A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being struck or scraped by a beater (including attached or enclosed beaters or rattles), or struck, scraped or rubbed by hand, or struck against another similar instrument. The percussion family is believed to include the oldest musical instruments.^[1]

The percussion section of an orchestra, however, traditionally contains in addition many instruments that are not, strictly speaking, percussion, such as whistles and sirens. On the other hand, keyboard instruments such as the celesta are not normally part of the percussion section, but keyboard percussion instruments (which do not have keyboards) are included.

Percussion instruments are most commonly divided into two classes: Tuned percussion instruments, which produce notes with an identifiable pitch, and untuned percussion instruments, which produce notes without an identifiable pitch.^[2][3]

Classification[link]

Hornbostel–Sachs has no high-level section for percussion. Most percussion instruments (as the term is normally understood) are classified as idiophones and membranophones. However the term percussion is instead used at the lower levels of the Hornbostel–Sachs hierarchy, including to identify instruments struck either with a non-sonorous object (hand, stick, striker) or against a non-sonorous object (human body, the ground) as opposed to concussion which refers to instruments in which two or more complementary sonorous parts are struck against each other, and for other purposes. For example:

111.1 Concussion idiophones or clappers, played in pairs and beaten against each other, such as zills and clapsticks.

111.2 Percussion idiophones, includes many percussion instruments played with the hand or by a percussion mallet, such as the hang, gongs and the xylophone, but not drums and only some cymbals.

21 Struck drums, includes most types of drum, such as the timpani and snare drum.

412.12 Percussion reeds, a class of wind instrument unrelated to percussion in the more common sense

There are many instruments that have some claim to being percussion, but are classified otherwise:

• Keyboard instruments such as the celesta and piano.^[4]
• Stringed instruments played with beaters such as the hammered dulcimer.
• Unpitched whistles and similar instruments, such as the pea whistle and Acme siren.

The word "percussion" has evolved from Latin terms: "percussio" (which translates as "to beat, strike" in the musical sense, rather than the violent action), and "percussus" (which is a noun meaning "a beating"). As a noun in contemporary English it is described in Wiktionary as "the collision of two bodies to produce a sound". The usage of the term is not unique to music but has application in medicine and weaponry, as in percussion cap, but all known and common uses of the word, "percussion", appear to share a similar lineage beginning with the original Latin: "percussus". In a musical context then, the term "percussion instruments" may have been coined originally to describe a family of musical instruments including drums, rattles, metal plates, or blocks which musicians would beat or strike (as in a collision) to produce sound.

Percussion beaters and sticks

History[link]

Anthropologists and historians often speculate that percussion instruments were the first musical devices ever created. The human voice was probably the first musical instrument, but percussion instruments such as hands and feet, then sticks and rocks, were in widespread use long before recorded musical history.

Function[link]

Percussion instruments may play not only rhythm, but also melody and harmony.

Percussion is commonly referred to as "the backbone" or "the heartbeat" of a musical ensemble, often working in close collaboration with bass instruments, when present. In jazz and other popular music ensembles, the pianist, bassist and the drummer are often referred to as the rhythm section. Most classical pieces written for full orchestra since the time of Haydn and Mozart are orchestrated to place emphasis on the strings, woodwinds, and brass. However, often at least one pair of timpani is included, though they rarely play continuously. Rather, they serve to provide additional accents when needed. In the 18th and 19th centuries, other percussion instruments (like the triangle or cymbals) have been used, again relatively sparingly in general. The use of percussion instruments became more frequent in the 20th century classical music.

In almost every style of music, percussion plays a pivotal role. In military marching bands and pipes and drums, it is the beat of the bass drum that keeps the soldiers in step and at a regular speed, and it is the snare that provides that crisp, decisive air to the tune of a regiment. In classic jazz, one almost immediately thinks of the distinctive rhythm of the hi-hats or the ride cymbal when the word "swing" is spoken. In more recent popular music culture, it is almost impossible to name three or four rock, hip-hop, rap, funk or even soul charts or songs that do not have some sort of percussive beat keeping the tune in time.

Because of the diversity of percussive instruments, it is not uncommon to find large musical ensembles composed entirely of percussion. Rhythm, melody, and harmony are all represented in these ensembles.

Percussion notation[link]

Music for pitched percussion instruments can be notated on a staff with the same treble and bass clefs used by many non-percussive instruments. Music for percussive instruments without a definite pitch can be notated with a specialist rhythm or percussion-clef; More often a treble clef (or sometimes a bass clef) is substituted for rhythm clef.

Classifications[link]

Percussion instruments are classified by various criteria sometimes depending on their construction, ethnic origin, function within musical theory and orchestration, or their relative prevalence in common knowledge.

Percussion instruments are sometimes classified as "pitched" or "unpitched." While valid, this classification is widely seen as inadequate. Rather, it may be more informative to describe percussion instruments in regards to one or more of the following four paradigms:

By methods of sound production[link]

Many texts, including Teaching Percussion by Gary Cook of the University of Arizona, begin by studying the physical characteristics of instruments and the methods by which they can produce sound. This is perhaps the most scientifically pleasing assignment of nomenclature whereas the other paradigms are more dependent on historical or social circumstances. Based on observation and experimentation, one can determine how an instrument produces sound and then assign the instrument to one of the following four categories:

Idiophone[link]

"Idiophones produce sounds through the vibration of their entire body."^[5] Examples of idiophones:

• Bock-a-da-bock
• Cabasa
• Cajón
• Celesta
• Chimes
• Cowbell
• Crash cymbals
• Crotales
• Güiro
• Handbells
• Hi-hat
• Lummi stick
• Marimba
• Orchestra bells
• Piano
• Quadrangularis Reversum
• Singing bowls
• Slit drum
• Steelpan
• Suspended cymbal
• Tongue drums
• Triangle
• Vibraphone
• Vibraslap
• Wood block
• Xylophone

Membranophone[link]

Most objects commonly known as "drums" are membranophones. "Membranophones produce sound when the membrane or head is struck."^[5]

Examples of membranophones:

• Bass drum
• Bongos
• Conga
• Darbuka
• Djembe
• Mridangam
• Octoban
• Snare drum
• Tabla
• Timpani
• Tom-tom

• The lion's roar and the cuíca are friction instruments which are not struck like other drums, but the sound is produced by applying friction to a string (lion's roar) or to a stick (cuíca) that is attached to the center of the membrane. In both cases, it is the membrane that vibrates, not the string nor the stick, thus ensuring their classification as membranophones. In the case of the lion's roar, a resined string (or gut) is fastened through a hole in the membrane. In the case of the cuíca, the stick is attached (tied) to the membrane before it is stretched and tightened to the body of the instrument, and the stick is accessible by placing one hand inside the body, rubbed with a wet cloth.
• Wind machines: A wind machine in this context is not a wind tunnel and therefore not an aerophone. Instead, it is an apparatus (often used in theatre as a sound effect) in which a sheet of canvas (a membrane) is rubbed against a screen or resonator; this action produces a sound which resembles the blowing of wind.

Chordophone[link]

Most instruments known as "chordophones" are defined as string instruments, but some such as these examples are percussion instruments also.

• Hammered dulcimer, Cimbalom
• Onavillu

Aerophone[link]

Most instruments known as "aerophones" are defined as wind instruments such as a saxophone whereby sound is produced by a person or thing blowing air through the object. Examples of aerophones played by percussionists:

• Apito or samba whistle
• Siren
• Slide whistle
• Whistle or police whistle

By musical function or orchestration[link]

When classifying instruments by function it is useful to note if a percussion instrument makes a definite pitch or indefinite pitch.

For example, some percussion instruments (such as the marimba and timpani) produce an obvious fundamental pitch and can therefore play melody and serve harmonic functions in music. Other instruments (such as crash cymbals and snare drums) produce sounds with such complex overtones and a wide range of prominent frequencies that no pitch is discernible.

Definite pitch[link]

Percussion instruments in this group are sometimes referred to as "pitched" or "tuned".

Examples of percussion instruments with definite pitch:

• Anvil
• Caisadrum
• Chimes/Tubular bells
• Crotales
• Glass harmonica
• Glass harp
• Glockenspiel
• Handbells
• Hang
• Marimba
• Mridangam
• Steelpan
• Tabla
• Timpani
• Tuned Triangle
• Vibraphone
• Wind chimes
• Xylophone
• Xylo-marimba

Indefinite pitch[link]

Instruments in this group are sometimes referred to as "non-pitched", "unpitched", or "untuned". Traditionally these intruments are thought of as making a sound that contains such complex frequencies that no discernible pitch can be heard.

In fact many traditionally unpitched instruments, such as triangles and even cymbals, have also been produced as tuned sets.^[6]

Examples of percussion instruments with indefinite pitch:

• Bass drum
• Castanets
• Cymbals
• Rainstick
• Slapstick or whip
• Snare drum
• Tamtam
• Tom-tom

By prevalence in common knowledge[link]

Although it is difficult to define what is "common knowledge", there are instruments in use by percussionists and composers in contemporary music which are certainly not considered by most to be musical instruments of any kind. Therefore, it is worthwhile to try to make distinction between instruments based on their acceptance or consideration by a general audience.

For example, it is safe to argue that most people would not consider an anvil, a brake drum (the circular hub which houses the brake on the wheel of a motor vehicle), or a fifty-five gallon oil barrel to be musical instruments, yet these objects are used regularly by composers and percussionists of modern music.

One might assign various percussion instruments to one of the following categories:

Conventional or popular[link]

• Drum kit
• Gong
• Tambourine

Unconventional[link]

(Sometimes referred to as "found" instruments or as custom percussion)

• Automobile Brake Drum
• Beer kegs
• Brooms
• Clay pots
• Five gallon buckets
• Garbage cans
• Metal pipes
• Metal pots
• Plastic bag
• Rocks in a bucket
• Shopping carts
• Spokes on a bicycle wheel

John Cage, Harry Partch, Edgard Varèse, and Peter Schickele, all noted composers, created entire pieces of music using unconventional instruments. Beginning in the early 20th century, perhaps with Ionisation by Edgard Varèse which used air-raid sirens (among other things), composers began to require percussionists to invent or "find" objects to produce the desired sounds and textures. Another example includes the use of a hammer and saw in Penderecki's De Natura Sonoris No. 2. By late 20th century, such instruments had become common in modern percussion ensemble music and popular productions, such as the off-Broadway show, Stomp. Rock band Aerosmith used a number of unconventional instruments in their song Sweet Emotion, including shotguns, brooms, and a sugar bag.

By cultural significance or tradition[link]

It is not uncommon to discuss percussion instruments in relation to their cultural origin. This has led to a division between instruments which are considered "common" or "modern," and folk instruments which have a significant history or purpose within a geographic region or cultural group.

Folk percussion instruments[link]

Some percussion instruments

Ancient Chinese musical bronze bells from the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, c. 6th century BC.

• Berimbau
• Bodhrán
• Bombo legüero
• Cajon
• Dhaa
• Dhime
• Dhol
• Dholak
• Djembe
• Dunun
• Gamelan
• Kalimba (Thumb Piano)
• Kpanlogo
• Lagerphone
• Latin percussion
• Madal
• Marimba
• Marimbula
• Naykheen
• Pogo cello
• Skrabalai
• Steelpan
• Tabla
• Taiko
• Tambourine
• Thavil
• Timbales
• Tonbak
• Urumee
• Udukai

"Common" drums[link]

This category includes instruments which are widely available and popular throughout the world:

• Drum kit, typically consisting of:
  • Bass drum
  • Crash cymbal
  • Floor tom
  • Hi-Hat cymbals
  • Snare drum
  • Tom-tom drums
• Marching percussion instruments
• Orchestral percussion instruments

Names for percussionists[link]

The general term for a musician who plays percussion instruments is "percussionist" but the terms listed below are often used to describe a person's specialties:

• Balafonist: a balafon player
• Bombisto: a bombo legüero player
• Bongocero: someone who plays bongos and usually cencerro (a cow bell)
• Congalero, conguero: someone who plays congas
• Cymbalist: someone who plays cymbals
• Djembefola: djembe player.
• Drummer: a term usually used to describe someone who plays the drumset, hand drums or a single drum such as Snare drum.
• Glockenspielist: someone who plays the glockenspiel.
• Güirero: someone who plays the güira, a Dominican scraper used in merengue music
• Marimbist: a marimba player
• Panman, pannist: a steelpan player
• Timbalero, timbero: someone who plays timbales
• Timpanist: a timpani player
• Vibraphonist: a vibraphone player
• Xylophonist: a xylophone player

Manufacturers[link]

For a list of percussion instrument manufacturing companies, see the categories link down below this article.

See also[link]

	Percussion portal
	Music portal

• Beatboxing
• Bock-a-da-bock
• Drum
• Drum beat (including a list of drum beats)
• Drum Corps International
• Drum Kit
• Drumline
• Electronic drum
• Hand percussion
• Klopotec
• Latin percussion
• List of percussionists
• Melodic percussion instrument
• Musical Stones of Skiddaw
• Orchestral percussion
• Percussion notation
• Percussive Arts Society
• Pipes and Drums Corps
• Practice pad
• Vocal percussion

Notes and references[link]

Further reading[link]

• James Blades, Percussion Instruments and Their History, (1970).
• Shen, Sinyan, Acoustics of Ancient Chinese Bells, Scientific American, 256, 94 (1987).
• Schick, Steven (May 2006). The Percussionist's Art - Same Bed, Different Dreams. University of Rochester Press. ISBN 978-1-58046-214-3. http://www.urpress.com/store/viewItem.asp?idProduct=10918. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Percussion instruments

• Percussion instruments at the Open Directory Project
• Drummer Brasil — Website for drummers and percussionists
• Video clips of percussion instruments demonstrated
• Drum Museum, Information about antique hand drums from Africa, New Guinea and the Himalayas

Norman McLaren
Norman McLaren drawing directly on film (1944)
Born	(1914-04-11)April 11, 1914 Stirling, Scotland
Died	January 27, 1987(1987-01-27) (aged 72) Montreal, Canada
Occupation	Animator Film director Film producer
Years active	1933 - 1987
Partner	Guy Glover

Norman McLaren, CC, CQ (11 April 1914 – 27 January 1987) was a Scottish-born Canadian animator and film director known for his work for the National Film Board of Canada (NFB).^[1] He was a pioneer in a number of areas of animation and filmmaking, including drawn on film animation, visual music, abstract film, pixilation and graphical sound.^[2][3]

His awards included an Oscar for the Best Documentary in 1952 for Neighbours, a Silver Bear for best short documentary at the 1956 Berlin International Film Festival Rythmetic and a 1969 BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film for Pas de deux.^[4]

Early life[link]

McLaren was born in Stirling, Scotland and studied set design at the Glasgow School of Art.^[1] His early experiments with film and animation included actually scratching and painting the film stock itself, as he did not have ready access to a camera. His earliest extant film, Seven Till Five (1933), a "day in the life of an art school" was influenced by Eisenstein and displays a strongly formalist attitude.

McLaren's next film, Camera Makes Whoopee (1935), was a more elaborate take on the themes explored in Seven Till Five, inspired by his acquisition of a Ciné-Kodak camera, which enabled him to execute a number of 'trick' shots. McLaren used pixilation effects, superimpositions and animation not only to display the staging of an art school ball, but also to tap into the aesthetic sensations supposedly produced by this event.

His two early films won prizes at the Scottish Amateur Film Festival, where fellow Scot and future NFB founder John Grierson was a judge.^[5]

Professional career[link]

GPO Film Unit[link]

Grierson, who was at that time head of the General Post Office film unit, saw another of his movies at an amateur film festival and took interest.^[1] He hired McLaren for the GPO after his studies, following a stint as cameraman on Defence of Madrid, Ivor Montagu’s documentary on the Spanish Civil War.^[5][6] McLaren worked at the GPO from 1936 to 1939, making four films including: Book Bargain (1937), Mony a Pickle and Love on the Wing (1938), and News for the Navy (1938).^[6]

Solomon Guggenheim Foundation[link]

McLaren then moved to New York City in 1939, just as World War II was about to begin in Europe. With a grant from the Solomon Guggenheim Foundation, he worked in New York until 1941, making four drawn-on-film animated works: Boogie-Doodle (1940), along with Dots, Loops and Stars and Stripes.^[7][8]

NFB[link]

At the invitation of Grierson, he moved to Canada in 1941 to work for the National Film Board, to open an animation studio and to train Canadian animators. Upon McLaren's arrival in Canada, Grierson asked him to direct a promotional film reminding Canadians to mail their Christmas cards early, Mail Early (1941). He then worked on animated shorts as well as maps for Allied propaganda documentary films, followed by his War Bonds campaign films: V for Victory (1941), 5 for 4 (1942), Hen Hop (1942) and Dollar Dance (1943).^[6]

As of 1942, McLaren could no longer keep up with the demands for animation at the fast-growing NFB, and he was asked by Grierson to recruit art students and create a small animation team—a task made more difficult because many young students had gone off to fight in the war. McLaren founds recruits for his fledgling animation unit at the École des beaux-arts de Montréal and the Ontario College of Art, including René Jodoin, George Dunning, Jim McKay, Grant Munro and his future collaborator, Evelyn Lambart. McLaren trained these emerging animators, who would all work on cartoons, animated cards and propaganda documentaries before going on to make their own films. Studio A, the NFB's first animation studio, formally came into existence as of January 1943, with McLaren as its head.^[6][1]

During his work for the NFB, McLaren created his most famous film, Neighbours (1952), which has won various awards around the world, including the Canadian Film Award and the Academy Award. Besides the brilliant combination of visuals and sound, the film has a very strong social message against violence and war. In his early period in Canada, McLaren spent considerable time developing the animation department of the board.^[1]

In 2006, the Film Board marked the 65th anniversary of NFB animation with an international retrospective of McLaren's restored classics and a new DVD box set of his complete works.

UNESCO[link]

In addition to film, McLaren worked with UNESCO in the 1950s and 1960s on programs to teach film and animation techniques in China and India.^[1] His five part "Animated Motion" shorts, produced in the late 1970s, are an excellent example of instruction on the basics of film animation.

Awards and achievements[link]

McLaren is remembered for his experiments with image and sound as he developed a number of groundbreaking techniques for combining and synchronizing animation with music.

The National Film Board honoured McLaren's genius by naming its Montreal head office building the Norman McLaren Building. The Montreal borough of Saint-Laurent, which is home to the NFB, has also honoured McLaren by naming a borough district after him.

Lifetime achievement awards

In 1968 he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada and promoted to Companion in 1973. In 1982, he was the first anglophone to receive the Prix Albert-Tessier, given to persons for an outstanding career in Québec cinema.

In 2009, McLaren's works were added to UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme, listing the most significant documentary heritage collections in the world, joining such works as the Gutenberg Bible and The Wizard of Oz.^[9]

Awards for McLaren's films[link]

Academy Awards (USA)

• (1953) Oscar - Best Documentary, Short Subjects for Neighbours (1952)

Annie Awards (USA)

• (1975) Annie Award: Winsor McCay Award

BAFTA Awards (England)

• (1969) BAFTA Film Award Best Animated Film for Pas de Deux (1968)^[10]

Berlin International Film Festival

• (1951) Silver Medal (Culture Films and Documentaries) award for Begone Dull Care^[11]
• (1956) Silver Bear (Short Film) award for Rythmetic^[12]

Canadian Film Awards (Canada)

• (1949) Special Award for Dots
• (1950) Special Award for Begone Dull Care
• (1952) Special Award for Around is Around
• (1952) Special Award for Now is the Time
• (1952) Special Award for After the Storm
• (1953) Special Award for A Phantasy
• (1953) Special Award for Neighbours
• (1958) Arts and Experimental for A Chairy Tale
  • Shared with Claude Jutra
• (1962) Arts and Experimental for Lines Horizontal
• (1965) Arts and Experimental for Canon
  • Shared with Grant Munro
• (1968) Special Award for Pas de Deux

Cannes Film Festival

• (1955) Short Film Palme d'Or for Blinkity Blank

Columbus International Film and Video Festival (USA)

• (1984) Honorable Mention for Narcissus

Dance on Camera Festival (USA)

• (1984) Gold Star Award for Narcissus

Festival international de cinéma de court métrage (France)

• (1985) Special Mention for Narcissus

Festival international du film romantique

• (1985) First Prize - Madame de Stael Prize, (France, May 1985) for Narcissus

Genie Awards (Canada)

• (1984) Special Achievement Genie

Golden Sheaf Awards / Short Film and Video Festival (Canada)

• (1984) Golden Sheaf Award - Best Experimental Film for Narcissus, Short Film and Video Festival (Canada, October–November 1984)

International Film Festival (India)

• (1984) Golden Peacock for the Best Short Film of the Festival for Narcissus

Itinerant - American Film and Video Festival (USA)

• (1984) Honorable Mention - Visual Essays for Narcissus

Award nominations[link]

Academy Awards (USA)

• 1953 Academy Award Best Short Subject, One-reel for Neighbours (1952)
• 1958 Academy Award Best Short Subject, Live Action Subjects for A Chairy Tale (1957)
• 1964 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film for Christmas Cracker (1963) (as co-director)

BAFTA Awards (UK)

• 1960 BAFTA Film Award Best Animated Film for Short and Suite (Shared with Evelyn Lambart)

Personal life[link]

His longtime companion was NFB director Guy Glover, whom he met at the ballet in London in 1937. The two were together until McLaren’s death.^[13]

See also[link]

• McLaren's Negatives
• René Jodoin
• Motion graphics

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Raphaël Bassan, "Norman McLaren : le silence de Prométhée", in Les Cahiers de Paris expérimental, no 17 (in French) (2004)*
• Olivier Cotte (2007) Secrets of Oscar-winning animation: Behind the scenes of 13 classic short animations. (Making of '"Neighbours") Focal Press. ISBN 978-0-240-52070-4
• Alfio Bastiancich, "Norman McLaren: Précurseur des Nouvelles Images", Dreamland èditeur, Paris (1997) (in French) ISN 2-910027-07-4

External links[link]

• Norman McLaren at the Internet Movie Database
• Watch the NFB Playlist, Norman McLaren: Hands-on Animation
• Profile of Norman McLaren at NFB.ca
• Canadian Film Encyclopedia
• Order of Canada Citation
• Official UK Myspace for 'Norman McLaren: The Master's Edition'
• Norman McLaren on screenonline