Snakebite
Classification and external resources
Cobra Naja naja
ICD-10	T63.0, T14.1, W59 (nonvenomous), X20 (venomous)
ICD-9	989.5, E905.0, E906.2
DiseasesDB	29733
MedlinePlus	000031
eMedicine	med/2143
MeSH	D012909

A snakebite is an injury caused by a bite from a snake, often resulting in puncture wounds inflicted by the animal's fangs and sometimes resulting in envenomation. Although the majority of snake species are non-venomous and typically kill their prey with constriction rather than venom, venomous snakes can be found on every continent except Antarctica.^[1] Snakes often bite their prey as a method of hunting, but also for defensive purposes against predators. Since the physical appearance of snakes may differ, there is often no practical way to identify a species and professional medical attention should be sought.^[2][3]

The outcome of snake bites depends on numerous factors, including the species of snake, the area of the body bitten, the amount of venom injected, and the health conditions of the victim. Feelings of terror and panic are common after a snakebite and can produce a characteristic set of symptoms mediated by the autonomic nervous system, such as a racing heart and nausea.^[4][5] Bites from non-venomous snakes can also cause injury, often due to lacerations caused by the snake's teeth, or from a resulting infection. A bite may also trigger an anaphylactic reaction, which is potentially fatal. First aid recommendations for bites depend on the snakes inhabiting the region, as effective treatments for bites inflicted by some species can be ineffective for others.

The number of fatalities attributed to snake bites varies greatly by geographical area. Although deaths are relatively rare in Australia, Europe and North America,^[1][6][7] the morbidity and mortality associated with snake bites is a serious public health problem in many regions of the world, particularly in rural areas lacking medical facilities. Further, while South Asia, Southeast Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa report the highest number of bites, there is also a high incidence in the Neotropics and other equatorial and subtropical regions.^[1][6][7] Each year tens of thousands of people die from snake bites,^[1] yet the risk of being bitten can be lowered with preventive measures, such as wearing protective footwear and avoiding areas known to be inhabited by dangerous snakes.

Signs and symptoms[link]

The most common symptoms of any kind of snake envenomation.^[8][9][10] However, there is vast variation in symptoms between bites from different types of snakes.^[8]

Severe tissue necrosis following Bothrops asper envenomation that needed amputation above the knee. The victim was an 11-year-old boy, bitten two weeks earlier in Ecuador, but treated only with antibiotics.^[11]

The most common symptoms of all snakebites are overwhelming fear, panic, and emotional instability, which may cause symptoms such as nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, vertigo, fainting, tachycardia, and cold, clammy skin.^[4][5] Television, literature, and folklore are in part responsible for the hype surrounding snakebites, and a victim may have unwarranted thoughts of imminent death.

Dry snakebites, and those inflicted by a non-venomous species, can still cause severe injury to the victim. There are several reasons for this: a snakebite which is not treated properly may become infected (as is often reported by the victims of viper bites whose fangs are capable of inflicting deep puncture wounds), the bite may cause anaphylaxis in certain people, and the snake's saliva and fangs may harbor many dangerous microbial contaminants, including Clostridium tetani. If neglected, an infection may spread and potentially kill the victim.

Most snakebites, whether by a venomous snake or not, will have some type of local effect. There is minor pain and redness in over 90% of cases, although this varies depending on the site.^[4] Bites by vipers and some cobras may be extremely painful, with the local tissue sometimes becoming tender and severely swollen within 5 minutes.^[7] This area may also bleed and blister and can eventually lead to tissue necrosis. Other common initial symptoms of pitviper and viper bites include lethargy, bleeding, weakness, nausea, and vomiting.^[4][7] Symptoms may become more life-threatening over time, developing into hypotension, tachypnea, severe tachycardia, severe internal bleeding, altered sensorium, kidney failure, and respiratory failure.^[4][7]

Interestingly, bites caused by the Mojave rattlesnake, kraits, coral snake, and the speckled rattlesnake reportedly cause little or no pain despite being serious injuries.^[4] Victims may also describe a "rubbery," "minty," or "metallic" taste if bitten by certain species of rattlesnake.^[4] Spitting cobras and rinkhalses can spit venom in their victims' eyes. This results in immediate pain, ophthalmoparesis, and sometimes blindness.^[12][13]

Some Australian elapids and most viper envenomations will cause coagulopathy, sometimes so severe that a person may bleed spontaneously from the mouth, nose, and even old, seemingly-healed wounds.^[7] Internal organs may bleed, including the brain and intestines and will cause ecchymosis (bruising) of the victim's skin.

Venom emitted from elapids, including sea snakes, kraits, cobras, king cobra, mambas, and many Australian species, contain toxins which attack the nervous system, causing neurotoxicity.^[4][7][14] The victim may present with strange disturbances to their vision, including blurriness. Paresthesia throughout the body, as well as difficulty speaking and breathing, may be reported.^[4] Nervous system problems will cause a huge array of symptoms, and those provided here are not exhaustive. If the victim is not treated immediately they may die from respiratory failure.

Venom emitted from some types of cobras, almost all vipers, some Australian elapids and some sea snakes causes necrosis of muscle tissue.^[7] Muscle tissue will begin to die throughout the body, a condition known as rhabdomyolysis. Rhabdomyolysis can result in damage to the kidneys as a result of myoglobin accumulation in the renal tubules. This, coupled with hypotension, can lead to acute renal failure, and, if left untreated, eventually death.^[7]

Pathophysiology[link]

Since envenomation is completely voluntary, all venomous snakes are capable of biting without injecting venom into their victim. Snakes may deliver such a "dry bite" rather than waste their venom on a creature too large for them to eat.^[15] However, the percentage of dry bites varies between species: 80% of bites inflicted by sea snakes, which are normally timid, do not result in envenomation,^[14] whereas only 25% of pitviper bites are dry.^[4] Furthermore, some snake genera, such as rattlesnakes, significantly increase the amount of venom injected in defensive bites compared to predatory strikes.^[16]

Some dry bites may also be the result of imprecise timing on the snake's part, as venom may be prematurely released before the fangs have penetrated the victim's flesh.^[15] Even without venom, some snakes, particularly large constrictors such as those belonging to the Boidae and Pythonidae families, can deliver damaging bites; large specimens often cause severe lacerations as the victim or the snake itself pull away, causing the flesh to be torn by the needle-sharp recurved teeth embedded in the victim. While not as life-threatening as a bite from a venomous species, the bite can be at least temporarily debilitating and could lead to dangerous infections if improperly dealt with.

While most snakes must open their mouths before biting, African and Middle Eastern snakes belonging to the family Atractaspididae are able to fold their fangs to the side of their head without opening their mouth and jab at victims.^[17]

Snake venom[link]

It has been suggested that snakes evolved the mechanisms necessary for venom formation and delivery sometime during the Miocene epoch.^[18] During the mid-Tertiary, most snakes were large ambush predators belonging to the superfamily Henophidia, which use constriction to kill their prey. As open grasslands replaced forested areas in parts of the world, some snake families evolved to become smaller and thus more agile. However, subduing and killing prey became more difficult for the smaller snakes, leading to the evolution of snake venom.^[18] Other research on Toxicofera, a hypothetical clade thought to be ancestral to most living reptiles, suggests an earlier time frame for the evolution of snake venom, possibly to the order of tens of millions of years, during the Late Cretaceous.^[19]

Snake venom is produced in modified parotid glands normally responsible for secreting saliva. It is stored in structures called alveoli behind the animal's eyes, and ejected voluntarily through its hollow tubular fangs. Venom is composed of hundreds to thousands of different proteins and enzymes, all serving a variety of purposes, such as interfering with a prey's cardiac system or increasing tissue permeability so that venom is absorbed faster.

Venom in many snakes, such as pitvipers, affects virtually every organ system in the human body and can be a combination of many toxins, including cytotoxins, hemotoxins, neurotoxins, and myotoxins, allowing for an enormous variety of symptoms.^[4][20] Earlier, the venom of a particular snake was considered to be one kind only i.e. either hemotoxic or neurotoxic, and this erroneous belief may still persist wherever the updated literature is hard to access. Although there is much known about the protein compositions of venoms from Asian and American snakes, comparatively little is known of Australian snakes.

The strength of venom differs markedly between species and even more so between families, as measured by median lethal dose (LD₅₀) in mice. Subcutaneous LD₅₀) varies by over 140-fold within elapids and by more than 100-fold in vipers. The amount of venom produced also differs among species, with the Gaboon viper able to potentially deliver from 450–600 milligrams of venom in a single bite, the most of any snake.^[21] Opisthoglyphous colubrids have venom ranging from life-threatening (in the case of the boomslang) to barely noticeable (as in Tantilla).

Prevention[link]

Sign at Sylvan Rodriguez Park in Houston, Texas warning of the presence of snakes.

Snakes are most likely to bite when they feel threatened, are startled, are provoked, or have no means of escape when cornered. Encountering a snake is always considered dangerous and it is recommended to leave the vicinity. There is no practical way to safely identify any snake species as appearances may vary dramatically.

Snakes are likely to approach residential areas when attracted by prey, such as rodents. Practising regular pest control can reduce the threat of snakes considerably. It is beneficial to know the species of snake that are common in local areas, or while travelling or hiking. Areas of the world such as Africa, Australia, the Neotropics, and southern Asia are inhabited by many highly dangerous species. Being wary of snake presence and ultimately avoiding it when known is strongly recommended.

When in the wilderness, treading heavily creates ground vibrations and noise, which will often cause snakes to flee from the area. However, this generally only applies to North America as some larger and more aggressive snakes in other parts of the world, such as king cobras^[22] and black mambas,^[23] will protect their territories. When dealing with direct encounters it is best to remain silent and motionless. If the snake has not yet fled it is important to step away slowly and cautiously.

The use of a flashlight when engaged in camping activities, such as gathering firewood at night, can be helpful. Snakes may also be unusually active during especially warm nights when ambient temperatures exceed 21 °C (70 °F). It is advised not to reach blindly into hollow logs, flip over large rocks, and enter old cabins or other potential snake hiding-places. When rock climbing, it is not safe to grab ledges or crevices without examining them first, as snakes are cold-blooded and often sunbathe atop rock ledges.

Pet owners of domestic animals or snakes should be aware that a snake is capable of causing injury and that it is necessary to always act with caution. When handling snakes it is never wise to consume alcoholic beverages. In the United States more than 40% of snakebite victims intentionally put themselves in harm's way by attempting to capture wild snakes or by carelessly handling their dangerous pets—40% of that number had a blood alcohol level of 0.1% or more.^[24]

It is also important to avoid snakes that appear to be dead, as some species will actually roll over on their backs and stick out their tongue to fool potential threats. A snake's detached head can immediately act by reflex and potentially bite. The induced bite can be just as severe as that of a live snake.^[4][25] Dead snakes are also incapable of regulating the venom they inject, so a bite from a dead snake can often contain large amounts of venom.^[26]

Treatment[link]

It is not an easy task determining whether or not a bite by any species of snake is life-threatening. A bite by a North American copperhead on the ankle is usually a moderate injury to a healthy adult, but a bite to a child's abdomen or face by the same snake may be fatal. The outcome of all snakebites depends on a multitude of factors: the size, physical condition, and temperature of the snake, the age and physical condition of the victim, the area and tissue bitten (e.g., foot, torso, vein or muscle), the amount of venom injected, the time it takes for the person to find treatment, and finally the quality of that treatment.^[4][27]

Snake identification[link]

Identification of the snake is important in planning treatment in certain areas of the world, but is not always possible. Ideally the dead snake would be brought in with the person, but in areas where snake bite is more common, local knowledge may be sufficient to recognize the snake. However, in regions where polyvalent antivenoms are available, such as North America, identification of snake is not a high priority item. Attempting to catch or kill the offending snake also puts one at risk for re-envenomation or creating a second victim, and generally is not recommended.

The three types of venomous snakes that cause the majority of major clinical problems are vipers, kraits, and cobras. Knowledge of what species are present locally can be crucial, as is knowledge of typical signs and symptoms of envenomation by each type of snake. A scoring system can be used to try to determine the biting snake based on clinical features,^[28] but these scoring systems are extremely specific to particular geographical areas.

First aid[link]

Snakebite first aid recommendations vary, in part because different snakes have different types of venom. Some have little local effect, but life-threatening systemic effects, in which case containing the venom in the region of the bite by pressure immobilization is desirable. Other venoms instigate localized tissue damage around the bitten area, and immobilization may increase the severity of the damage in this area, but also reduce the total area affected; whether this trade-off is desirable remains a point of controversy. Because snakes vary from one country to another, first aid methods also vary.

However, most first aid guidelines agree on the following:

1. Protect the person and others from further bites. While identifying the species is desirable in certain regions, risking further bites or delaying proper medical treatment by attempting to capture or kill the snake is not recommended.
2. Keep the person calm. Acute stress reaction increases blood flow and endangers the person. Panic is infectious and compromises judgment.
3. Call for help to arrange for transport to the nearest hospital emergency room, where antivenom for snakes common to the area will often be available.
4. Make sure to keep the bitten limb in a functional position and below the victim's heart level so as to minimize blood returning to the heart and other organs of the body.
5. Do not give the person anything to eat or drink. This is especially important with consumable alcohol, a known vasodilator which will speed up the absorption of venom. Do not administer stimulants or pain medications to the victim, unless specifically directed to do so by a physician.
6. Remove any items or clothing which may constrict the bitten limb if it swells (rings, bracelets, watches, footwear, etc.)
7. Keep the person as still as possible.
8. Do not incise the bitten site.

Many organizations, including the American Medical Association and American Red Cross, recommend washing the bite with soap and water. Australian recommendations for snake bite treatment recommend against cleaning the wound. Traces of venom left on the skin/bandages from the strike can be used in combination with a snake bite identification kit to identify the species of snake. This speeds determination of which antivenom to administer in the emergency room.^[29]

India developed a national snake-bite protocol in 2007 which includes advice to:^[30]

• Reassure the patient. 70% of all snakebites are from non- venomous species. Only 50% of bites by venomous species actually envenomate the patient
• Immobilise in the same way as a fractured limb. Use bandages or cloth to hold the splints, not to block the blood supply or apply pressure. Do not apply any compression in the form of tight ligatures, they don’t work and can be dangerous!
• Get to Hospital Immediately. Traditional remedies have No proven benefit in treating snakebite.
• Tell the doctor of any systemic symptoms such as ptosis that manifest on the way to hospital.

Pressure immobilization[link]

A Russell's viper is being "milked". Laboratories use extracted snake venom to produce antivenom, which is often the only effective treatment for potentially fatal snakebites.

In 1979, Australia's National Health and Medical Research Council formally adopted pressure immobilization as the preferred method of first aid treatment for snakebites in Australia.^[31] As of 2009, clinical evidence for pressure immobilization remains limited, with current evidence based almost entirely on anecdotal case reports.^[31] This has led most international authorities to question its efficacy.^[31] Despite this, all reputable first aid organizations in Australia recommend pressure immobilization treatment; however, it is not widely adhered to, with one study showing that only a third of snakebite people attempt pressure immobilization.^[31]

Pressure immobilization is not appropriate for cytotoxic bites such as those inflicted by most vipers,^[32][33][34] but may be effective against neurotoxic venoms such as those of most elapids.^[35][36][37] Developed by medical researcher Struan Sutherland in 1978,^[38] the object of pressure immobilization is to contain venom within a bitten limb and prevent it from moving through the lymphatic system to the vital organs. This therapy has two components: pressure to prevent lymphatic drainage, and immobilization of the bitten limb to prevent the pumping action of the skeletal muscles.

Pressure is preferably applied with an elastic bandage, but any cloth will do in an emergency. Bandaging begins two to four inches above the bite (i.e. between the bite and the heart), winding around in overlapping turns and moving up towards the heart, then back down over the bite and past it towards the hand or foot. Then the limb must be held immobile: not used, and if possible held with a splint or sling. The bandage should be about as tight as when strapping a sprained ankle. It must not cut off blood flow, or even be uncomfortable; if it is uncomfortable, the person will unconsciously flex the limb, defeating the immobilization portion of the therapy. The location of the bite should be clearly marked on the outside of the bandages. Some peripheral edema is an expected consequence of this process.

Apply pressure immobilization as quickly as possible; if you wait until symptoms become noticeable you will have missed the best time for treatment. Once a pressure bandage has been applied, it should not be removed until the person has reached a medical professional.

Antivenom[link]

Until the advent of antivenom, bites from some species of snake were almost universally fatal.^[39] Despite huge advances in emergency therapy, antivenom is often still the only effective treatment for envenomation. The first antivenom was developed in 1895 by French physician Albert Calmette for the treatment of Indian cobra bites. Antivenom is made by injecting a small amount of venom into an animal (usually a horse or sheep) to initiate an immune system response. The resulting antibodies are then harvested from the animal's blood.

Antivenom is injected into the person intravenously, and works by binding to and neutralizing venom enzymes. It cannot undo damage already caused by venom, so antivenom treatment should be sought as soon as possible. Modern antivenoms are usually polyvalent, making them effective against the venom of numerous snake species. Pharmaceutical companies which produce antivenom target their products against the species native to a particular area. Although some people may develop serious adverse reactions to antivenom, such as anaphylaxis, in emergency situations this is usually treatable and hence the benefit outweighs the potential consequences of not using antivenom.

Outmoded[link]

Old style snake bite kit that should not be used.

The following treatments have all been recommended at one time or another, but are now considered to be ineffective or outright dangerous. Many cases in which such treatments appear to work are in fact the result of dry bites.

• Application of a tourniquet to the bitten limb is generally not recommended. There is no convincing evidence that it is an effective first aid tool as ordinarily applied.^[40] Tourniquets have been found to be completely ineffective in the treatment of Crotalus durissus bites,^[41] but some positive results have been seen with properly applied tourniquets for cobra venom in the Philippines.^[42] Uninformed tourniquet use is dangerous, since reducing or cutting off circulation can lead to gangrene, which can be fatal.^[40] The use of a compression bandage is generally as effective, and much safer.
• Cutting open the bitten area, an action often taken prior to suction, is not recommended since it causes further damage and increases the risk of infection.
• Sucking out venom, either by mouth or with a pump, does not work and may harm the affected area directly.^[43] Suction started after 3 minutes removes a clinically insignificant quantity—less than one thousandth of the venom injected—as shown in a human study.^[44] In a study with pigs, suction not only caused no improvement but led to necrosis in the suctioned area.^[45] Suctioning by mouth presents a risk of further poisoning through the mouth's mucous tissues.^[46] The well-meaning family member or friend may also release bacteria into the victim's wound, leading to infection.
• Immersion in warm water or sour milk, followed by the application of snake-stones (also known as la Pierre Noire), which are believed to draw off the poison in much the way a sponge soaks up water.
• Application of potassium permanganate.
• Use of electroshock therapy. Although still advocated by some, animal testing has shown this treatment to be useless and potentially dangerous.^{[47][48][49][50]}

In extreme cases, where the victims were in remote areas, all of these misguided attempts at treatment have resulted in injuries far worse than an otherwise mild to moderate snakebite. In worst case scenarios, thoroughly constricting tourniquets have been applied to bitten limbs, completely shutting off blood flow to the area. By the time the victims finally reached appropriate medical facilities their limbs had to be amputated.

Epidemiology[link]

Map showing the approximate world distribution of snakes.

Map showing the global distribution of snakebite morbidity.

Most snakebites are caused by non-venomous snakes. Of the roughly 3,000 known species of snake found worldwide, only 15% are considered dangerous to humans.^[1][4][51] Snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica.^[1] The most diverse and widely distributed snake family, the colubrids, has approximately 700 venomous species,^[52] but only five genera—boomslangs, twig snakes, keelback snakes, green snakes, and slender snakes—have caused human fatalities.^[52]

Since reporting is not mandatory in many regions of the world,^[1] snakebites often go unreported. Consequently, no accurate study has ever been conducted to determine the frequency of snakebites on the international level. However, some estimates put the number at 5.4 million snakebites, 2.5 million envenomings, resulting in perhaps 125,000 deaths.^[1] Others estimate 1.2 to 5.5 million snakebites, 421,000 to 1.8 million envenomings, and 20,000 to 94,000 deaths.^[1] Many people who survive bites nevertheless suffer from permanent tissue damage caused by venom, leading to disability.^[7] Most snake envenomings and fatalities occur in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa, with India reporting the most snakebite deaths of any country.^[1]

Worldwide, snakebites occur most frequently in the summer season when snakes are active and humans are outdoors.^[1][53] Agricultural and tropical regions report more snakebites than anywhere else.^[1][54] Victims are typically male and between 17 and 27 years of age.^[4][53][55] Children and the elderly are the most likely to die.^[4][27]

Society and culture[link]

According to tradition, Cleopatra VII famously committed suicide by snakebite to her left breast, as seen in this 1911 painting by Hungarian artist Gyula Benczúr.

Snakes were both revered and worshipped and feared by early civilizations. The ancient Egyptians recorded prescribed treatments for snakebites as early as the Thirteenth dynasty in the Brooklyn Papyrus, which includes at least seven venomous species common to the region today, such as the horned vipers.^[56] In Judaism, the Nehushtan was a pole with a snake made of copper wrapped around it, similar in appearance to the Rod of Asclepius. The object was considered sacred with the power to heal bites caused by the snakes which had infested the desert, with victims merely having to touch it in order to save themselves from imminent death.

Historically, snakebites were seen as a means of execution in some cultures. In medieval Europe, a form of capital punishment was to throw people into snake pits, leaving victims to die from multiple venomous bites. A similar form of punishment was common in Southern Han during China's Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period and in India.^[57] Snakebites were also used as a form of suicide, most notably by Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII, who reportedly died from the bite of an asp—likely an Egyptian cobra^[56][58]—after hearing of Mark Antony's death.

Snakebite as a surreptitious form of murder has been featured in stories such as Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's The Adventure of the Speckled Band, but actual occurrences are virtually unheard of, with only a few documented cases.^[57][59][60] It has been suggested that Boris III of Bulgaria, who was allied to Nazi Germany during World War II, may have been killed with snake venom,^[57] although there is no definitive evidence. At least one attempted suicide by snakebite has been documented in medical literature involving a puff adder bite to the hand.^[61]

References[link]

Footnotes

Bibliography

Further reading[link]

External links[link]

• WHO Snake Antivenoms Database

Steve Irwin
Steve Irwin in Australia, 2005
Born	Stephen Robert Irwin (1962-02-22)22 February 1962 Essendon, Victoria
Died	4 September 2006(2006-09-04) (aged 44) Batt Reef, Queensland
Cause of death	Stingray accident
Nationality	Australian
Other names	The Crocodile Hunter
Occupation	Naturalist Zoologist Conservationist Television personality Herpetologist
Years active	1997–2006
Notable work(s)	The Crocodile Hunter
Spouse	Terri Irwin (m. 1992–2006) «start: (1992)–end+1: (2007)»"Marriage: Terri Irwin to Steve Irwin" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/Steve_Irwin)
Children	Bindi Sue Irwin (b. 1998) Robert Clarence Irwin (b. 2003)
Website
Australia Zoo

Stephen Robert "Steve" Irwin (22 February 1962 – 4 September 2006), nicknamed "The Crocodile Hunter", was an Australian wildlife expert,^[1][2] television personality, and conservationist. Irwin achieved worldwide fame from the television series The Crocodile Hunter, an internationally broadcast wildlife documentary series which he co-hosted with his wife Terri. Together, the couple also owned and operated Australia Zoo, founded by Irwin's parents in Beerwah, about 80 kilometres (50 mi) north of the Queensland state capital city of Brisbane. Irwin died on 4 September 2006 after being pierced in the chest by a stingray barb while filming an underwater documentary film titled Ocean's Deadliest. The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society ship MY Steve Irwin was named in his honour.

Early life[link]

Irwin was born on his mother's birthday to Lyn and Bob Irwin in Essendon, a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria.^[3] He moved with his parents as a child to Queensland in 1970, where he attended Landsborough State School and Caloundra State High School.^[4] Irwin described his father as a wildlife expert interested in herpetology, while his mother Lyn was a wildlife rehabilitator. After moving to Queensland, Bob and Lyn Irwin started the small Queensland Reptile and Fauna Park, where Steve grew up around crocodiles and other reptiles.

Irwin became involved with the park in a number of ways, including taking part in daily animal feeding, as well as care and maintenance activities. On his sixth birthday he was given a 12-foot (4 m) scrub python. He began handling crocodiles at the age of nine after his father had educated him on reptiles from an early age.^[5] Also at age nine he wrestled his first crocodile, again under his father's supervision.^[6] He worked as a volunteer for Queensland's East Coast Crocodile Management program and captured over 100 crocodiles, some of which were relocated, while others were housed at the family park.^[7] Irwin took over the management of the park in 1991^[7] and renamed it Australia Zoo in 1992.^[8]

Career[link]

Marriage and family[link]

Terri Raines Irwin, the wife of Steve Irwin

In 1991, Irwin met Terri Raines, an American naturalist from Eugene, Oregon who was visiting wildlife rehabilitation facilities in Australia and had decided to visit the zoo. According to the couple, it was love at first sight. Terri said at the time, "I thought there was no one like this anywhere in the world. He sounded like an environmental Tarzan, a larger-than-life superhero guy."^[9] They were engaged four months later and were married in Eugene on 4 June 1992. Together they had two children: a daughter, Bindi Sue Irwin (born 24 July 1998), and a son, Robert Clarence "Bob" (named after Irwin's father) Irwin (born 1 December 2003). Bindi Sue is jointly named after two of Steve Irwin's favourite animals: Bindi, a saltwater crocodile, and Sui, a Staffordshire Bull Terrier who died on 23 June 2004. Irwin was as enthusiastic about his family as he was about his work. He once described his daughter Bindi as "the reason [he] was put on the Earth." His wife once said, "The only thing that could ever keep him away from the animals he loves are the people he loves even more."^[3] Although the Irwins were happily married, they did not wear wedding rings; they believed that in their line of work, wearing jewellery could pose a hazard to them and/or the animals.^[10]

[edit] The Crocodile Hunter and related work

Irwin feeding a crocodile at Australia Zoo

Steve and Terri spent their honeymoon trapping crocodiles together. Film footage of their honeymoon, taken by John Stainton, became the first episode of The Crocodile Hunter. The series debuted on Australian TV screens in 1996, and made its way onto North American television the following year. The Crocodile Hunter became successful in the United States, the UK,^[11] and over 130 other countries, reaching 500 million people. Irwin's exuberant and enthusiastic presenting style, broad Australian accent, signature khaki shorts, and catchphrase "Crikey!" became known worldwide.^[12] Sir David Attenborough praised Irwin for introducing many to the natural world, saying "He taught them how wonderful and exciting it was, he was a born communicator."^[13]

American satellite and cable television channel Animal Planet ended The Crocodile Hunter with a series finale titled "Steve's Last Adventure." The last Crocodile Hunter documentary spanned three hours with footage of Irwin's across-the-world adventure in locations including the Himalayas, the Yangtze River, Borneo, and the Kruger National Park. Irwin went on to star in other Animal Planet documentaries, including Croc Files,^[14] The Crocodile Hunter Diaries,^[15] and New Breed Vets.^[16] During a January 2006 interview on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Irwin announced that Discovery Kids would be developing a show for his daughter, Bindi Sue Irwin^[17] – a plan realised after his death as the series Bindi the Jungle Girl.^[18]

Other television and film work[link]

In 1998, Irwin continued, working with director Mark Strickson, to present The Ten Deadliest Snakes in the World.^[19] He appeared on several episodes of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno.^[20][21] A 2000 FedEx commercial with Irwin lightheartedly dealt with the possibility of occupational death from snakebite and the fanciful notion that FedEx would have saved him, if only FedEx were used.^[22]

Under Irwin's leadership, the operations grew to include the zoo, the television series, the Steve Irwin Conservation Foundation (later renamed Wildlife Warriors), and the International Crocodile Rescue. Improvements to the Australia Zoo include the Animal Planet Crocoseum, the rainforest aviary and Tiger Temple. Irwin mentioned that he was considering opening an Australia Zoo in Las Vegas, Nevada, and possibly at other sites around the world.^[3]

In 2001, Irwin appeared in a cameo role in the Eddie Murphy film Dr. Dolittle 2, in which a crocodile warns Dolittle that he knows Irwin is going to grab him and is prepared to attack when he does, but Dolittle fails to warn Irwin in time. Irwin's only starring feature film role was in 2002's The Crocodile Hunter: Collision Course, which was released to mixed reviews. In the film Irwin (who portrayed himself and performed numerous stunts) mistakes some CIA agents for poachers. He sets out to stop them from capturing a crocodile, which, unknown to him, has actually swallowed a tracking transmitter. The film won the Best Family Feature Film award for a comedy film at the Young Artist Awards. The film was produced on a budget of about US$12 million, and has grossed $33 million.^[23] To promote the film, Irwin was featured in an animated short produced by Animax Entertainment for Intermix.^[24]

In 2002, Irwin and his family appeared in the Wiggles video/DVD release Wiggly Safari, which was set in Australia Zoo and featured singing and dancing inspired by Australian wildlife.^[25]