractions, some of the most expensive of their kind at the time, opened in 1995 and 2001, respectively, with sole design credit attributed to Walt Disney Imagineering. Disney did not license Harrison Ford's likeness for the North American version; nevertheless, a differentiated Indiana Jones audio-animatronic character appears at three points in both attractions. However, the Indiana Jones featured in the DisneySea version does use Harrison Ford's likeness but uses Japanese audio for all of his speaking parts. In 2010, some of the Indy audio-animatronics at the Disneyland version have been replaced and now resemble Ford.^[25]

Disneyland Resort Paris also features an Indiana Jones-titled ride where people speed off through ancient ruins in a runaway mine wagon similar to that found in Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom. Indiana Jones and the Temple of Peril is a looping roller coaster engineered by Intamin, designed by Walt Disney Imagineering, and opened in 1993.

The Indiana Jones Epic Stunt Spectacular! is a live show that has been presented in the Disney's Hollywood Studios theme park of the Walt Disney World Resort with few changes since the park's 1989 opening under a different name. The 25-minute show presents various stunts framed in the context of a feature film production, and recruits members of the audience to participate in the show. Stunt artists in the show re-create and ultimately reveal some of the secrets of the stunts of the Raiders of the Lost Ark films, including the well-known "running-from-the-boulder" scene. Stunt performer Anislav Varbanov was fatally injured in August 2009, while rehearsing the popular show.^[26] Also at Disney's Hollywood Studios, an audio-animatronic Indiana Jones appears in another attraction; during the The Great Movie Ride's Raiders of the Lost Ark segment.

Character description and formation[link]

In his role as a college professor of archaeology, Henry Jones Jr. is scholarly and learned in a tweed suit, lecturing on ancient civilizations. In Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, it is revealed that Jones is influenced by the Marxist Archaeologist, Vere Gordon Childe, whose qualified acceptance of cultural diffusionism theory he propounds. Ironically, though Childe loathes fieldwork,^[27] Indy goes on to say, "If you want to be a good archaeologist, you gotta get out of the library." This is in tongue-in-cheek contrast to the previous film's comment, "Seventy percent of all archaeology is done in the library."

However, at the opportunity to recover important artifacts, Dr. Jones transforms into "Indiana," a "non-superhero superhero" image he has concocted for himself.^[28] Producer Frank Marshall said, "Indy [is] a fallible character. He makes mistakes and gets hurt. [...] That's the other thing people like: He's a real character, not a character with superpowers."^[29] Spielberg said there "was the willingness to allow our leading man to get hurt and to express his pain and to get his mad out and to take pratfalls and sometimes be the butt of his own jokes. I mean, Indiana Jones is not a perfect hero, and his imperfections, I think, make the audience feel that, with a little more exercise and a little more courage, they could be just like him."^[30] According to Spielberg biographer Douglas Brode, Indiana created his heroic figure so as to escape the dullness of teaching at a school. Both of Indiana's personas reject one another in philosophy, creating a duality.^[28] Harrison Ford said the fun of playing the character was because Indiana is both a romantic and a cynic,^[31] while scholars have analyzed Indiana as having traits of a lone wolf; a man on a quest; a noble treasure hunter; a hardboiled detective; a human superhero; and an American patriot.^[32]

Like many characters in his films, Jones has some autobiographical elements of Spielberg. Indiana lacks a proper father figure because of his strained relationship with his father, Henry Senior. His own contained anger is misdirected at the likes of Professor Abner Ravenwood, his mentor at the University of Chicago, leading to a strained relationship with Marion Ravenwood.^[28] The teenage Indiana bases his own look on a figure from the prologue of Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, after being given his hat.^[33] Marcus Brody acts as Indiana's positive role model at the college.^[33] Indiana's own insecurities are made worse by the absence of his mother.^[34] In Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, the character becomes the father in a temporary family unit with Willie Scott and Short Round to survive. Indiana is rescued from the evil of Kali by Short Round's dedication. Indiana also saves many children from slavery.^[34]

Because of Indiana's strained relationship with his father, who was absent much of Indiana's youth searching for the Holy Grail, the character does not pursue the more spiritual aspects of the cultures he studies. Indiana uses his knowledge of Shiva to ultimately defeat Mola Ram.^[34] In Raiders, however, he is wise enough to close his eyes in the presence of God in the Ark of the Covenant. By contrast, his rival Rene Belloq dies horribly for having the audacity to try to communicate directly with God.^[28]

In Crusade's prologue, Indiana's intentions are revealed as prosocial, as he believes artifacts "belong in a museum." In the film's climax, Indiana undergoes "literal" tests of faith to retrieve the Grail and save his father's life. He also remembers Jesus as a historical figure – a humble carpenter – rather than an exalted figure when he recognizes the simple nature and tarnished appearance of the real Grail amongst a large assortment of much more ornately decorated ones. Henry Senior rescues his son from falling to his death when reaching for the fallen Grail, telling him to "let it go," overcoming his mercenary nature.^[33] The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles explains how Indiana becomes solitary and less idealistic after fighting in World War I.^[35] In Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, Jones is older and wiser, whereas his sidekicks Mutt and Mac are youthfully arrogant and greedy, respectively.^[36]

Origins and inspirations[link]

Indiana Jones is modeled after the strong-jawed heroes of the matinée serials and pulp magazines that George Lucas and Steven Spielberg enjoyed in their childhoods (such as the Republic Pictures serials, and the Doc Savage series). Sir H. Rider Haggard's safari guide/big game hunter Allan Quatermain of King Solomon's Mines, who dates back to 1885, is a notable template for Jones.^[37] The two friends first discussed the project in Hawaii around the time of the release of the first Star Wars film.^[38] Spielberg told Lucas how he wanted his next project to be something fun, like perhaps a James Bond film. According to sources, Lucas responded to the effect that he had something "even better,"^[38] or that he "got that beat."^[39]

Two of the possible bases for "Indiana" Jones are Professor Challenger, created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in 1912 for his novel, The Lost World, who was in turn based on his Doyle physiology professor, Sir William Rutherford, an adventuring academic, albeit a zoologist/anthropologist.^{[citation needed]}

The character was originally named "Indiana Smith" (perhaps in a nod to the 1966 Western film Nevada Smith), after an Alaskan Malamute Lucas owned in the 1970s ("Indiana"); however, Spielberg disliked the name "Smith," and Lucas casually suggested "Jones" as an alternative based on the archaeologist Vendyl Jones.^[38]

Lucas has said on various occasions that Sean Connery's portrayal of British secret agent James Bond was one of the primary inspirations for Jones, a reason Connery was chosen for the role of Indiana's father in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade.^[40][41]

Costume designer Deborah Nadoolman Landis said the inspiration for Indiana's outfit was Charlton Heston's Harry Steele in Secret of the Incas: "We did watch this film together as a crew several times, and I always thought it strange that the filmmakers did not credit it later as the inspiration for the series."^[42]

Historical Models[link]

Many people are said to be the real-life inspiration of the Indiana Jones character—although none of the following have been confirmed as inspirations by Lucas or Spielberg. There are some suggestions, listed here in alphabetical order by last name:

• Beloit College professor and paleontologist Roy Chapman Andrews.^[43]
• Italian archaeologist and circus strongman Giovanni Battista Belzoni (1778–1823).^[44]
• Yale University professor, historian, and explorer Hiram Bingham III, who rediscovered and excavated the lost city of Machu Picchu,^[45] and chronicled his find in the bestselling book The Lost City of the Incas in 1948.^[46]
• University of Chicago archaeologist Robert Braidwood.^[47]
• University of Chicago archaeologist James Henry Breasted.^[48]
• The British archaeologist Percy Fawcett, who spent much of his life exploring the jungles of northern Brazil, and who was last seen in 1925 returning to the Amazon Basin to look for the Lost City Of Z. A fictionalized version of Fawcett appears to Jones in the book Indiana Jones And The Seven Veils.^[7]
• British archaeologist and soldier T. E. Lawrence.^[49]
• The Northwestern University anthropologist, professor and adventurer William Montgomery McGovern.^[50]
• Frederick Albert Mitchell-Hedges.^[51]
• German archaeologist Otto Rahn.^[52]

Costume[link]

Upon requests by Spielberg and Lucas, the costume designer gave the character a distinctive silhouette through the styling of the hat; after examining many hats, the designers chose a tall-crowned, wide-brimmed fedora. As a documentary of Raiders pointed out, the hat served a practical purpose. Following the lead of the old "B"-movies that inspired the Indiana Jones series, the fedora hid the actor's face sufficiently to allow doubles to perform the more dangerous stunts seamlessly. Examples in Raiders include the wider-angle shot of Indy and Marion crashing a statue through a wall, and Indy sliding under a fast-moving vehicle from front to back. Thus it was necessary for the hat to stay in place much of the time.

The hat became so iconic that the filmmakers could only come up with very good reasons or jokes to remove it. If it ever fell off during a take, filming would have to stop to put it back on. In jest, Ford put a stapler against his head to stop his hat from falling off when a documentary crew visited during shooting of Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. This created the urban legend that Ford stapled the hat to his head.^[53] Although other hats were also used throughout the movies, the general style and profile remained the same. Elements of the outfit include:

• The fedora was supplied by Herbert Johnson Hatters in England for the first three films. It was referred to as "The Australian Model" by costume designer Deborah Landis and was fitted with a Petersham bow.^[54] The fedora for Crystal Skull was made by Steve Delk and Marc Kitter of the Adventurebilt Hat Company of Columbus, Mississippi.
• The leather jacket, a hybrid of the "Type 440" and the A-2 jacket, was made by Leather Concessionaires (now known as Wested Leather Co.) for Raiders of the Lost Ark and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. For Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, jackets were made in-house at Bermans & Nathans in London based on a stunt jacket they provided for Raiders of the Lost Ark. Tony Nowak made the jacket for Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull.
• The bag was a modified Mark VII British gas mask bag, usually worn under the jacket with the exception of Crystal Skull where the bag was worn over the jacket.
• The whip was a 8 to 10 foot (2.4 to 3.0 m) bullwhip crafted by David Morgan for the first three films. The whips for Crystal Skull were crafted by a variety of people, including Terry Jacka, Joe Strain and Morgan (different lengths and styles were likely used in specific stunts).
• The pistol was usually a World War I-era revolver, including the Webley Government (Last Crusade and Crystal Skull), or a .45 ACP Smith & Wesson Hand Ejector 2nd model revolver (Raiders). He has also used an M1917 revolver (Temple of Doom), a Nagant M1895 (Young Indiana Jones), and a 9 mm Browning Hi-Power (Raiders).^[55] The weapon is carried in a military pattern flap holster.
• The shoes were made by Alden. A stock style (model 405) that had been a favorite of Ford's before the movies, they are still sold today (though in a redder (brick) shade of brown than seen in the movies) and are popularly known as "Indy Boots."^[56]

The fedora and leather jacket from Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade are on display at the Smithsonian's American History Museum in Washington, D.C.^[57] The collection of props and clothing from the films has become a thriving hobby for some aficionados of the franchise.^[58] Jones' whip was the third most popular film weapon, as shown by a 2008 poll held by 20th Century Fox, which surveyed approximately two thousand film fans.^[59]

Casting[link]

Originally, Spielberg suggested Harrison Ford; Lucas resisted the idea, since he had already cast the actor in American Graffiti, Star Wars, and The Empire Strikes Back, and did not want Ford to become known as his "Bobby De Niro" (in reference to the fact that fellow director Martin Scorsese regularly cast Robert De Niro in his films).^[38] During an intensive casting process, Lucas and Spielberg auditioned many actors, and finally cast then little-known actor Tom Selleck as Indiana Jones. Shortly afterward pre-production began in earnest on Raiders of the Lost Ark.^[38] However, CBS refused to release Selleck from his contractual commitment to Magnum, P.I. (which was gradually gaining momentum in the ratings), forcing him to turn down the role.^[38] One of CBS's concerns was that shooting for Magnum P.I. conflicted with shooting for Raiders, both of which were to begin about the same time. However, Selleck was to say later in an interview that shooting for Magnum P.I. was delayed and did not actually begin until shooting for Raiders had concluded.

After Spielberg suggested Ford again, Lucas gave in, and Ford was cast in the role less than three weeks before filming began.^[38]

Influence[link]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2011)

Though some archaeologists criticize Indy's methods as befitting a "looter" rather more than a careful worker of precious sites, many have adopted the popular figure as something of a standard-bearer for their profession.^[60] The industry magazine Archaeology, believing that Jones, as one editor said, was "a horrible archaeologist but a great diplomat for archaeology,"^[60] named eight past and current archaeologists who they felt "embodied [Jones'] spirit" as recipients of the "Indy Spirit Awards" in 2008.^[61] That same year Ford himself was elected to the Board of Directors of the Archaeological Institute of America. Commenting that "understanding the past can only help us in dealing with the present and the future," Ford was praised by the association's president for his character's "significant role in stimulating the public's interest in archaeological exploration."^[62]

While himself a homage to various prior adventurers, aspects of Indiana Jones also directly influenced some subsequent characterizations:

• Lara Croft, the female archaeologist of the Tomb Raider series, was originally designed as a man, but was changed to a woman, partly because the developers felt that the original design was too similar to Indiana Jones.^[63] Paramount Pictures, which distributed the Indiana Jones film series, would later make two films based on the Tomb Raider games.
• Prince of Persia producer Ben Mattes explained that their "inspiration was anything Harrison Ford has ever done: Indiana Jones, Han Solo."^[64]
• The video game series Uncharted is also very heavily influenced and inspired by Indiana Jones. The main character, Nathan Drake, also shares many similarities with Indiana Jones himself, both visually and personality-wise. The design team felt the sources shared themes of mystery and "what-if scenarios" that romanticized adventure and aimed to include those in Uncharted.^[65]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Indiana Jones

• IndianaJones.com – the official Indiana Jones site
• Indiana Jones at the Internet Movie Database
• The Indiana Jones Wiki – A wiki devoted to Indiana Jones