The monarchies in Malaysia refer to the constitutional monarchy system as practiced in Malaysia. Nine of the states of Malaysia are constitutionally headed by traditional Malay rulers. The rulers elect among themselves the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, the federal constitutional monarch and head of state of Malaysia.
The nine states with a ruler are collectively referred to as the Malay States. Eight are hereditary monarchies; they are Kedah, Kelantan, Johor, Perlis, Pahang, Perak, Selangor and Terengganu. One state, Negeri Sembilan, is an elective monarchy; the ruler is elected from the male members of the royal family. As the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected among the rulers,[1] Malaysia as a whole is also an elective monarchy.
All of these states are constitutional monarchies, which means that the rulers do not influence the politics of the state, although this convention has been breached on occasion.[fn 1][2] The rulers play a constitutional role as head of the religion of Islam in their respective states.[3] Malaysia itself is a constitutional monarchy, with the Yang di-Pertuan Agong performing the ceremonial role of appointing the prime minister, who commands a majority in the Dewan Rakyat, Malaysia's lower house of Parliament.[4] Similarly, the rulers appoint the heads of government in their states, known as Menteri Besar (pl. Menteris Besar), who command majorities in the respective state legislative assemblies.
The four other Malaysian states that do not have monarchs have Yang di-Pertua Negeri (roughly translated as governor) as their heads of state instead. The Yang di-Pertua Negeri are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and their roles are also largely ceremonial.[5]
Rulers and Yang di-Pertua Negeri convene triannually in the Conference of Rulers (Malay: Majlis Raja-Raja). The Conference exercises powers over matters related to religion, observances and ceremonies in Malaysia. It also elects the Yang di-Pertuan Agong every five years.[6]
Historically, various Malay kingdoms flourished on the Malay peninsula. The earliest kingdoms were influenced by Hindu culture, the most notable being Langkasuka in present-day Kedah. In the 15th century, the Malacca Sultanate became the dominant power on the peninsula. The Malacca Sultanate was the first Malay Muslim state based on the peninsula that was also a real regional maritime power. After the fall of Malacca in 1511, several local rulers emerged in the northern part of the peninsula which later fell under Siamese influence, while two princes of the Malaccan royal family founded Johor and Perak respectively. The Sultanate of Johor emerged as the dominant power on the peninsula. The vast territory of Johor led to some areas gaining autonomy, which gradually developed into independent states.
In the 19th century, as various infighting among the Malay aristocracy threatened British economic interests in the region, the British began a policy of intervention. The British concluded treaties with some Malay states, installing “residents” as advisors to the rulers, who soon became the de facto ruling powers of their states.[7] These residents held power in everything except in religion affairs and Malay customs. In 1895, the governance of Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perak and Selangor were combined as the Federated Malay States, headed by a Resident General based in Kuala Lumpur. The British wrestled Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terengganu from Siamese influence, and in turn they each received a British “advisor”. Johor was the last state to succumb to British pressure, receiving an advisor in 1914. These five states were known as the Unfederated Malay States.
In 1946, after World War II, the British combined the Federated Malay States and the Unfederated Malay States, together with two of the Straits Settlements, Penang and Malacca, to form the Malayan Union which was headed by a British governor. Under the terms of the Union, the Malay rulers conceded all their powers to the British Crown except in religious matters. Widespread opposition by Malay nationalists led to the reform of Malayan Union to become the Federation of Malaya in 1948, in which the rulers were restored to their symbolic role as heads of state.
The present form of constitutional monarchy in Malaysia dates from 1957, when the Federation of Malaya gained independence. The rulers serve as constitutional heads of their states, with the state executive powers exercised by state governments elected by the people. The rulers elect among themselves a federal head of state, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, with the federal executive powers exercised by an elected federal government. The form of constitutional monarchy was retained when Malaysia was formed in 1963.
According to the Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa, the Kingdom of Kedah was founded around 630 CE by Maharaja Derbar Raja, who arrived from Gameroon, Persia. The Sultanate of Kedah was founded when the last Hindu king, Phra Ong Mahawangsa, converted to Islam in 1136. He took the name Sultan Mudzafar Shah. Sultan Mudzafar's descendants continue to rule Kedah today.[8]
The seat of the Sultan of Kedah is Anak Bukit.[9]
After centuries of subordination by Majapahit, Malacca, Siam and Terengganu, Long Muhammad, son of Long Yunus, declared himself Sultan in 1800 and gained recognition as a tributary by the Siamese. Control over Kelantan was transferred to the British under the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909.[10]
The state capital, Kota Bharu, also serves as the royal city. The main palace for ceremonial functions is Istana Balai Besar, while Istana Negeri serves as the current sultan's residence. The previous sultan, who is still living, resides at Istana Mahkota.[11]
The early Sultans of Johor claimed to be a continuation of the Malacca Sultanate. The first Sultan, Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II was the son of the last Sultan of Malacca, who reigned from 1528. In the 19th century, with support from the British, the Temenggong family gained recognition as rulers of the state. Its first sultan, Maharaja Abu Bakar is known as the founder of "modern Johor". His descendants rule the state today.[12]
The Sultan of Johor resides in the capital, Johor Bahru.
Negeri Sembilan's monarchy incorporates a form of federalism, whereby the state is divided into smaller luak(chiefdoms), each with a ruling undang (chieftain). Four of the major chieftains elect the Yang di-Pertuan Besar (Yamtuan Besar), who is the Head of State of Negeri Sembilan.[13]
The first Yamtuan Besar was Raja Melewar, who united the nine small states of Negeri Sembilan, each of which were ruled by a local chieftain.[14] He was sent from the Pagaruyung Kingdom at the request of the Minangkabau nobility in the nine small states in the Malay Peninsula in the 18th century. Raja Melewar was succeeded by other princes sent from Pagaruyung, whose sons did not inherit the throne until Raja Raden in 1831, who was the son of Raja Lenggang.[15]
The seat of the Yamtuan Besar is Seri Menanti.
Chieftains are selected among the nobility in each Luak, following matrilineal inheritance, part of the state's adat perpatih customs. The Undang of Sungai Ujong is chosen among the Waris Hulu and Waris Hilir families, and inherits the title Dato' Kelana Petra Seri Jaya.[16] The Undang of Jelebu is elected among the four noble houses, Waris Jelebu, Waris Ulu Jelebu, Waris Sarin and Waris Kemin.[17] Undangs of Johol are a succession of members of a single family in the female line. The son of the eldest sister of the incumbent is usually the heir.[18] The Undang of Rembau alternates between the two major noble houses in the Luak, namely the Waris Jakun (who inherit the title Dato' Lela Maharaja) and the Waris Jawa (Dato' Sedia di-Raja). As with the undangs of Johol, the son of the eldest sister of the incumbent is the heir in the family.[19]
In addition, the district of Tampin has its own hereditary ruler, known as the Tunku Besar. The Tunku Besars of Tampin are descendants of Sharif Sha'aban Syed Ibrahim al-Qadri, the son-in-law of Raja Ali, a member of the state royal family who challenged the reign of the Yang di-Pertuan Besar in the early 19th century.[20]
The modern royal house of Pahang is a branch of the royal family of Johor. They held the title of Bendahara. In 1853, the Bndahara, Tun Muhammad Tahir, broke away from the Johor sultan and declared the state of Pahang independent. He was later deposed by his brother Ahmad, who declared himself Sultan in 1884.[21]
Syed Hussein Jamalullail, the son of Syed Abu Bakar Jamalullail, the chief of Arau, and a daughter of Sultan Dziaddin of Kedah, was recognized as Raja of Perlis by the Siamese after helping them suppress a rebelliong by the Raja of Ligor, a microstate in the Pattani region. The Jamalullails are of Arab descent and continue to rule the state of Perlis.[22]
The seat of the Raja of Perlis is Arau.
The succession order is generally determined roughly by agnatic primogeniture. No female may become ruler, and female line descendants are generally excluded from succession as well. The main exception is Negeri Sembilan. The Yang di-Pertuan Besar of the state is nominally elected by a council of Four Ruling Chieftains (Undang Empat), although succession stays within the state royal family.[23] In 1967, after the death of Tuanku Munawir, his son, Tunku Muhriz was not selected as the next Yang di-Pertuan Besar because of his youth. Instead, the Chieftains elected his uncle, Tuanku Jaafar, to succeed his father. In 2008, upon the death of Tuanku Jaafar, the Chieftains passed over Jaafar's son and elected Tunku Muhriz as the next ruler.[24]
The title of the consort of a monarch is not generally fixed and not automatically obtained by courtesy. A consort may only use a title if it is granted to her either by order of the ruler or during a coronation ceremony.[25] The consorts of different states have different titles, some do not even receive one.[26] The title of a consort in a state may also change depending on the ruler. For instance, the wife of Sultan Ismail Nasiruddin of Terengganu was known as the Tengku Ampuan Besar,[27] while the wife of his grandson Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin is known as the Sultanah (formerly Permaisuri).[28]
Titles of consorts usually take the form Cik Puan, Raja Perempuan, Sultanah, Tengku Ampuan, Raja Permaisuri, Tengku Permaisuri, or Permaisuri.[29]
- ^ Previous consort was incorrectly referred to as Sultanah
The royal capitals are the cities and towns where the official residences of the rulers are situated. In some states, the royal capital is different from the administrative capital.
The Yang di-Pertuan Agong resides in Kuala Lumpur.
- ^ In 2008, Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin of Terengganu refused to appoint incumbent Idris Jusoh as Menteri Besar despite the latter's party winning a majority in the state assembly. Another member of the majority party was appointed instead.
