name	Placenta
image2	| Caption2
precursor	decidua basalis, chorion frondosum
code	TE E5.11.3.1.1.0.5 }}

The placenta is an organ that connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mother's blood supply. Placentas are a defining characteristic of eutherian or "placental" mammals, but are also found in some snakes and lizards with varying levels of development up to mammalian levels. Note however that the homology of such structures in various viviparous organisms is debatable at best, and in invertebrates such as Arthropoda is definitely analogous at best.

The word ''placenta'' comes from the Latin for ''cake'', from Greek ''plakóenta/plakoúnta'', accusative of ''plakóeis/plakoús'' – ''πλακόεις, πλακούς'', "flat, slab-like", in reference to its round, flat appearance in humans. The classical plural is ''placentae'', but the form ''placentas'' is common in modern English and probably has the wider currency at present.

Prototherial (egg-laying) and metatherial (marsupial) mammals produce a choriovitelline placenta that, while connected to the uterine wall, provides nutrients mainly derived from the egg sac.

The placenta functions as a fetomaternal organ with two components; the fetal placenta , or (Chorion frondosum), which develops from the same sperm and egg cells that form the fetus, whilst the maternal placenta, or (Decidua basalis), develops from the maternal uterine tissue.

Structure

In humans, the placenta averages 22 cm (9 inch) in length and 2–2.5 cm (0.8–1 inch) in thickness (greatest thickness at the center and become thinner peripherally). It typically weighs approximately 500 grams (1 lb). It has a dark reddish-blue or maroon color. It connects to the fetus by an umbilical cord of approximately 55–60 cm (22–24 inch) in length that contains two arteries and one vein. The umbilical cord inserts into the chorionic plate (has an eccentric attachment). Vessels branch out over the surface of the placenta and further divide to form a network covered by a thin layer of cells. This results in the formation of villous tree structures. On the maternal side, these villous tree structures are grouped into lobules called cotyledons. In humans the placenta usually has a disc shape, but size varies vastly between different mammalian species.

Development

The placenta begins to develop upon implantation of the blastocyst into the maternal endometrium. The outer layer of the blastocyst becomes the trophoblast which forms the outer layer of the placenta. This outer layer is divided into two further layers: the underlying cytotrophoblast layer and the overlying syncytiotrophoblast layer. The syncytiotrophoblast is a multinucleated continuous cell layer which covers the surface of the placenta. It forms as a result of differentiation and fusion of the underlying cytotrophoblast cells, a process which continues throughout placental development. The syncytiotrophoblast (otherwise known as syncytium), thereby contributes to the barrier function of the placenta.

The placenta grows throughout pregnancy. Development of the maternal blood supply to the placenta is suggested to be complete by the end of the first trimester of pregnancy (approximately 12–13 weeks).

Placental circulation

Maternal placental circulation

In preparation for implantation, the uterine endometrium undergoes 'decidualisation'. Spiral arteries in decidua are remodeled so that they become less convoluted and their diameter is increased. The increased diameter and straighter flow path both act to increase maternal blood flow to the placenta. The relatively high pressure as the maternal blood fills intervillous space through these spiral arteries bathes the fetal villi in blood, allowing an exchange of gases to take place. In humans and other hemochorial placentals, the maternal blood comes into direct contact with the fetal chorion, though no fluid is exchanged. As the pressure decreases between pulses, the deoxygenated blood flows back through the endometrial veins.

Maternal blood flow is approx 600–700 ml/min at term.

Fetoplacental circulation

Deoxygenated fetal blood passes through umbilical arteries to the placenta. At the junction of umbilical cord and placenta, the umbilical arteries branch radially to form chorionic arteries. Chorionic arteries, in turn, branch into cotyledon arteries. In the villi, these vessels eventually branch to form an extensive arteriocapillary venous system, bringing the fetal blood extremely close to the maternal blood; but no intermingling of fetal and maternal blood occurs ("placental barrier").

Endothelin and prostanoids cause vasoconstriction in placental arteries, while nitric oxide vasodilation. On the other hand, there is no neural vascular regulation, and catecholamines have only little effect.

Functions

Nutrition and immunity

The perfusion of the intervillous spaces of the placenta with maternal blood allows the transfer of nutrients and oxygen from the mother to the fetus and the transfer of waste products and carbon dioxide back from the fetus to the maternal blood supply. Nutrient transfer to the fetus occurs via both active and passive transport. Active transport systems allow significantly different plasma concentrations of various large molecules to be maintained on the maternal and fetal sides of the placental barrier.

Adverse pregnancy situations, such as those involving maternal diabetes or obesity, can increase or decrease levels of nutrient transporters in the placenta resulting in overgrowth or restricted growth of the fetus.

IgG antibodies can pass through the human placenta, thereby providing protection to the fetus ''in utero''.

Endocrine function

In humans, aside from serving as the conduit for oxygen and nutrients for fetus, the placenta secretes hormones (secreted by syncytial layer/syncytiotrophoblast of chorionic villi) that are important during pregnancy.

Hormones:

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG). The first placental hormone produced is hCG, which can be found in maternal blood and urine as early as the first missed menstrual period (shortly after implantation has occurred) through about the 100th day of pregnancy. This is the hormone analyzed by pregnancy test; a false-negative result from a pregnancy test may be obtained before or after this period. Women's blood serum will be completely negative for hCG by one to two weeks after birth. hCG testing is proof that all placental tissue is delivered. hCG is only present during pregnancy because it is secreted by the placenta, which is present only during pregnancy. hCG also ensures that the corpus luteum continues to secrete progesterone and estrogen. Progesterone is very important during pregnancy because when its secretion decreases, the endometrial lining will slough off and pregnancy will be lost. hCG suppresses the maternal immunologic response so that placenta is not rejected.

Human Placental Lactogen (hPL [Human Chorionic Somatomammotropin]). This hormone is lactogenic and growth-promoting properties. It promotes mammary gland growth in preparation for lactation in the mother. It also regulates maternal glucose, protein, fat levels so that this is always available to the fetus.

Estrogen is referred to as the "hormone of women" because it stimulates the development of secondary female sex characteristics. It contributes to the woman's mammary gland development in preparation for lactation and stimulates uterine growth to accommodate growing fetus.

Progesterone is necessary to maintain endometrial lining of the uterus during pregnancy. This hormone prevents preterm labor by reducing myometrial contraction. Levels of progesterone are high during pregnancy.

Cloaking from immune system of mother

The placenta and fetus may be regarded as a foreign allograft inside the mother, and thus must evade from attack by the mother's immune system.

For this purpose, the placenta uses several mechanisms: It secretes Neurokinin B containing phosphocholine molecules. This is the same mechanism used by parasitic nematodes to avoid detection by the immune system of their host. Also, there is presence of small lymphocytic suppressor cells in the fetus that inhibit maternal cytotoxic T cells by inhibiting the response to interleukin 2.

However, the placental barrier is not the sole means to evade the immune system, as foreign fetal cells also persist in the maternal circulation, on the other side of the placental barrier.

Other functions

The placenta also provides a reservoir of blood for the fetus, delivering blood to it in case of hypotension and vice versa, comparable to a capacitor.

Birth

Placental expulsion begins as a physiological separation from the wall of the uterus. The period from just after the fetus is expelled until just after the placenta is expelled is called the ''third stage of labor''. The placenta is usually expelled within 15–30 minutes of the baby being born.

Placental expulsion can be managed actively, for example by giving oxytocin via intramuscular injection followed by cord traction to assist in delivering the placenta. Alternatively, it can be managed expectantly, allowing the placenta to be expelled without medical assistance. A Cochrane database study suggests that blood loss and the risk of postpartum bleeding will be reduced in women offered active management of the third stage of labour (needs updating).

Pathology

Numerous pathologies can affect the placenta.

Placenta accreta (when the placenta implants too deeply, into actual muscle of uterine wall)

Placenta praevia

Placental abruption/abruptio placentae

Infections involving the placenta:

Placentitis, such as the TORCH infections.

Chorioamnionitis.

Cultural practices and beliefs

The placenta often plays an important role in various cultures, with many societies conducting rituals regarding its disposal. In the Western world, the placenta is most often incinerated.

Some cultures bury the placenta for various reasons. The Māori of New Zealand traditionally bury the placenta from a newborn child to emphasize the relationship between humans and the earth. Similarly, the Navajo bury the placenta and umbilical cord at a specially chosen site, particularly if the baby dies during birth. In Cambodia and Costa Rica, burial of the placenta is believed to protect and ensure the health of the baby and the mother. If a mother dies in childbirth, the Aymara of Bolivia bury the placenta in a secret place so that the mother's spirit will not return to claim her baby's life.

The placenta is believed by some communities to have power over the lives of the baby or its parents. The Kwakiutl of British Columbia bury girls' placentas to give the girl skill in digging clams, and expose boys' placentas to ravens to encourage future prophetic visions. In Turkey, the proper disposal of the placenta and umbilical cord is believed to promote devoutness in the child later in life. In Ukraine, Transylvania, and Japan, interaction with a disposed placenta is thought to influence the parents' future fertility.

Several cultures believe the placenta to be or have been alive, often a relative of the baby. Nepalese think of the placenta as a friend of the baby's; Malaysian Orang Asli regard it as the baby's older sibling. The Ibo of Nigeria consider the placenta the deceased twin of the baby, and conduct full funeral rites for it. Native Hawaiians believe that the placenta is a part of the baby, and traditionally plant it with a tree which can then grow alongside the child.

In some cultures, the placenta is eaten, a practice known as placentophagy. In some eastern cultures, such as China and Hong Kong, the dried placenta (紫河車) is thought to be a healthful restorative and is sometimes used in preparations of traditional Chinese medicine and various health products.

Additional images

See also

Embryo

Childbirth

Uterus

References

External links

Additional Human placenta photography

The Placenta, gynob.com, with quotes from Williams Obstetrics, 18th Edition, F. Gary Cunningham, M.D., Paul C. MacDonald, M.D., Norman F. Grant, M.D., Appleton & Lange, Publishers.

Category:Developmental biology Category:Embryology of cardiovascular system Category:Organs Category:Greek loanwords

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name	January Jones
birth name	January Kristen Jones
birth date	January 05, 1978
birth place	Sioux Falls, South Dakota, U.S.
occupation	Actress
yearsactive	1999–present
website	}}

January Kristen Jones (born January 5, 1978) is an American actress. She is best known for playing Betty Draper on ''Mad Men''.

Early life

Jones was born and raised in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, the daughter of Karen and Marvin Jones, a coach and gym teacher. She is named after January Wayne, a character in Jacqueline Susann's ''Once Is Not Enough''. She has two sisters – Jacey and Jina.

Career

Jones has had supporting roles in ''Anger Management'' (2003), ''Love Actually,'' and ''Dirty Dancing: Havana Nights''. In 2005, she appeared as a U.S. border guard's frustrated wife in the film ''The Three Burials of Melquiades Estrada'' directed by and starring Tommy Lee Jones. In ''We Are Marshall'' (2006), she played the role of Carol Dawson, wife of football coach William "Red" Dawson.

She had the lead female role in the movie ''Love's Enduring Promise'' as a pioneer family's oldest child. Her character fell in love with a mysterious man who saved her father's life. She currently appears in the AMC original television drama series ''Mad Men'' as young suburban housewife and mother Betty Draper. She is also known for her role as Cadence Flaherty in the 2003 comedy ''American Wedding'', the third installment of the ''American Pie'' film series.

She appeared in the season 18 ''Law & Order'' episode "Quit Claim," playing a con artist who matches wits with Assistant District Attorney Michael Cutter, in which she is the lone surviving suspect connected to a real estate scam involving organized crime. She also appeared in ''The Boat That Rocked'', a British film about offshore pirate radio in the 1960s, renamed ''Pirate Radio'' for North American release in 2009.

Jones was ranked No.82 on the ''Maxim'' Hot 100 Women of 2002. She appeared on the cover of "The Hot Issue" of British ''GQ'' magazine in May 2009. In 2010, she was ranked No. 17 on the TC Chandler's "Most Beautiful Faces" list.

On November 14, 2009, Jones hosted an episode of ''Saturday Night Live'' which featured the musical guest The Black Eyed Peas, giving a performance that was met with negative reviews.

In 2011, she starred alongside Liam Neeson and Diane Kruger in the thriller film ''Unknown'', directed by Jaume Collet-Serra. and portrayed Emma Frost in ''X-Men: First Class''.

Awards and nominations

In 2005, Jones won a Camie (Character and Morality in Entertainment Awards) for ''Love's Enduring Promise'' (2004) (TV), shared with Robert Halmi, Jr. (executive producer), Larry Levinson (executive producer), Lincoln Lageson (executive producer), William Spencer Reilly (executive producer), Michael Landon, Jr. (Film director/screenwriter), Cindy Kelley (screenwriter), Janette Oke (author of original book), Logan Bartholomew (actor), Mackenzie Astin (actor), Dale Midkiff (actor) and Katherine Heigl (actress).

In 2006, she won the Bronze Wrangler at the Western Heritage Awards for Outstanding Theatrical Motion Picture for ''The Three Burials of Melquiades Estrada'' (2005), shared with Tommy Lee Jones (director/producer/actor), Michael Fitzgerald (producer), Luc Besson (producer), Pierre-Ange Le Pogam (producer), Guillermo Arriaga (writer), Barry Pepper (actor), Dwight Yoakam (actor), Julio Cedillo (actor), Levon Helm (actor), Melissa Leo (actress) and Vanessa Bauche (actress).

In 2008, she was nominated at the 14th Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series for ''Mad Men'' (2007), shared with Bryan Batt, Anne Dudek, Michael Gladis, Jon Hamm, Christina Hendricks, Vincent Kartheiser, Robert Morse, Elisabeth Moss, Maggie Siff, John Slattery, Rich Sommer and Aaron Staton.

In 2008 and 2009, she was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Television Series Drama for ''Mad Men'', and won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series for ''Mad Men''.

In 2010, she was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama for ''Mad Men''.

Personal life

Jones dated actor Ashton Kutcher when she first moved to Los Angeles. She then dated singer Josh Groban for three years. She dated the ''SNL'' star Jason Sudeikis from July 2010 until January 2011.

She announced in ''Vanity Fair'' in 2009 that she has joined Oceana as a celebrity spokesperson, working to save endangered sharks.

It was announced on April 28, 2011, that she is expecting her first child in the fall.

Influences

In 2010, Jones inspired an eponymous song by rapper Hoodie Allen.

Filmography

! Year	! Title	! Role	Notes
	''Sorority''	Number One	TV movie
	Jane Cohen	Episode: "Pilot"
''All the Rage''	Janice Taylor
	''''	Girl
''Bandits''	Claire / Pink Boots
	''In My Life''	Diane St. Croix	TV movie
	Elizabeth
	Tracy
	''Anger Management''	Gina
''American Wedding''	Cadence Flaherty
''Love Actually''	Jeannie
	''Dirty Dancing: Havana Nights''	Eve
''Love's Enduring Promise''	Missie Davis	TV movie
		Marisa Wells	Episode: "Huff (TV series)#Season 1 (2004–2005)
''''	Lou Ann Norton
	''Swedish Auto''	Darla
''[[We Are Marshall''	Carole Dawson
2007–present	''Mad Men''		52+ episodes
2008	''Law & Order''	Kim Brody
2009	''The Boat That Rocked''	Elenore	''Pirate Radio'' in North America
2010	''''	Laura Gerard
		Elizabeth Harris
''X-Men: First Class''	Emma Frost

References

External links

January Jones interview by Jack Nicholson

Category:1978 births Category:Actors from South Dakota Category:American female models Category:American film actors Category:American television actors Category:Living people Category:Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners Category:People from Sioux Falls, South Dakota Category:People from South Dakota Category:People from Los Angeles County, California

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name	Kate Beckinsale
birth name	Kathryn Bailey Beckinsale
birth date	July 26, 1973
birth place	Finsbury Park, North London, England, UK
occupation	Actress
partner
years active	1991–present
spouse
parents	Richard BeckinsaleJudy Loe
relatives
website	}}

Kathryn Bailey "Kate" Beckinsale (born 26 July 1973) is an English actress.

She initially came to prominence in the 1990s for her roles in costume dramas such as ''Cold Comfort Farm'', ''Much Ado About Nothing'' and ''Emma''. Following a breakout performance in 2001's ''Pearl Harbor'', she has appeared in big-budget Hollywood movies like ''The Aviator'', the ''Underworld'' films and ''Van Helsing'' as well as smaller independent movies such as ''Everybody's Fine'' and ''Winged Creatures''. She earned a Critic's Choice Award nomination for her performance in 2008's ''Nothing But the Truth''.

She has three films set for release in 2012: ''Underworld 4'', ''Contraband'' and ''Total Recall''.

Early life

Beckinsale was born in London to actor Richard Beckinsale and actress Judy Loe. Her father unexpectedly died from a heart attack in 1979 (at the age of 31) when she was just five years old. Her mother later married director Roy Battersby, and Beckinsale was raised alongside his four sons and daughter. She also has a paternal half-sister, actress Samantha Beckinsale.

Beckinsale attended Godolphin and Latymer School in West London and was involved with the Orange Tree Youth Theatre. In her teens, she twice won the W. H. Smith Young Writers' competition—once for short stories and once for poetry. She had a nervous breakdown and developed anorexia at the age of fifteen and underwent Freudian psychoanalysis for four years.

She studied French and Russian literature at New College, Oxford University and was involved with the Oxford University Dramatic Society, most notably being directed by fellow student Tom Hooper in a production of ''A View from the Bridge'' at the Oxford Playhouse. She spent her third year in Paris as part of Oxford's study-abroad program, after which she decided to leave university to concentrate on her burgeoning acting career.

Career

Beckinsale landed her first major role, in Kenneth Branagh's big-screen Shakespearean adaptation, ''Much Ado About Nothing'', during her first year at Oxford University. She filmed three other movies while at university: ''Prince of Jutland'', ''Uncovered'' and French-language ''Marie-Louise Ou La Permission''. Shortly after leaving Oxford, Beckinsale appeared in ''Cold Comfort Farm'', ''Haunted'' and the TV adaptation of Jane Austen's ''Emma''. In 1995 and 1996, Beckinsale worked on four plays, most notably ''The Seagull'' opposite Michael Sheen. In 1997, she starred in ''Shooting Fish'' and as Juliet in a radio production of Romeo and Juliet opposite her then partner, Michael Sheen, who also directed.

Beckinsale then began to seek work in Los Angeles, starring in 1998's ''The Last Days of Disco'' with Chloe Sevigny and 1999's ''Brokedown Palace'' with Claire Danes. The former earned her a London Critics Circle Film Award. After a break following the birth of her daughter, Beckinsale was cast in 2001's ''Pearl Harbor'' opposite Ben Affleck and Josh Hartnett, one of the highest-grossing films of its year. She followed this with ''Serendipity'', ''The Golden Bowl'' and ''Laurel Canyon''.

She became known as an action star following staring roles in ''Underworld'' and ''Van Helsing''. In 2004, she portrayed Ava Gardner in Martin Scorsese's ''The Aviator'', a role for which she gained almost 1½ stones (21 lbs). Other roles included Click with Adam Sandler and Tiptoes with Gary Oldman.

In 2006, Beckinsale reprised her role as a vampire in the successful sequel ''Underworld: Evolution'' and, in 2007, she appeared in thriller ''Vacancy'' and independent film ''Snow Angels''. In 2008, she appeared in Winged Creatures and Nothing But the Truth, receiving a Critic's Choice Award nomination for her performance in the latter. Despite strong award buzz for both Beckinsale and co-star Vera Farmiga, the film never received a full theatrical release after the distributor filed for bankruptcy. In 2009, she starred in the comic-book adaption Whiteout and Everybody's Fine opposite Robert De Niro.

Beckinsale has three films set for release in 2012: ''Underworld 4'', ''Contraband'' and ''Total Recall''.

Personal life

Beckinsale married American director Len Wiseman on 9 May 2004 in Bel-Air, California. They live in Los Angeles with Beckinsale's daughter, Lily Mo Sheen.

Beckinsale previously had a eight-year relationship with Welsh actor Michael Sheen from 1995 to 2003, after meeting when cast in a touring production of ''The Seagull''. Their daughter, Lily Mo Sheen, was born 31 January 1999. The relationship ended after the filming of ''Underworld'' (in which they both starred) because Beckinsale realised she had fallen for the film's married director, Len Wiseman. The former couple have remained close friends. Beckinsale has said, "I love him dearly – I would miss him dreadfully if he wasn't in my life." "He is one of the most thoughtful, principled people and Lily is so lucky to have him as a dad."

Filmography

! Year	! Title	! Role	Notes
1991	''Devices and Desires''	Young Alice Mair	Television - ITV (one episode)
1991	''One Against the Wind''	Barbe Lindell	Television film - Hallmark Hall of Fame/CBS
1992	''Rachel's Dream''	Rachel	Television - Channel 4
1993	''Anna Lee: Headcase''	Thea Hahn	Television - ITV
1993		Hero
1994		Julia
1994		Ethel
1995	''Marie-Louise Ou La Permission''	Marie-Louise
1995		Flora Poste
1995		Christina Mariell
1996		Emma Woodhouse	Television film - ITV
1997	''Shooting Fish''	Georgie
1998	''The Last Days of Disco''	Charlotte Pingress
1998	''Alice Through the Looking Glass''	Alice	Television film - Channel 4
1999	''Brokedown Palace''	Darlene Davis
2001		Nurse Lt. Evelyn Johnson
2001		Sara Thomas
2001		Maggie Verver
2002		Alex Elliot
2003
2003	''Tiptoes''	Carol
2004		Ava Gardner
2004		Anna Valerious
2006	''Underworld: Evolution''	Selene
2006		Donna Newman
2007		Amy Fox
2007		Annie Marchand
2008		Rachel Armstrong
2008		Carla Davenport
2009	''Underworld: Rise of the Lycans''		voice only
2009		Carrie Stetko
2009		Amy
2012	''Underworld: Awakening''		''Post-production''
2012		Kate Farraday	''Post-production''
2012		Lori	''Filming''

Stage

''The Seagull'' (as Nina), Theatre Royal, Bath and Tour, 1995

''Sweetheart'' (as Toni), Royal Court Theatre, 1996

''Clocks and Whistles'' (as Anne), The Bush, 1996

''Faithless'', unknown London theatre, 1996

Radio

Narrated ''Emma'' (1996) for Hodder & Stoughton AudioBooks and Diana Hendry's ''The Proposal'' (1997) for BBC Radio 4. Appeared as Juliet in the Naxos AudioBooks's production of ''Romeo and Juliet'' (1997).

Awards and nominations

Year	! Award	! Award ceremony	! Film	! Result
1997	Best Actress	Sitges - Catalonian International Film Festival	''Shooting Fish''	Won
1999	British Supporting Actress of the Year (tied with Minnie Driver for ''Good Will Hunting'')	London Critics Circle Film Awards	''The Last Days of Disco''	Won
2002	Best Actress	Saturn Award		Nominated
2004	Best Actress	Saturn Award		Nominated
2004	Best Trans-Atlantic Breakthrough Performer	MTV Movie Awards		Nominated
2005	Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture (shared with the cast)	Screen Actors Guild Awards		Nominated
2005	Favorite Female Action Movie Star	People's Choice Awards		Nominated
2006	Best Hero	MTV Movie Awards	''Underworld: Evolution''	Nominated
2006	Favorite Female Action Star	People's Choice Awards		Nominated
2008	Best Actress	Broadcast Film Critics Association Award		Nominated

References

External links

Category:1973 births Category:Alumni of New College, Oxford Category:British people of Burmese descent Category:English expatriates in the United States Category:English film actors Category:English television actors Category:Actors from London Category:Old Dolphins Category:Living people Category:People from Finsbury Park

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