The Wayback Machine - http://web.archive.org./web/20120725010204/http://wn.com:80/Law
Tuesday, 24 July 2012
CNN Weekend Shows - A look at Colorado gun laws
Marin Law Center | Legal Service | San Rafael, CA
ADR Times - The Legal Jurisdiction of Olympics Disputes
Commonwealth Caribbean Law And Legal Systems: Second Edition - Rose-marie Belle Antoine
Legal Law - Acceptable.TV
Legal Aid Reform
Martin Krygier on
미국 로스쿨 프리로(Pre-Law) 기본 개념: Common Law
MOORISH CIPHER OF LAW
Communist US and unconstitutional gun laws
Obama Signs NDAA Martial Law in America 2012
Mobile Apps and the Law

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CNN Weekend Shows - A look at Colorado gun laws/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 21 Jul 2012
  • Duration: 1:03
  • Updated: 24 Jul 2012
Author: CNN
A CNN legal contributor gives an overview of Colorado's gun laws. At least 12 people have been reported dead and 38 injured from the shooting spree. Witnesses from the premiere shooting say chaos followed what appeared to be tear gas and loud "banging" during an intense scene in the film. Law enforcement have identified the suspect in the Dark Knight Rises premiere massacre as James Holmes, 24, of Aurora, Colorado. For more on the shooting, go to www.cnn.com Find updates and videos of the shooting at www.cnn.com More Tags: Dark Knight Rises shooting James Holmes Batman Shooting Batman movie massacre The Dark Knight Rises shooting 2012 Dark Knight Rises gunman Batman Movie Premiere shooting Aurora Colordo shooting James Holmes shooter Colorado shooting update breaking news
http://web.archive.org./web/20120725010204/http://wn.com/CNN Weekend Shows - A look at Colorado gun laws/video details
Marin Law Center | Legal Service | San Rafael, CA/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 20 Jul 2012
  • Duration: 1:25
  • Updated: 20 Jul 2012
Author: yellowpages
The attorneys at Marin Law Center in San Rafael, CA provide legal services in a wide variety of civil practice areas. They specialize in family and divorce law, landlord and tenant law, estate planning and more. They aim to avoid court battles, educating clients with legal advice and firm representation. Visit us www.yellowpages.com
http://web.archive.org./web/20120725010204/http://wn.com/Marin Law Center | Legal Service | San Rafael, CA/video details
ADR Times - The Legal Jurisdiction of Olympics Disputes/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 21 Jul 2012
  • Duration: 5:21
  • Updated: 21 Jul 2012
Author: ADR Times
In this installment of the ADR Times VLOG series, sports law mediator and arbitrator Jeff Benz moderates a round table discussion between sports law neutral Alan Rothenberg, sports law attorney and Olympic arbitrator Maidie Oliveau, and athlete lawyer Howard Jacobs, discussing the intricacies of legal jurisdiction for the arbitration of disputes arising during the Olympics.
http://web.archive.org./web/20120725010204/http://wn.com/ADR Times - The Legal Jurisdiction of Olympics Disputes/video details
Commonwealth Caribbean Law And Legal Systems: Second Edition - Rose-marie Belle Antoine/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 24 Jul 2012
  • Duration: 0:13
  • Updated: 24 Jul 2012
Author: ericawashington089
xxsurl.com Commonwealth Caribbean Law And Legal Systems: Second Edition - Rose-marie Belle Antoine Fully updated and revised to fit in with any new laws and structure in the Caribbean law and legal systems, this new edition examines the institutions, structures and processes of the law in the Commonwealth Caribbean. The author explores: tAuthor: Antoine, Rose-Marie Belle Publisher: Routledge-Cavendish Illustration: N Language: ENG Title: Commonwealth Caribbean Law and Legal Systems: Second edition Pages: 00447 (Encrypted PDF) On Sale: 2008-05-29 SKU-13/ISBN: 9781859418536 Category: Law : Comparative Fully updated and revised to fit in with any new laws and structure in the Caribbean law and legal systems, this new edition examines the institutions, structures and processes of the law in the Commo rose-marie belle antoine, law, comparative
http://web.archive.org./web/20120725010204/http://wn.com/Commonwealth Caribbean Law And Legal Systems: Second Edition - Rose-marie Belle Antoine/video details
Legal Law - Acceptable.TV/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 08 Mar 2007
  • Duration: 3:20
  • Updated: 17 May 2012
Author: AcceptableTV
On her first day as a lawyer, Lacy is found in contempt of court andgets entangled in an office romance. It's just another day at Legal Law. Check out Acceptable TV beginning Friday March 23 at 10pm on VH1. Check out more Acceptable videos at www.acceptable.tv.
http://web.archive.org./web/20120725010204/http://wn.com/Legal Law - Acceptable.TV/video details
Legal Aid Reform/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 01 Jun 2012
  • Duration: 7:37
  • Updated: 24 Jul 2012
Author: CambridgeUniversity
The Effect of the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012 on Legal Aid for Family Cases. The legal aid system was created in 1949 as part of the development of the post-war Welfare State, alongside the National Health Service. It provides funding both for legal advice and out-of-court representation by lawyers, for example in negotiating the settlement of disputes, and -- should it come to this -- legal representation in court. However, this is set to change in April 2013, when the controversial Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012 is due to come into force. The Act raises profound concerns about access to justice, largely removing legal aid from many of the areas of law where it has previously been available. Ms Jo Miles discusses the potential effects of the new Act on access to justice, especially in relation to difficult family law cases. Ms Miles is Fellow and Director of Studies at Trinity College, Cambridge, and a Senior Lecturer in Law, specialising in Family Law. She is also Academic door tenant at 1 Hare Court, Assistant editor of the Child and Family Law Quarterly. and an Elected member of the Executive Council of the International Society of Family Law. In 2005 Ms Miles was seconded for two years to the Law Commission for England and Wales to work on the financial consequences of relationship breakdown. For more information about Ms Miles, please refer to her profile at www.law.cam.ac.uk Law in Focus is a collection of <b>...</b>
http://web.archive.org./web/20120725010204/http://wn.com/Legal Aid Reform/video details
Martin Krygier on
  • Order:
  • Published: 11 Nov 2011
  • Duration: 1:30:11
  • Updated: 04 May 2012
Author: ceuhungary
Legal scholar Martin Krygier discussed how laws and institutions might be the same -- but that context matters -- in a wide-ranging talk at Central European University. Bridging politics and law, Krygier suggested that legal scholars must focus on variation and context in matters of contemporary rule of law. Learn more about all our special speakers and events online at www.ceu.hu.
http://web.archive.org./web/20120725010204/http://wn.com/Martin Krygier on "Why the Rule of Law is More Than a Legal Issue"/video details
미국 로스쿨 프리로(Pre-Law) 기본 개념: Common Law/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 22 Jul 2012
  • Duration: 45:42
  • Updated: 24 Jul 2012
Author: nancysoyoungkang
The United States and several other countries use a common law-based legal system, which is fundamentally different from the civil law legal system used by most of the world. Understanding the nature of this difference is fundamental to an understanding of US law. This video lecture discusses the common law system, the adversary system (including trials and juries), legal authorities, binding precedent (caselaw), and levels of appeal. We are a legal education company headquartered in Korea and specializing in US law. 자세한 문의는 010-7233-7861으로 문의 바랍니다. For questions in English, please e-mail nsk@amlawcenter.com.
http://web.archive.org./web/20120725010204/http://wn.com/미국 로스쿨 프리로(Pre-Law) 기본 개념: Common Law/video details
MOORISH CIPHER OF LAW/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 23 Jul 2012
  • Duration: 23:50
  • Updated: 23 Jul 2012
Author: moorishnewkemit
CHECK OUT indigenouspeoplesinc.webs.com. THE MOORISH CREW JUST "CHOPPIN IT UP" ABOUT LEGAL ISSUES. OLAKWESU, KENG EL BEY, MUSHANDI AND CHIEF NOBLE BANDELE ARE DISCUSSING TRAFFIC CASES PARTICULARLY TRAVELLING WITHOUT LICENSE. WE GIVING REMEDIES AND LAWFULL INFORMATION. WE ARE NOT LAWYERS AND THIS IS NOT LEGAL ADVISE. CONSULT A LAWYER IF YOU NEED TO.
http://web.archive.org./web/20120725010204/http://wn.com/MOORISH CIPHER OF LAW/video details
Communist US and unconstitutional gun laws/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 22 Jul 2012
  • Duration: 15:01
  • Updated: 24 Jul 2012
Author: TheMightySovereign
How the government became communist right before your eyes poff!! Wake the hell up your other option is slaveryslavery NOTICE TO PRINCIPAL IS NOTICE TO AGENT - NOTICE TO AGENT IS NOTICE TO PRINCIPAL If you are, or are affiliated with: a Monarchy/Government/Officer/Agency/Employee, foreign or domestic, CFR, UN, the BAR, the Vatican, The Rothschilds/The Rockefellers/JP Morgan Chase/ The Warburgs, the IMF, World Bank, and or The Press or in any way affiliated and or in concert with any of the above, the following pertains to you: If you read any of the contents of My email, youtube, or website, you agree to pay a user fee of $425000.00US payable in gold or silver coin, per hour or any fraction thereof, tracked by your IP address. Additionally, If you use any of the items, context or images from any of the above emails or website, you agree to pay a user fee of $145000.00 US per use, payable in gold or silver coin, per image or paragraph. Get 2 items for only $250000.00US, payable in gold or silver coin. IN ADDITION: Imaging any web pages, partial or whole, you agree to pay a per capture fee of $425000.00US, payable in gold or silver coin. By your use, we mutually agree to this binding contract. All use fees are immediately due and payable upon demand to Tazadawak
http://web.archive.org./web/20120725010204/http://wn.com/Communist US and unconstitutional gun laws/video details
Obama Signs NDAA Martial Law in America 2012/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 16 Dec 2011
  • Duration: 10:12
  • Updated: 23 Jul 2012
Author: xBLACKxOPSxSECRETSx
Why This Is Important + Rate Comment + Subscribe ! [& Read Below ] President Barack Obama signed the controversial National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) into law earlier today in Hawaii. CLICK HERE ---►► Follow Me on Facebook: on.fb.me ◄◄--- ---►► Follow Me On Twitter: bit.ly ◄◄--- CNN reports Jan 1, 2012 Barack Obama "reluctantly signed a defense authorization bill, saying he was concerned about some in Congress who want to restrict options used by counterterrorism officials." Even before the bill was signed by Obama, there were mixed feelings on NDAA. The bill only has a 2 percent approval rating on a poll conducted by OpenCongress.com. Only 8 people support the bill out of 395 voters. Another poll, of 397 people, conducted by PopVox gives the bill a 9 percent approval rating and a 91 percent disapproval rating. One of the more controversial aspects of the bill involves the ability for the President to detain United States' citizens. According to The International Business Times, "The bill affirms and codifies the US President's authority to indefinitely detain in military custody anyone, including US citizens, suspected of terrorism or supporting terrorists." In a statement released after the signing of the bill, Obama says, "I want to clarify that my Administration will not authorize the indefinite military detention without trial of American citizens. Indeed, I believe that doing so would break with our most important traditions and values as a Nation <b>...</b>
http://web.archive.org./web/20120725010204/http://wn.com/Obama Signs NDAA Martial Law in America 2012/video details
Mobile Apps and the Law/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 23 Jul 2012
  • Duration: 4:13
  • Updated: 23 Jul 2012
Author: IMRGorg
Wiggin consultant David Deakin advises retailers about the legal issues to consider when developing mobile applications.
http://web.archive.org./web/20120725010204/http://wn.com/Mobile Apps and the Law/video details
Arizona Anti-Immigrant Law Analysis from LiberalViewer/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 24 Apr 2012
  • Duration: 14:52
  • Updated: 24 Jul 2012
Author: LiberalViewer
More ACLU related videos at bit.ly With Arizona's anti-immigrant law up for oral argument before the US Supreme Court on April 25, I was invited as a representative of my local ACLU chapter to give the ACLU analysis of the law to students from the Amnesty International chapter at Sacramento City College, as I show in this video. The image I show of my April 2010 video titled "Arizona Anti-Immigrant Law Un-American?" with the Saturday Night LIve Weekend Update with Seth Myers clips on the "show me your papers" law comes from my own YouTube video player page at bit.ly Much of the information about the ACLU position on SB 1070 in Arizona v US comes from the ACLU amicus brief in the case at bit.ly Information about the plaintiffs in the other challenge to the the law from the ACLU and other coalition members, Friendly House, et al., v. Whiting, et al, is available at bit.ly Some supplemental legal analysis on the trick language regarding racial profiling in the law comes from the Georgetown Immigration Law Journal article titled "A Legal Labyrinth: Issues Raised by Arizona Senate Bill 1070" available at bit.ly
http://web.archive.org./web/20120725010204/http://wn.com/Arizona Anti-Immigrant Law Analysis from LiberalViewer/video details
Fluet Huber Hoang: An Introduction/video details
  • Order:
  • Published: 19 Jul 2012
  • Duration: 1:39
  • Updated: 24 Jul 2012
Author: Fluetlaw
Fluet Huber + Hoang is a full service law firm located in Northern Virginia. From 1 lawyer in 1 office with 1 client, we've rapidly grown to 25 lawyers and staff with 146 years of legal experience in 3 offices serving 250+ individuals and 100+ businesses, from startups to multinational corporations. For more information, visit www.fluetlaw.com
http://web.archive.org./web/20120725010204/http://wn.com/Fluet Huber Hoang: An Introduction/video details
  • CNN Weekend Shows - A look at Colorado gun laws...1:03
  • Marin Law Center | Legal Service | San Rafael, CA...1:25
  • ADR Times - The Legal Jurisdiction of Olympics Disputes...5:21
  • Commonwealth Caribbean Law And Legal Systems: Second Edition - Rose-marie Belle Antoine...0:13
  • Legal Law - Acceptable.TV...3:20
  • Legal Aid Reform...7:37
  • Martin Krygier on "Why the Rule of Law is More Than a Legal Issue"...1:30:11
  • 미국 로스쿨 프리로(Pre-Law) 기본 개념: Common Law...45:42
  • MOORISH CIPHER OF LAW...23:50
  • Communist US and unconstitutional gun laws...15:01
  • Obama Signs NDAA Martial Law in America 2012...10:12
  • Mobile Apps and the Law...4:13
  • Arizona Anti-Immigrant Law Analysis from LiberalViewer...14:52
  • Fluet Huber Hoang: An Introduction...1:39
A CNN legal contributor gives an overview of Colorado's gun laws. At least 12 people have been reported dead and 38 injured from the shooting spree. Witnesses from the premiere shooting say chaos followed what appeared to be tear gas and loud "banging" during an intense scene in the film. Law enforcement have identified the suspect in the Dark Knight Rises premiere massacre as James Holmes, 24, of Aurora, Colorado. For more on the shooting, go to www.cnn.com Find updates and videos of the shooting at www.cnn.com More Tags: Dark Knight Rises shooting James Holmes Batman Shooting Batman movie massacre The Dark Knight Rises shooting 2012 Dark Knight Rises gunman Batman Movie Premiere shooting Aurora Colordo shooting James Holmes shooter Colorado shooting update breaking news
1:03
CNN Week­end Shows - A look at Col­orado gun laws
A CNN legal con­trib­u­tor gives an overview of Col­orado's gun laws. At least 12 peo­ple h...
pub­lished: 21 Jul 2012
au­thor: CNN
1:25
Marin Law Cen­ter | Legal Ser­vice | San Rafael, CA
The at­tor­neys at Marin Law Cen­ter in San Rafael, CA pro­vide legal ser­vices in a wide varie...
pub­lished: 20 Jul 2012
au­thor: yel­low­pages
5:21
ADR Times - The Legal Ju­ris­dic­tion of Olympics Dis­putes
In this in­stall­ment of the ADR Times VLOG se­ries, sports law me­di­a­tor and ar­bi­tra­tor Jeff ...
pub­lished: 21 Jul 2012
au­thor: ADR Times
0:13
Com­mon­wealth Caribbean Law And Legal Sys­tems: Sec­ond Edi­tion - Rose-marie Belle An­toine
xxsurl.​com Com­mon­wealth Caribbean Law And Legal Sys­tems: Sec­ond Edi­tion - Rose-marie Belle...
pub­lished: 24 Jul 2012
3:20
Legal Law - Acceptable.​TV
On her first day as a lawyer, Lacy is found in con­tempt of court and­gets en­tan­gled in an o...
pub­lished: 08 Mar 2007
7:37
Legal Aid Re­form
The Ef­fect of the Legal Aid, Sen­tenc­ing and Pun­ish­ment of Of­fend­ers Act 2012 on Legal Aid ...
pub­lished: 01 Jun 2012
90:11
Mar­tin Kry­gi­er on "Why the Rule of Law is More Than a Legal Issue"
Legal schol­ar Mar­tin Kry­gi­er dis­cussed how laws and in­sti­tu­tions might be the same -- but ...
pub­lished: 11 Nov 2011
au­thor: ceuhun­gary
45:42
미국 로스쿨 프리로(Pre-Law) 기본 개념: Com­mon Law
The Unit­ed States and sev­er­al other coun­tries use a com­mon law-based legal sys­tem, which i...
pub­lished: 22 Jul 2012
23:50
MOOR­ISH CI­PHER OF LAW
CHECK OUT indigenouspeoplesinc.​webs.​com. THE MOOR­ISH CREW JUST "CHOP­PIN IT UP" A...
pub­lished: 23 Jul 2012
15:01
Com­mu­nist US and un­con­sti­tu­tion­al gun laws
How the gov­ern­ment be­came com­mu­nist right be­fore your eyes poff!! Wake the hell up your ot...
pub­lished: 22 Jul 2012
10:12
Obama Signs NDAA Mar­tial Law in Amer­i­ca 2012
Why This Is Im­por­tant + Rate Com­ment + Sub­scribe ! [& Read Below ] Pres­i­dent Barack Ob...
pub­lished: 16 Dec 2011
4:13
Mo­bile Apps and the Law
Wig­gin con­sul­tant David Deakin ad­vis­es re­tail­ers about the legal is­sues to con­sid­er when d...
pub­lished: 23 Jul 2012
au­thor: IM­R­Gorg
14:52
Ari­zona An­ti-Im­mi­grant Law Anal­y­sis from Lib­er­alView­er
More ACLU re­lat­ed videos at bit.​ly With Ari­zona's an­ti-im­mi­grant law up for oral argum...
pub­lished: 24 Apr 2012
1:39
Fluet Huber Hoang: An In­tro­duc­tion
Fluet Huber + Hoang is a full ser­vice law firm lo­cat­ed in North­ern Vir­ginia. From 1 lawyer...
pub­lished: 19 Jul 2012
au­thor: Fluet­law
27:00
Legal Is­sues for Small Busi­ness­es
What every small busi­ness owner should know about legal is­sues. Chris Green a re­spect­ed sm...
pub­lished: 24 Jul 2012
au­thor: un­wal­la
0:31
Legal Ad­ver­tis­ing Cam­paign | TV Com­mer­cials for Law Firms | Law Firm Mar­ket­ing | DD Iron­man
Legal Ad­ver­tis­ing Cam­paign for Daggett Shuler Law. If you are an at­tor­ney or law firm look...
pub­lished: 01 Dec 2011
0:41
Po­lice Vam­pire Stalks Vic­tim! New Rep­til­ian Law! Mur­der Legal!
Joseph Sir­a­vo plays a hit­man head­ed to Sean Penn's hos­pi­tal room to as­sas­si­nate him in...
pub­lished: 23 Jul 2012
au­thor: johnel­lizz
10:01
British Monar­chy is a cor­po­ra­tion _ US is a cor­po­ra­tion not a coun­try - Legal Fic­tion
This video shows how the British Monar­chy took the power of the Amer­i­ca and turned it the ...
pub­lished: 24 Jul 2012
6:31
16x9 - Street Legal: From sex work­er to lawyer
From turn­ing tricks, to hit­ting the books. 16:9 shows you how a for­mer sex work­er made it ...
pub­lished: 02 May 2012
1:06
Ed­wards & As­so­ci­ates, Fam­i­ly Law At­tor­neys Video | At­tor­neys in At­lanta
12539437 Lawyer, Law, Legal, At­tor­ney, De­fense, At­lanta, Geor­gia...
pub­lished: 23 Jul 2012
0:32
"[Law-Firm-TV-Ad-Cam­paign]"
"[Law-Firm-TV-Ad-Cam­paign]" If you are an at­tor­ney or law firm look­ing to re­vi­ta...
pub­lished: 17 Apr 2012
0:32
Law Firm TV Ad Cam­paign | Legal Ad­ver­tis­ing | Law Firm Mar­ket­ing | LW
Law Firm TV Ad Cam­paign. If you are an at­tor­ney or law firm look­ing to re­vi­tal­ize your law...
pub­lished: 17 Apr 2012




  • Traffic between Alanya and Gazipaşa. Traffic on roads may consist of pedestrians, ridden or herded animals, vehicles, streetcars and other conveyances, either singly or together, while using the public way for purposes of travel.
    Creative Commons / Ozgurmulazimoglu
  • Lorraine Motel, Martin Luther King, Jr.'s 1968 assassination site, as part of a civil rights museum. Ultimately, efforts to curb the unconstrained growth of tourist courts were futile as motor courts (as motels were called in the 1930s and 1940s) grew in number and popularity.
    Creative Commons / DavGreg
  • India left Front Women brigade seen violating law at the DM office gate in Midnapore town in Eastern India
    WN / Bhaskar Mallick
  • India left Front Women brigade seen violating law at the DM office gate in Midnapore town in Eastern India
    WN / Bhaskar Mallick
  • India left Front Women brigade seen violating law at the DM office gate in Midnapore town in Eastern India
    WN / Bhaskar Mallick
  • India left Front Women brigade seen violating law at the DM office gate in Midnapore town in Eastern India
    WN / Bhaskar Mallick
  • Sales stand with oranges in Agadir/Morocco. Oranges cannot be artificially ripened and must be mature when harvested. (In Texas,[70] Arizona, California, and Florida, laws forbid harvesting immature fruit for human consumption.)
    Creative Commons / Sir James
  • Law enforcement officials keep an eye on the crowd from a rooftop, Sunday, July 22, 2012, in Aurora, Colo., at a prayer vigil for the victims of Friday's mass shooting at a movie theater.
    AP / Ted S. Warren
  • Members of law enforcement wearing body armor and helmets use fire department apparatus to look in the apartment of alleged gunman James Holmes Saturday, July 21, 2012 in Aurora , Colo.
    AP / Alex Brandon
  • w:San Francisco Bay from the air in May 2010.Aerial view of Angel Island. In 1938, hearings concerning charges of membership in a proscribed political party against labor leader Harry Bridges were held on Angel Island before Dean James Landis of Harvard Law School.
    Creative Commons / Edward Betts
  • Indian police from the Jammu and Kashmir Armed Police (JKAP) take their oath at a police training centre in Lethpora Awantipora, some 25 kilometers south of Srinagar, Kashmir, India, 20 July, 2012. A total of 937 recruits were formally inducted into the Jammu and Kashmir police after completing nine months of rigorous training in physical fitness, weapon handling, counter insurgency and dealing with the law and order situation, a police official said.
    WN / Imran Nissar
  • Indian police from the Jammu and Kashmir Armed Police (JKAP) take their oath at a police training centre in Lethpora Awantipora, some 25 kilometers south of Srinagar, Kashmir, India, 20 July, 2012. A total of 937 recruits were formally inducted into the Jammu and Kashmir police after completing nine months of rigorous training in physical fitness, weapon handling, counter insurgency and dealing with the law and order situation, a police official said.
    WN / Imran Nissar
  • Jammu and Kashmir police commandos take part in a passing out parade at a police training centre in Lethpora Awantipora, some 25 kilometers south of Srinagar, Kashmir, India, 20 July, 2012. A total of 937 recruits were formally inducted into the Jammu and Kashmir police after completing nine months of rigorous training in physical fitness, weapon handling, counter insurgency and dealing with the law and order situation, a police official said.
    WN / Imran Nissar
  • Indian commandos from Jammu and Kashmir police take part in a passing out parade at a police training centre in Lethpora Awantipora, some 25 kilometers south of Srinagar, Kashmir, India, 20 July, 2012. A total of 937 recruits were formally inducted into the Jammu and Kashmir police after completing nine months of rigorous training in physical fitness, weapon handling, counter insurgency and dealing with the law and order situation, a police official said.
    WN / Imran Nissar
  • Indian commandos from Jammu and Kashmir police take part in a passing out parade at a police training centre in Lethpora Awantipora, some 25 kilometers south of Srinagar, Kashmir, India, 20 July, 2012. A total of 937 recruits were formally inducted into the Jammu and Kashmir police after completing nine months of rigorous training in physical fitness, weapon handling, counter insurgency and dealing with the law and order situation, a police official said.
    WN / Imran Nissar
  • Indian commandos from Jammu and Kashmir police take part in a passing out parade at a police training centre in Lethpora Awantipora, some 25 kilometers south of Srinagar, Kashmir, India, 20 July, 2012. A total of 937 recruits were formally inducted into the Jammu and Kashmir police after completing nine months of rigorous training in physical fitness, weapon handling, counter insurgency and dealing with the law and order situation, a police official said.
    WN / Imran Nissar
  • Jammu and Kashmir policemen take part in a passing out parade at a police training centre in Lethpora Awantipora, some 25 kilometers south of Srinagar, Kashmir, India, 20 July, 2012. A total of 937 recruits were formally inducted into the Jammu and Kashmir police after completing nine months of rigorous training in physical fitness, weapon handling, counter insurgency and dealing with the law and order situation, a police official said.
    WN / Imran Nissar
  • Jammu and Kashmir policemen take part in a passing out parade at a police training centre in Lethpora Awantipora, some 25 kilometers south of Srinagar, Kashmir, India, 20 July, 2012. A total of 937 recruits were formally inducted into the Jammu and Kashmir police after completing nine months of rigorous training in physical fitness, weapon handling, counter insurgency and dealing with the law and order situation, a police official said.
    WN / Imran Nissar
  • Jammu and Kashmir policemen take part in a passing out parade at a police training centre in Lethpora Awantipora, some 25 kilometers south of Srinagar, Kashmir, India, 20 July, 2012. A total of 937 recruits were formally inducted into the Jammu and Kashmir police after completing nine months of rigorous training in physical fitness, weapon handling, counter insurgency and dealing with the law and order situation, a police official said.
    WN / Imran Nissar
  • Jammu and Kashmir policemen take part in a passing out parade at a police training centre in Lethpora Awantipora, some 25 kilometers south of Srinagar, Kashmir, India, 20 July, 2012. A total of 937 recruits were formally inducted into the Jammu and Kashmir police after completing nine months of rigorous training in physical fitness, weapon handling, counter insurgency and dealing with the law and order situation, a police official said.
    WN / Imran Nissar
  • In this photo taken June 20, 2012, Indian Bollywood star Rajesh Khanna, right, speaks with son-in-law and Bollywood actor Akshay Kumar, left, as his wife actress Dimple Kapadia looks on in Mumbai, India.
    AP
  • This image made from Syrian State TV video purports to show Syrian troops fighting against Syrian rebels in the Al-Midan area of Damascus, Syria on Wednesday, July 18, 2012.
    AP / Syrian State TV via AP video
  • In this citizen journalist image, smoke billows over Damascus, Syria, Wednesday, July 18, 2012. A bomb ripped through a high-level security meeting Wednesday in Damascus, killing three top regime officials.
    AP
  • Johnny Weir at the Club Bud private Burton party, 19 February 2010
    Creative Commons / Unknown
  • Irvin McDowell, General during the American Civil War, ca. 1860 - ca. 1865
    Creative Commons / Mathew Brady.
  • Miura Goro before 1926
    Creative Commons / Unknown
  • Left Front Supporters during the Law Violation Protest against the West Bengal Goverment in Kolkata on Tuesday 17 July 2012
    WN / Bhaskar Mallick
  • Left Front Supporters Slogun during the Law Violation Protest against the West Bengal Goverment in Kolkata on Tuesday 17 July 2012
    WN / Bhaskar Mallick
  • Left Front Supporters Slogun during the Law Violation Protest against the West Bengal Goverment in Kolkata on Tuesday 17 July 2012
    WN / Bhaskar Mallick
  • Left Front Supporters Slogun during the Law Violation Protest against the West Bengal Goverment in Kolkata on Tuesday 17 July 2012
    WN / Bhaskar Mallick


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photo: AP / Emil Salman
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu gives a statement about an attack that killed five Israeli tourists in Bulgaria, in Jerusalem, Thursday, July 19, 2012.
WorldNews.com
22 Jul 2012
Article by WN.com Guest Writer Gilad Atzmon Just hours after the attack on Israeli tourists in Bulgaria, Israeli PM Benjamin Netanyahu and his Defence Minister Ehud Barak were quick to announce that...



photo: AP / Mikhail Metzel
File - A man poses for a photograph with a model near the Cadillac Escalade displayed for sale at the opening night of the Millionaire Fair in Moscow, Thursday night, Nov. 27, 2008.
Canberra Times
22 Jul 2012
Oil-rich states with an internationally mobile elite have been especially prone to watching their wealth disappear into offshore bank accounts. A GLOBAL super-rich elite has exploited gaps in...



photo: AP / Ted S. Warren
Law enforcement officials keep an eye on the crowd from a rooftop, Sunday, July 22, 2012, in Aurora, Colo., at a prayer vigil for the victims of Friday's mass shooting at a movie theater.
Belfast Telegraph
24 Jul 2012
At least three people have been arrested at US showings of the new Batman film amid audience fears following the Colorado cinema massacre. All were accused of making threats during or after watching...



photo: Creative Commons / Ergo Sum
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Canberra Times
23 Jul 2012
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photo: UN file / Martine Perret
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CNN
23 Jul 2012
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photo: WN / Geeta
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DNA India
24 Jul 2012
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White Tiger at Bannerghatta National Park
The Himalayan
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Added At: 2012-07-24 6:37 PM Last Updated At: 2012-07-24 6:37 PM...



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The Washington Post RICHMOND — State Sen. Mark Herring, a Democrat who represents Loudoun and Fairfax counties, announced Tuesday that he will run for attorney general in 2013. Herring kicked off his campaign by taking a shot at the current attorney general, Ken Cuccinelli II (R), whom he accused of using the...(size: 3.3Kb)



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Lady Justice is the symbol of justice. Lady Justice is depicted as a goddess equipped with three symbols of justice: a sword symbolising the court's coercive power; scales representing an objective standard by which competing claims are weighed; and a blindfold indicating that justice is (or should be) meted out objectively, without fear or favor, regardless of identity, money, power, or weakness.[1]

The Law[2] is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior.[3] Laws are made by governments, specifically by their legislatures. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution (written or unwritten) and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics and society in countless ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people.

A general distinction can be made between civil law jurisdictions (including Canon and Socialist law), in which the legislature or other central body codifies and consolidates their laws and common law systems (including Sharia), where judge-made binding precedents are accepted. In some countries, religion may inform the law; for example, in jurisdictions that practice Islamic law, Jewish law or Canon law.

The adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas. Criminal law deals with conduct that is designated dishonest by the government and in which the guilty party may be imprisioned or fined. Civil law (not to be confused with civil law jurisdictions above) deals with disputes between individuals or organizations, in which compensation may be awarded to the wronged litigant.

Under civil law, the following specialties, among others, exist: Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus ticket to trading on derivatives markets. Property law regulates the transfer and title of personal property and real property. Trust law applies to assets held for investment and financial security. Tort law allows claims for compensation if a person's property are harmed. Constitutional law provides a framework for the creation of law, the protection of human rights and the election of political representatives. Administrative law is used to review the decisions of government agencies. International law governs affairs between sovereign states in activities ranging from trade to military action.

To implement and enforce the law and provide services to the public, a government's bureaucracy, the military and police are vital. While all these organs of the state are creatures created and bound by law, an independent legal profession and a vibrant civil society inform and support their progress[citation needed].

Law provides a rich source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis and sociology. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, and justice. "In its majestic equality", said the author Anatole France in 1894, "the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets and steal loaves of bread."[4] Writing in 350 BCE, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, "The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual."[5]

In a presidential democracy, the constitution is sovereign and the central institutions for interpreting and creating law are the three main branches of government, namely an impartial judiciary, a democratic legislature, and an accountable executive. In parliamentary systems, the legislature is sovereign and appoints one of its members as the executive (often called the prime minister). The judicial branch is under the parliament.

Contents

Legal subjects[link]

All legal systems deal with the same basic issues, but jurisdictions categorise and identify its legal subjects in different ways. A common distinction is that between "public law" (a term related closely to the state, and including constitutional, administrative and criminal law), and "private law" (which covers contract, tort and property).[6] In civil law systems, contract and tort fall under a general law of obligations, while trusts law is dealt with under statutory regimes or international conventions. International, constitutional and administrative law, criminal law, contract, tort, property law and trusts are regarded as the "traditional core subjects",[7] although there are many further disciplines .

International law[link]

Providing a constitution for public international law, the United Nations system was agreed during World War II

International law can refer to three things: public international law, private international law or conflict of laws and the law of supranational organisations.

  • Conflict of laws (or "private international law" in civil law countries) concerns which jurisdiction a legal dispute between private parties should be heard in and which jurisdiction's law should be applied. Today, businesses are increasingly capable of shifting capital and labour supply chains across borders, as well as trading with overseas businesses, making the question of which country has jurisdiction even more pressing. Increasing numbers of businesses opt for commercial arbitration under the New York Convention 1958.[11]

Constitutional and administrative law[link]

The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, whose principles still have constitutional value

Constitutional and administrative law govern the affairs of the state. Constitutional law concerns both the relationships between the executive, legislature and judiciary and the human rights or civil liberties of individuals against the state. Most jurisdictions, like the United States and France, have a single codified constitution with a bill of rights. A few, like the United Kingdom, have no such document. A "constitution" is simply those laws which constitute the body politic, from statute, case law and convention. A case named Entick v Carrington[14] illustrates a constitutional principle deriving from the common law. Mr Entick's house was searched and ransacked by Sheriff Carrington. When Mr Entick complained in court, Sheriff Carrington argued that a warrant from a Government minister, the Earl of Halifax, was valid authority. However, there was no written statutory provision or court authority. The leading judge, Lord Camden, stated that,

The great end, for which men entered into society, was to secure their property. That right is preserved sacred and incommunicable in all instances, where it has not been taken away or abridged by some public law for the good of the whole ... If no excuse can be found or produced, the silence of the books is an authority against the defendant, and the plaintiff must have judgment.[15]

The fundamental constitutional principle, inspired by John Locke, holds that the individual can do anything but that which is forbidden by law, and the state may do nothing but that which is authorised by law.[16][17] Administrative law is the chief method for people to hold state bodies to account. People can apply for judicial review of actions or decisions by local councils, public services or government ministries, to ensure that they comply with the law. The first specialist administrative court was the Conseil d'État set up in 1799, as Napoleon assumed power in France.[18]

Criminal law[link]

Criminal law, also known as penal law, pertains to crimes and punishment.[19] It thus regulates the definition of and penalties for offences found to have a sufficiently deleterious social impact but, in itself, makes no moral judgment on an offender nor imposes restrictions on society that physically prevents people from committing a crime in the first place.[20] Investigating, apprehending, charging, and trying suspected offenders is regulated by the law of criminal procedure.[21] The paradigm case of a crime lies in the proof, beyond reasonable doubt, that a person is guilty of two things. First, the accused must commit an act which is deemed by society to be criminal, or actus reus (guilty act).[22] Second, the accused must have the requisite malicious intent to do a criminal act, or mens rea (guilty mind). However for so called "strict liability" crimes, an actus reus is enough.[23] Criminal systems of the civil law tradition distinguish between intention in the broad sense (dolus directus and dolus eventualis), and negligence. Negligence does not carry criminal responsibility unless a particular crime provides for its punishment.[24][25]

A depiction of a 1600s criminal trial, for witchcraft in Salem

Examples of crimes include murder, assault, fraud and theft. In exceptional circumstances defences can apply to specific acts, such as killing in self defence, or pleading insanity. Another example is in the 19th century English case of R v Dudley and Stephens, which tested a defence of "necessity". The Mignonette, sailing from Southampton to Sydney, sank. Three crew members and Richard Parker, a 17 year old cabin boy, were stranded on a raft. They were starving and the cabin boy was close to death. Driven to extreme hunger, the crew killed and ate the cabin boy. The crew survived and were rescued, but put on trial for murder. They argued it was necessary to kill the cabin boy to preserve their own lives. Lord Coleridge, expressing immense disapproval, ruled, "to preserve one's life is generally speaking a duty, but it may be the plainest and the highest duty to sacrifice it." The men were sentenced to hang, but public opinion was overwhelmingly supportive of the crew's right to preserve their own lives. In the end, the Crown commuted their sentences to six months in jail.[26]

Criminal law offences are viewed as offences against not just individual victims, but the community as well.[20] The state, usually with the help of police, takes the lead in prosecution, which is why in common law countries cases are cited as "The People v ..." or "R (for Rex or Regina) v ..." Also, lay juries are often used to determine the guilt of defendants on points of fact: juries cannot change legal rules. Some developed countries still condone capital punishment for criminal activity, but the normal punishment for a crime will be imprisonment, fines, state supervision (such as probation), or community service. Modern criminal law has been affected considerably by the social sciences, especially with respect to sentencing, legal research, legislation, and rehabilitation.[27] On the international field, 111 countries are members of the International Criminal Court, which was established to try people for crimes against humanity.[28]

Contract law[link]

The famous Carbolic Smoke Ball advertisement to cure influenza was held to be a unilateral contract

Contract law concerns enforceable promises, and can be summed up in the Latin phrase pacta sunt servanda (agreements must be kept).[29] In common law jurisdictions, three key elements to the creation of a contract are necessary: offer and acceptance, consideration and the intention to create legal relations. In Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company a medical firm advertised that its new wonder drug, the smokeball, would cure people's flu, and if it did not, the buyers would get £100. Many people sued for their £100 when the drug did not work. Fearing bankruptcy, Carbolic argued the advert was not to be taken as a serious, legally binding offer. It was an invitation to treat, mere puff, a gimmick. But the court of appeal held that to a reasonable man Carbolic had made a serious offer. People had given good consideration for it by going to the "distinct inconvenience" of using a faulty product. "Read the advertisement how you will, and twist it about as you will", said Lord Justice Lindley, "here is a distinct promise expressed in language which is perfectly unmistakable".[30]

"Consideration" indicates the fact that all parties to a contract have exchanged something of value. Some common law systems, including Australia, are moving away from the idea of consideration as a requirement. The idea of estoppel or culpa in contrahendo, can be used to create obligations during pre-contractual negotiations.[31] In civil law jurisdictions, consideration is not required for a contract to be binding.[32] In France, an ordinary contract is said to form simply on the basis of a "meeting of the minds" or a "concurrence of wills". Germany has a special approach to contracts, which ties into property law. Their 'abstraction principle' (Abstraktionsprinzip) means that the personal obligation of contract forms separately from the title of property being conferred. When contracts are invalidated for some reason (e.g. a car buyer is so drunk that he lacks legal capacity to contract)[33] the contractual obligation to pay can be invalidated separately from the proprietary title of the car. Unjust enrichment law, rather than contract law, is then used to restore title to the rightful owner.[34]

Tort law[link]

The "McLibel" two were involved in the longest running case in UK history for publishing a pamphlet criticising McDonald's restaurants.

Torts, sometimes called delicts, are civil wrongs. To have acted tortiously, one must have breached a duty to another person, or infringed some pre-existing legal right. A simple example might be accidentally hitting someone with a cricket ball.[35] Under the law of negligence, the most common form of tort, the injured party could potentially claim compensation for his injuries from the party responsible. The principles of negligence are illustrated by Donoghue v Stevenson.[36] A friend of Mrs Donoghue ordered an opaque bottle of ginger beer (intended for the consumption of Mrs Donoghue) in a café in Paisley. Having consumed half of it, Mrs Donoghue poured the remainder into a tumbler. The decomposing remains of a snail floated out. She claimed to have suffered from shock, fell ill with gastroenteritis and sued the manufacturer for carelessly allowing the drink to be contaminated. The House of Lords decided that the manufacturer was liable for Mrs Donoghue's illness. Lord Atkin took a distinctly moral approach, and said,

The liability for negligence ... is no doubt based upon a general public sentiment of moral wrongdoing for which the offender must pay ... The rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law, you must not injure your neighbour; and the lawyer's question, Who is my neighbour? receives a restricted reply. You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour.[37]

This became the basis for the four principles of negligence; (1) Mr Stevenson owed Mrs Donoghue a duty of care to provide safe drinks (2) he breached his duty of care (3) the harm would not have occurred but for his breach and (4) his act was the proximate cause, or not too remote a consequence, of her harm.[36] Another example of tort might be a neighbour making excessively loud noises with machinery on his property.[38] Under a nuisance claim the noise could be stopped. Torts can also involve intentional acts, such as assault, battery or trespass. A better known tort is defamation, which occurs, for example, when a newspaper makes unsupportable allegations that damage a politician's reputation.[39] More infamous are economic torts, which form the basis of labour law in some countries by making trade unions liable for strikes,[40] when statute does not provide immunity.[41]

Property law[link]

A painting of the South Sea Bubble, one of the world's first ever speculations and crashes, led to strict regulation on share trading.[42]

Property law governs valuable things that people call 'theirs'. Real property, sometimes called 'real estate' refers to ownership of land and things attached to it.[43] Personal property, refers to everything else; movable objects, such as computers, cars, jewelry or intangible rights, such as stocks and shares. A right in rem is a right to a specific piece of property, contrasting to a right in personam which allows compensation for a loss, but not a particular thing back. Land law forms the basis for most kinds of property law, and is the most complex. It concerns mortgages, rental agreements, licences, covenants, easements and the statutory systems for land registration. Regulations on the use of personal property fall under intellectual property, company law, trusts and commercial law. An example of a basic case of most property law is Armory v Delamirie [1722].[44] A chimney sweep's boy found a jewel encrusted with precious stones. He took it to a goldsmith to have it valued. The goldsmith's apprentice looked at it, sneakily removed the stones, told the boy it was worth three halfpence and that he would buy it. The boy said he would prefer the jewel back, so the apprentice gave it to him, but without the stones. The boy sued the goldsmith for his apprentice's attempt to cheat him. Lord Chief Justice Pratt ruled that even though the boy could not be said to own the jewel, he should be considered the rightful keeper ("finders keeper") until the original owner is found. In fact the apprentice and the boy both had a right of possession in the jewel (a technical concept, meaning evidence that something could belong to someone), but the boy's possessory interest was considered better, because it could be shown to be first in time. Possession may be nine tenths of the law, but not all.

This case is used to support the view of property in common law jurisdictions, that the person who can show the best claim to a piece of property, against any contesting party, is the owner.[45] By contrast, the classic civil law approach to property, propounded by Friedrich Carl von Savigny, is that it is a right good against the world. Obligations, like contracts and torts are conceptualised as rights good between individuals.[46] The idea of property raises many further philosophical and political issues. Locke argued that our "lives, liberties and estates" are our property because we own our bodies and mix our labour with our surroundings.[47]

Equity and trusts[link]

The Court of Chancery, London, early 19th century

Equity is a body of rules that developed in England separately from the "common law". The common law was administered by judges. The Lord Chancellor on the other hand, as the King's keeper of conscience, could overrule the judge made law if he thought it equitable to do so.[48] This meant equity came to operate more through principles than rigid rules. For instance, whereas neither the common law nor civil law systems allow people to split the ownership from the control of one piece of property, equity allows this through an arrangement known as a 'trust'. 'Trustees' control property, whereas the 'beneficial' (or 'equitable') ownership of trust property is held by people known as 'beneficiaries'. Trustees owe duties to their beneficiaries to take good care of the entrusted property.[49] In the early case of Keech v Sandford [1722][50] a child had inherited the lease on a market in Romford, London. Mr Sandford was entrusted to look after this property until the child matured. But before then, the lease expired. The landlord had (apparently) told Mr Sandford that he did not want the child to have the renewed lease. Yet the landlord was happy (apparently) to give Mr Sandford the opportunity of the lease instead. Mr Sandford took it. When the child (now Mr Keech) grew up, he sued Mr Sandford for the profit that he had been making by getting the market's lease. Mr Sandford was meant to be trusted, but he put himself in a position of conflict of interest. The Lord Chancellor, Lord King, agreed and ordered Mr Sandford should disgorge his profits. He wrote,

I very well see, if a trustee, on the refusal to renew, might have a lease to himself few trust-estates would be renewed ... This may seem very hard, that the trustee is the only person of all mankind who might not have the lease; but it is very proper that the rule should be strictly pursued and not at all relaxed.

Of course, Lord King LC was worried that trustees might exploit opportunities to use trust property for themselves instead of looking after it. Business speculators using trusts had just recently caused a stock market crash. Strict duties for trustees made their way into company law and were applied to directors and chief executive officers. Another example of a trustee's duty might be to invest property wisely or sell it.[51] This is especially the case for pension funds, the most important form of trust, where investors are trustees for people's savings until retirement. But trusts can also be set up for charitable purposes, famous examples being the British Museum or the Rockefeller Foundation.

Further disciplines[link]

Law spreads far beyond the core subjects into virtually every area of life. Three categories are presented for convenience, though the subjects intertwine and overlap.

Law and society
A trade union protest by UNISON while on strike
Law and commerce
Law and regulation
The New York Stock Exchange trading floor after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, before tougher banking regulation was introduced

Legal systems[link]

In general, legal systems can be split between civil law and common law systems.[55] The term "civil law" referring to a legal system should not be confused with "civil law" as a group of legal subjects distinct from criminal or public law. A third type of legal system—accepted by some countries without separation of church and state—is religious law, based on scriptures. The specific system that a country is ruled by is often determined by its history, connections with other countries, or its adherence to international standards. The sources that jurisdictions adopt as authoritatively binding are the defining features of any legal system. Yet classification is a matter of form rather than substance, since similar rules often prevail.

Civil law[link]

First page of the 1804 edition of the Napoleonic Code

Civil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. In civil law the sources recognised as authoritative are, primarily, legislation—especially codifications in constitutions or statutes passed by government—and custom.[56] Codifications date back millennia, with one early example being the Babylonian Codex Hammurabi. Modern civil law systems essentially derive from the legal practice of the 6th-century Eastern Roman Empire whose texts were rediscovered by late medieval Western Europe. Roman law in the days of the Roman Republic and Empire was heavily procedural, and lacked a professional legal class.[57] Instead a lay magistrate, iudex, was chosen to adjudicate. Precedents were not reported, so any case law that developed was disguised and almost unrecognised.[58] Each case was to be decided afresh from the laws of the State, which mirrors the (theoretical) unimportance of judges' decisions for future cases in civil law systems today. From 529–534 AD the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I codified and consolidated Roman law up until that point, so that what remained was one-twentieth of the mass of legal texts from before.[59] This became known as the Corpus Juris Civilis. As one legal historian wrote, "Justinian consciously looked back to the golden age of Roman law and aimed to restore it to the peak it had reached three centuries before."[60] The Justinian Code remained in force in the East until the fall of the Byzantine Empire. Western Europe, meanwhile, relied on a mix of the Theodosian Code and Germanic customary law until the Justinian Code was rediscovered in the 11th century, and scholars at the University of Bologna used it to interpret their own laws.[61] Civil law codifications based closely on Roman law, alongside some influences from religious laws such as Canon law, continued to spread throughout Europe until the Enlightenment; then, in the 19th century, both France, with the Code Civil, and Germany, with the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, modernised their legal codes. Both these codes influenced heavily not only the law systems of the countries in continental Europe (e.g. Greece), but also the Japanese and Korean legal traditions.[62][63] Today, countries that have civil law systems range from Russia and China to most of Central and Latin America.[64] The United States follows the common law system described below.

Common law and equity[link]

King John of England signs Magna Carta

Common law and equity are legal systems where decisions by courts are explicitly acknowledged to be legal sources. The "doctrine of precedent", or stare decisis (Latin for "to stand by decisions") means that decisions by higher courts bind lower courts. Common law systems also rely on statutes, passed by the legislature, but may make less of a systematic attempt to codify their laws than in a "civil law" system. Common law originated from England and has been inherited by almost every country once tied to the British Empire (except Malta, Scotland, the U.S. state of Louisiana, and the Canadian province of Quebec). In medieval England, the Norman conquest led to a unification of various tribal customs and hence a law "common" to the whole country. The common law developed when the English monarchy had been weakened by the enormous cost of fighting for control over large parts of France. King John had been forced by his barons to sign a document limiting his authority to pass laws. This "great charter" or Magna Carta of 1215 also required that the King's entourage of judges hold their courts and judgments at "a certain place" rather than dispensing autocratic justice in unpredictable places about the country.[65] A concentrated and elite group of judges acquired a dominant role in law-making under this system, and compared to its European counterparts the English judiciary became highly centralised. In 1297, for instance, while the highest court in France had fifty-one judges, the English Court of Common Pleas had five.[66] This powerful and tight-knit judiciary gave rise to a rigid and inflexible system of common law.[67] As a result, as time went on, increasing numbers of citizens petitioned the King to override the common law, and on the King's behalf the Lord Chancellor gave judgment to do what was equitable in a case. From the time of Sir Thomas More, the first lawyer to be appointed as Lord Chancellor, a systematic body of equity grew up alongside the rigid common law, and developed its own Court of Chancery. At first, equity was often criticised as erratic, that it varied according to the length of the Chancellor's foot.[68] But over time it developed solid principles, especially under Lord Eldon.[69] In the 19th century the two systems were fused into one another. In developing the common law and equity, academic authors have always played an important part. William Blackstone, from around 1760, was the first scholar to describe and teach it.[70] But merely in describing, scholars who sought explanations and underlying structures slowly changed the way the law actually worked.[71]

Religious law[link]

Religious law is explicitly based on religious precepts. Examples include the Jewish Halakha and Islamic Sharia—both of which translate as the "path to follow"—while Christian canon law also survives in some church communities. Often the implication of religion for law is unalterability, because the word of God cannot be amended or legislated against by judges or governments. However a thorough and detailed legal system generally requires human elaboration. For instance, the Quran has some law, and it acts as a source of further law through interpretation,[72] Qiyas (reasoning by analogy), Ijma (consensus) and precedent. This is mainly contained in a body of law and jurisprudence known as Sharia and Fiqh respectively. Another example is the Torah or Old Testament, in the Pentateuch or Five Books of Moses. This contains the basic code of Jewish law, which some Israeli communities choose to use. The Halakha is a code of Jewish law which summarises some of the Talmud's interpretations. Nevertheless, Israeli law allows litigants to use religious laws only if they choose. Canon law is only in use by members of the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion.

A trial in the Ottoman Empire, 1879, when religious law applied under the Mecelle

Until the 18th century, Sharia law was practiced throughout the Muslim world in a non-codified form, with the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code in the 19th century being first attempt at codifying elements of Sharia law. Since the mid-1940s, efforts have been made, in country after country, to bring Sharia law more into line with modern conditions and conceptions.[73][74] In modern times, the legal systems of many Muslim countries draw upon both civil and common law traditions as well as Islamic law and custom. The constitutions of certain Muslim states, such as Egypt and Afghanistan, recognise Islam as the religion of the state, obliging legislature to adhere to Sharia.[75] Saudi Arabia recognises Quran as its constitution, and is governed on the basis of Islamic law.[76] Iran has also witnessed a reiteration of Islamic law into its legal system after 1979.[77] During the last few decades, one of the fundamental features of the movement of Islamic resurgence has been the call to restore the Sharia, which has generated a vast amount of literature and affected world politics.[78]

Legal theory[link]

History of law[link]

King Hammurabi is revealed the code of laws by the Mesopotamian sun god Shamash, also revered as the god of justice

The history of law is closely connected to the development of civilization. Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books. It was based on the concept of Ma'at, characterised by tradition, rhetorical speech, social equality and impartiality.[79][80] By the 22nd century BC, the ancient Sumerian ruler Ur-Nammu had formulated the first law code, which consisted of casuistic statements ("if ... then ..."). Around 1760 BC, King Hammurabi further developed Babylonian law, by codifying and inscribing it in stone. Hammurabi placed several copies of his law code throughout the kingdom of Babylon as stelae, for the entire public to see; this became known as the Codex Hammurabi. The most intact copy of these stelae was discovered in the 19th century by British Assyriologists, and has since been fully transliterated and translated into various languages, including English, German, and French.[81]

The Old Testament dates back to 1280 BC and takes the form of moral imperatives as recommendations for a good society. The small Greek city-state, ancient Athens, from about the 8th century BC was the first society to be based on broad inclusion of its citizenry, excluding women and the slave class. However, Athens had no legal science or single word for "law",[82] relying instead on the three-way distinction between divine law (thémis), human decree (nomos) and custom (díkē).[83] Yet Ancient Greek law contained major constitutional innovations in the development of democracy.[84]

Roman law was heavily influenced by Greek philosophy, but its detailed rules were developed by professional jurists and were highly sophisticated.[85][86] Over the centuries between the rise and decline of the Roman Empire, law was adapted to cope with the changing social situations and underwent major codification under Theodosius II and Justinian I.[87] Although codes were replaced by custom and case law during the Dark Ages, Roman law was rediscovered around the 11th century when mediæval legal scholars began to research Roman codes and adapt their concepts. In mediæval England, royal courts developed a body of precedent which later became the common law. A Europe-wide Law Merchant was formed so that merchants could trade with common standards of practice rather than with the many splintered facets of local laws. The Law Merchant, a precursor to modern commercial law, emphasised the freedom to contract and alienability of property.[88] As nationalism grew in the 18th and 19th centuries, the Law Merchant was incorporated into countries' local law under new civil codes. The Napoleonic and German Codes became the most influential. In contrast to English common law, which consists of enormous tomes of case law, codes in small books are easy to export and easy for judges to apply. However, today there are signs that civil and common law are converging.[89] EU law is codified in treaties, but develops through the precedent laid down by the European Court of Justice.

The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution for a country, containing 444 articles, 12 schedules, numerous amendments and 117,369 words

Ancient India and China represent distinct traditions of law, and have historically had independent schools of legal theory and practice. The Arthashastra, probably compiled around 100 AD (although it contains older material), and the Manusmriti (c. 100–300 AD) were foundational treatises in India, and comprise texts considered authoritative legal guidance.[90] Manu's central philosophy was tolerance and Pluralism, and was cited across Southeast Asia.[91] This Hindu tradition, along with Islamic law, was supplanted by the common law when India became part of the British Empire.[92] Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore and Hong Kong also adopted the common law. The eastern Asia legal tradition reflects a unique blend of secular and religious influences.[93] Japan was the first country to begin modernising its legal system along western lines, by importing bits of the French, but mostly the German Civil Code.[94] This partly reflected Germany's status as a rising power in the late 19th century. Similarly, traditional Chinese law gave way to westernisation towards the final years of the Ch'ing dynasty in the form of six private law codes based mainly on the Japanese model of German law.[95] Today Taiwanese law retains the closest affinity to the codifications from that period, because of the split between Chiang Kai-shek's nationalists, who fled there, and Mao Zedong's communists who won control of the mainland in 1949. The current legal infrastructure in the People's Republic of China was heavily influenced by Soviet Socialist law, which essentially inflates administrative law at the expense of private law rights.[96] Due to rapid industrialisation, today China is undergoing a process of reform, at least in terms of economic, if not social and political, rights. A new contract code in 1999 represented a move away from administrative domination.[97] Furthermore, after negotiations lasting fifteen years, in 2001 China joined the World Trade Organisation.[98]

Philosophy of law[link]

"But what, after all, is a law? [...] When I say that the object of laws is always general, I mean that law considers subjects en masse and actions in the abstract, and never a particular person or action. [...] On this view, we at once see that it can no longer be asked whose business it is to make laws, since they are acts of the general will; nor whether the prince is above the law, since he is a member of the State; nor whether the law can be unjust, since no one is unjust to himself; nor how we can be both free and subject to the laws, since they are but registers of our wills."

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, II, 6.[99]

The philosophy of law is commonly known as jurisprudence. Normative jurisprudence is essentially political philosophy, and asks "what should law be?", while analytic jurisprudence asks "what is law?". John Austin's utilitarian answer was that law is "commands, backed by threat of sanctions, from a sovereign, to whom people have a habit of obedience".[100] Natural lawyers on the other side, such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, argue that law reflects essentially moral and unchangeable laws of nature. The concept of "natural law" emerged in ancient Greek philosophy concurrently and in entanglement with the notion of justice, and re-entered the mainstream of Western culture through the writings of Thomas Aquinas.

Hugo Grotius, the founder of a purely rationalistic system of natural law, argued that law arises from both a social impulse—as Aristotle had indicated—and reason.[101] Immanuel Kant believed a moral imperative requires laws "be chosen as though they should hold as universal laws of nature".[102] Jeremy Bentham and his student Austin, following David Hume, believed that this conflated the "is" and what "ought to be" problem. Bentham and Austin argued for law's positivism; that real law is entirely separate from "morality".[103] Kant was also criticised by Friedrich Nietzsche, who rejected the principle of equality, and believed that law emanates from the will to power, and cannot be labelled as "moral" or "immoral".[104][105][106]

In 1934, the Austrian philosopher Hans Kelsen continued the positivist tradition in his book the Pure Theory of Law.[107] Kelsen believed that although law is separate from morality, it is endowed with "normativity"; meaning we ought to obey it. While laws are positive "is" statements (e.g. the fine for reversing on a highway is €500); law tells us what we "should" do. Thus, each legal system can be hypothesised to have a basic norm (Grundnorm) instructing us to obey. Kelsen's major opponent, Carl Schmitt, rejected both positivism and the idea of the rule of law because he did not accept the primacy of abstract normative principles over concrete political positions and decisions.[108] Therefore, Schmitt advocated a jurisprudence of the exception (state of emergency), which denied that legal norms could encompass of all political experience.[109]

Bentham's utilitarian theories remained dominant in law until the 20th century

Later in the 20th century, H. L. A. Hart attacked Austin for his simplifications and Kelsen for his fictions in The Concept of Law.[110] Hart argued law is a system of rules, divided into primary (rules of conduct) and secondary ones (rules addressed to officials to administer primary rules). Secondary rules are further divided into rules of adjudication (to resolve legal disputes), rules of change (allowing laws to be varied) and the rule of recognition (allowing laws to be identified as valid). Two of Hart's students continued the debate: In his book Law's Empire, Ronald Dworkin attacked Hart and the positivists for their refusal to treat law as a moral issue. Dworkin argues that law is an "interpretive concept",[111] that requires judges to find the best fitting and most just solution to a legal dispute, given their constitutional traditions. Joseph Raz, on the other hand, defended the positivist outlook and criticised Hart's "soft social thesis" approach in The Authority of Law.[112] Raz argues that law is authority, identifiable purely through social sources and without reference to moral reasoning. In his view, any categorisation of rules beyond their role as authoritative instruments in mediation are best left to sociology, rather than jurisprudence.[113]

Economic analysis of law[link]

In the 18th century Adam Smith presented a philosophical foundation for explaining the relationship between law and economics.[114] The discipline arose partly out of a critique of trade unions and U.S. antitrust law. The most influential proponents, such as Richard Posner and Oliver Williamson and the so-called Chicago School of economists and lawyers including Milton Friedman and Gary Becker, are generally advocates of deregulation and privatisation, and are hostile to state regulation or what they see as restrictions on the operation of free markets.[115]

Richard Posner, one of the Chicago School, runs a blog with Bank of Sweden Prize winning economist Gary Becker.[116]

The most prominent economic analyst of law is 1991 Nobel Prize winner Ronald Coase, whose first major article, The Nature of the Firm (1937), argued that the reason for the existence of firms (companies, partnerships, etc.) is the existence of transaction costs.[117] Rational individuals trade through bilateral contracts on open markets until the costs of transactions mean that using corporations to produce things is more cost-effective. His second major article, The Problem of Social Cost (1960), argued that if we lived in a world without transaction costs, people would bargain with one another to create the same allocation of resources, regardless of the way a court might rule in property disputes.[118] Coase used the example of a nuisance case named Sturges v Bridgman, where a noisy sweetmaker and a quiet doctor were neighbours and went to court to see who should have to move.[38] Coase said that regardless of whether the judge ruled that the sweetmaker had to stop using his machinery, or that the doctor had to put up with it, they could strike a mutually beneficial bargain about who moves house that reaches the same outcome of resource distribution. Only the existence of transaction costs may prevent this.[119] So the law ought to pre-empt what would happen, and be guided by the most efficient solution. The idea is that law and regulation are not as important or effective at helping people as lawyers and government planners believe.[120] Coase and others like him wanted a change of approach, to put the burden of proof for positive effects on a government that was intervening in the market, by analysing the costs of action.[121]

Sociology of law[link]

Sociology of law is a diverse field of study that examines the interaction of law with society and overlaps with jurisprudence, economic analysis of law and more specialised subjects such as criminology.[122] The institutions of social construction and legal frameworks are the relevant areas for the discipline's inquiry. At first, legal theorists were suspicious of the discipline. Kelsen attacked one of its founders, Eugen Ehrlich, who sought to make distinct the differences between positive law, which lawyers learn and apply, and other forms of 'law' or social norms that regulate everyday life, generally preventing conflicts from reaching lawyers and courts.[123][124]

Max Weber in 1917, Weber began his career as a lawyer, and is regarded as one of the founders of sociology and sociology of law

Around 1900 Max Weber defined his "scientific" approach to law, identifying the "legal rational form" as a type of domination, not attributable to people but to abstract norms.[125] Legal rationalism was his term for a body of coherent and calculable law which formed a precondition for modern political developments and the modern bureaucratic state and developed in parallel with the growth of capitalism.[122] Another sociologist, Émile Durkheim, wrote in The Division of Labour in Society that as society becomes more complex, the body of civil law concerned primarily with restitution and compensation grows at the expense of criminal laws and penal sanctions.[126] Other notable early legal sociologists included Hugo Sinzheimer, Theodor Geiger, Georges Gurvitch and Leon Petrażycki in Europe, and William Graham Sumner in the U.S.[127][128]

Legal institutions[link]

It is a real unity of them all in one and the same person, made by covenant of every man with every man, in such manner as if every man should say to every man: I authorise and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to this assembly of men, on this condition; that thou givest up, thy right to him, and authorise all his actions in like manner.

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, XVII

The main institutions of law in industrialised countries are independent courts, representative parliaments, an accountable executive, the military and police, bureaucratic organisation, the legal profession and civil society itself. John Locke, in his Two Treatises of Government, and Baron de Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws, advocated for a separation of powers between the political, legislature and executive bodies.[129] Their principle was that no person should be able to usurp all powers of the state, in contrast to the absolutist theory of Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan.[130]

Max Weber and others reshaped thinking on the extension of state. Modern military, policing and bureaucratic power over ordinary citizens' daily lives pose special problems for accountability that earlier writers such as Locke or Montesquieu could not have foreseen. The custom and practice of the legal profession is an important part of people's access to justice, whilst civil society is a term used to refer to the social institutions, communities and partnerships that form law's political basis.

Judiciary[link]

A judiciary is a number of judges mediating disputes to determine outcome. Most countries have systems of appeal courts, answering up to a supreme legal authority. In the United States, this is the Supreme Court;[131] in Australia, the High Court; in the UK, the Supreme Court;[132] in Germany, the Bundesverfassungsgericht; in France, the Cour de Cassation.[133][134] For most European countries the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg can overrule national law, when EU law is relevant. The European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg allows citizens of the Council of Europe member states to bring cases relating to human rights issues before it.[135]

Some countries allow their highest judicial authority to overrule legislation they determine to be unconstitutional. For example, in Brown v. Board of Education, the United States Supreme Court nullified many state statutes that had established racially segregated schools, finding such statutes to be incompatible with the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.[136]

A judiciary is theoretically bound by the constitution, just as all other government bodies are. In most countries judges may only interpret the constitution and all other laws. But in common law countries, where matters are not constitutional, the judiciary may also create law under the doctrine of precedent. The UK, Finland and New Zealand assert the ideal of parliamentary sovereignty, whereby the unelected judiciary may not overturn law passed by a democratic legislature.[137]

In communist states, such as China, the courts are often regarded as parts of the executive, or subservient to the legislature; governmental institutions and actors exert thus various forms of influence on the judiciary.[138] In Muslim countries, courts often examine whether state laws adhere to the Sharia: the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt may invalidate such laws,[139] and in Iran the Guardian Council ensures the compatibility of the legislation with the "criteria of Islam".[139][140]

Legislature[link]

The debating chamber of the European Parliament

Prominent examples of legislatures are the Houses of Parliament in London, the Congress in Washington D.C., the Bundestag in Berlin, the Duma in Moscow, the Parlamento Italiano in Rome and the Assemblée nationale in Paris. By the principle of representative government people vote for politicians to carry out their wishes. Although countries like Israel, Greece, Sweden and China are unicameral, most countries are bicameral, meaning they have two separately appointed legislative houses.[141]

In the 'lower house' politicians are elected to represent smaller constituencies. The 'upper house' is usually elected to represent states in a federal system (as in Australia, Germany or the United States) or different voting configuration in a unitary system (as in France). In the UK the upper house is appointed by the government as a house of review. One criticism of bicameral systems with two elected chambers is that the upper and lower houses may simply mirror one another. The traditional justification of bicameralism is that an upper chamber acts as a house of review. This can minimise arbitrariness and injustice in governmental action.[142]

To pass legislation, a majority of the members of a legislature must vote for a bill (proposed law) in each house. Normally there will be several readings and amendments proposed by the different political factions. If a country has an entrenched constitution, a special majority for changes to the constitution may be required, making changes to the law more difficult. A government usually leads the process, which can be formed from Members of Parliament (e.g. the UK or Germany). However, in a presidential system, the government is usually formed by an executive and his or her appointed cabinet officials (e.g. the United States or Brazil).[143]

Executive[link]

The G20 meetings are composed of representatives of each country's executive branch

The executive in a legal system serves as a government's centre of political authority. In a parliamentary system, as with Britain, Italy, Germany, India, and Japan, the executive is known as the cabinet, and composed of members of the legislature. The executive is chosen by the Prime Minister or Chancellor, whose office holds power under the confidence of the legislature. Because popular elections appoint political parties to govern, the leader of a party can change in between elections.[144]

The head of state is apart from the executive, and symbolically enacts laws and acts as representative of the nation. Examples include the German president (appointed by members of federal and state Parliaments) the Queen of the United Kingdom (a hereditary title), and the Austrian president (elected by popular vote). The other important model is the presidential system, found in France, the U.S. and Russia. In presidential systems, the executive acts as both head of state and head of government, and has power to appoint an unelected cabinet. Under a presidential system, the executive branch is separate from the legislature to which it is not accountable.[145][146]

Although the role of the executive varies from country to country, usually it will propose the majority of legislation, and propose government agenda. In presidential systems, the executive often has the power to veto legislation. Most executives in both systems are responsible for foreign relations, the military and police, and the bureaucracy. Ministers or other officials head a country's public offices, such as a foreign ministry or interior ministry. The election of a different executive is therefore capable of revolutionising an entire country's approach to government.

Military and police[link]

While military organizations have existed as long as government itself, the idea of a standing police force is relatively modern concept. For example, Mediæval England's system of traveling criminal courts, or assizes, used show trials and public executions to instill communities with fear to maintain control.[147] The first modern police were probably those in 17th-century Paris, in the court of Louis XIV,[148] although the Paris Prefecture of Police claim they were the world's first uniformed policemen.[149]

Max Weber famously argued that the state is that which controls the monopoly on the legitimate use of force.[150][151] The military and police carry out enforcement at the request of the government or the courts. The term failed state refers to states that cannot implement or enforce policies; their police and military no longer control security and order and society moves into anarchy, the absence of government.[152]

Bureaucracy[link]

The United Nations' New York headquarters houses civil servants that serve its 192 member states.

The etymology of "bureaucracy" derives from the French word for "office" (bureau) and the Ancient Greek for word "power" (kratos).[153] Like the military and police, a legal system's government servants and bodies that make up its bureaucracy carry out the directives of the executive. One of the earliest references to the concept was made by Baron de Grimm, a German author who lived in France. In 1765 he wrote,

The real spirit of the laws in France is that bureaucracy of which the late Monsieur de Gournay used to complain so greatly; here the offices, clerks, secretaries, inspectors and intendants are not appointed to benefit the public interest, indeed the public interest appears to have been established so that offices might exist.[154]

Cynicism over "officialdom" is still common, and the workings of public servants is typically contrasted to private enterprise motivated by profit.[155] In fact private companies, especially large ones, also have bureaucracies.[156] Negative perceptions of "red tape" aside, public services such as schooling, health care, policing or public transport are a crucial state function making public bureaucratic action the locus of government power.[156]

Writing in the early 20th century, Max Weber believed that a definitive feature of a developed state had come to be its bureaucratic support.[157] Weber wrote that the typical characteristics of modern bureaucracy are that officials define its mission, the scope of work is bound by rules, management is composed of career experts, who manage top down, communicating through writing and binding public servants' discretion with rules.[158]

Legal profession[link]

In civil law systems such as those of France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Greece, there is a distinct category of notary, a legally trained public official, compensated by the parties to a transaction.[159] This is a 16th-century painting of such a notary by Flemish painter Quentin Massys.

A corollary of the rule of law is the existence of a legal profession sufficiently autonomous to be able to invoke the authority of the independent judiciary; the right to assistance of an advocate in a court proceeding emanates from this corollary—in England the function of barrister or advocate is distinguished from legal counselor (solicitor).[160] As the European Court of Human Rights has stated, the law should be adequately accessible to everyone and people should be able to foresee how the law affects them.[161]

In order to maintain professionalism, the practice of law is typically overseen by either a government or independent regulating body such as a bar association, bar council or law society. Modern lawyers achieve distinct professional identity through specified legal procedures (e.g. successfully passing a qualifying examination), are required by law to have a special qualification (a legal education earning the student a Bachelor of Laws, a Bachelor of Civil Law or a Juris Doctor degree[162]), and are constituted in office by legal forms of appointment (being admitted to the bar). Most Muslim countries have developed similar rules about legal education and the legal profession, but some still allow lawyers with training in traditional Islamic law to practice law before personal status law courts.[163] In China and other developing countries there are not sufficient professionally-trained people to staff the existing judicial systems, and, accordingly, formal standards are more relaxed.[164]

Once accredited, a lawyer will often work in a law firm, in a chambers as a sole practitioner, in a government post or in a private corporation as an internal counsel. In addition a lawyer may become a legal researcher who provides on-demand legal research through a library, a commercial service or through freelance work. Many people trained in law put their skills to use outside the legal field entirely.[165]

Significant to the practice of law in the common law tradition is the legal research to determine the current state of the law. This usually entails exploring case-law reports, legal periodicals and legislation. Law practice also involves drafting documents such as court pleadings, persuasive briefs, contracts, or wills and trusts. Negotiation and dispute resolution skills (including ADR techniques) are also important to legal practice, depending on the field.[166]

Civil society[link]

A march in Washington D.C. during the U.S. Civil Rights Movement in 1963

Classical republican concept of "civil society" dates back to Hobbes and Locke.[167] Locke saw civil society as people who have "a common established law and judicature to appeal to, with authority to decide controversies between them."[168] German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel distinguished the "state" from "civil society" (burgerliche Gesellschaft) in Elements of the Philosophy of Right.[169]

Hegel believed that civil society and the state were polar opposites, within the scheme of his dialectic theory of history. The modern dipole state–civil society was reproduced in the theories of Alexis de Tocqueville and Karl Marx.[170][171] Nowadays in post-modern theory civil society is necessarily a source of law, by being the basis from which people form opinions and lobby for what they believe law should be. As Australian barrister and author Geoffrey Robertson QC wrote of international law,

... one of its primary modern sources is found in the responses of ordinary men and women, and of the non-governmental organizations which many of them support, to the human rights abuses they see on the television screen in their living rooms.[172]

Freedom of speech, freedom of association and many other individual rights allow people to gather, discuss, criticise and hold to account their governments, from which the basis of a deliberative democracy is formed. The more people are involved with, concerned by and capable of changing how political power is exercised over their lives, the more acceptable and legitimate the law becomes to the people. The most familiar institutions of civil society include economic markets, profit-oriented firms, families, trade unions, hospitals, universities, schools, charities, debating clubs, non-governmental organisations, neighbourhoods, churches, and religious associations.[173]

See also[link]

Notes[link]

  1. ^ Luban, Law's Blindfold, 23
  2. ^ From Old English lagu; legal comes from Latin legalis, from lex "law", "statute" (Law, Online Etymology Dictionary; Legal, Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary)
  3. ^ Robertson, Crimes against humanity, 90; see "analytical jurisprudence" for extensive debate on what law is; in The Concept of Law Hart argued law is a "system of rules" (Campbell, The Contribution of Legal Studies, 184); Austin said law was "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction" (Bix, John Austin); Dworkin describes law as an "interpretive concept" to achieve justice (Dworkin, Law's Empire, 410); and Raz argues law is an "authority" to mediate people's interests (Raz, The Authority of Law, 3–36).
  4. ^ The original French is: "La loi, dans un grand souci d'égalité, interdit aux riches comme aux pauvres de coucher sous les ponts, de mendier dans les rues et de voler du pain" (France, The Red Lily, Chapter VII).
  5. ^ Aristotle. Politics, Book 3#3:16. n.b. This translation reads, "it is more proper that law should govern than any one of the citizens"
  6. ^ Although many scholars argue that "the boundaries between public and private law are becoming blurred", and that this distinction has become mere "folklore" (Bergkamp, Liability and Environment, 1–2).
  7. ^ E.g. in England these seven subjects, with EU law substituted for international law, make up a "qualifying law degree". For criticism, see Peter Birks' poignant comments attached to a previous version of the Notice to Law Schools.
  8. ^ History of the UN, United Nations. Winston Churchill (The Hinge of Fate, 719) comments on the League of Nations' failure: "It was wrong to say that the League failed. It was rather the member states who had failed the League."
  9. ^ The prevailing manner of enforcing international law is still essentially "self help"; that is the reaction by states to alleged breaches of international obligations by other states (Robertson, Crimes against Humanity, 90; Schermers-Blokker, International Institutional Law, 900–901).
  10. ^ Petersmann, The GATT/WTO Dispute Settlement System International Criminal Court, 32
  11. ^ Redfem, International Commercial Arbitration, 68–69
  12. ^ Schermers–Blokker, International Institutional Law, 943
  13. ^ See the fundamental C-26/62 Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen, and Flaminio Costa v E.N.E.L. decisions of the European Court.
  14. ^ Entick v Carrington (1765) 19 Howell's State Trials 1030; [1765] 95 ER 807
  15. ^ "Entick v Carrington". 19 Howell’s State Trials 1029 (1765). US: Constitution Society. http://www.constitution.org/trials/entick/entick_v_carrington.htm. Retrieved 13 November 2008. 
  16. ^ Locke, The Second Treatise, Chapter 9, section 124
  17. ^ Tamanaha, On the Rule of Law, 47
  18. ^ Auby, Administrative Law in France, 75
  19. ^ Cesare Beccaria's seminal treatise of 1763–1764 is titled On Crimes and Punishments (Dei delitti e delle pene).
  20. ^ a b Brody, Acker and Logan, Criminal Law, 2; Wilson, Criminal Law, 2
  21. ^ Dennis J. Baker, Glanville Williams Textbook of Criminal Law (London: 2012), 2
  22. ^ See e.g. Brody, Acker and Logan, Criminal Law, 205 about Robinson v. California, 370 U.S. 660 (1962).
  23. ^ See e.g. Feinman, Law 111, 260–261 about Powell v. Texas, 392 U.S. 514 (1968).
  24. ^ Dörmann, Doswald-Beck and Kolb, Elements of War Crimes, 491
  25. ^ Kaiser, Leistungsstörungen, 333
  26. ^ About R v Dudley and Stephens [1884] 14 QBD 273 DC, see Simpson, Cannibalism and the Common Law, 212–217, 229–237
  27. ^ Pelser, Criminal Legislation, 198
  28. ^ The States Parties to the Rome Statute, International Criminal Court
  29. ^ Wehberg, Pacta Sunt Servanda, 775
  30. ^ About Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company [1893] 1 QB 256, and the element of consideration, see Beale and Tallon, Contract Law, 142–143
  31. ^ Austotel v Franklins (1989) 16 NSWLR 582
  32. ^ e.g. In Germany, § 311 Abs. II BGB
  33. ^ § 105 Abs. II BGB
  34. ^ Smith, The Structure of Unjust Enrichment Law, 1037
  35. ^ Bolton v Stone [1951] AC 850
  36. ^ a b Donoghue v Stevenson ([1932] A.C. 532, 1932 S.C. (H.L.) 31, [1932] All ER Rep 1). See the original text of the case in UK Law Online.
  37. ^ Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 532, 580
  38. ^ a b Sturges v Bridgman (1879) 11 Ch D 852
  39. ^ e.g. concerning a British politician and the Iraq War, George Galloway v Telegraph Group Ltd [2004] EWHC 2786
  40. ^ Taff Vale Railway Co v Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants [1901] AC 426
  41. ^ In the UK, Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992; c.f. in the U.S., National Labor Relations Act
  42. ^ Harris, The Bubble Act, 610–627
  43. ^ eg Hunter v Canary Wharf Ltd [1997] 2 All ER 426
  44. ^ Armory v Delamirie (1722) 93 ER 664, 1 Strange 505
  45. ^ Matthews, The Man of Property, 251–274
  46. ^ Savigny, Das Recht des Besitzes, 25
  47. ^ Locke, Second Treatise on Civil Government, Chap. IX. Of the Ends of Political Society and Government. Chapter 9, section 123.
  48. ^ McGhee, Snell's Equity, 7
  49. ^ c.f. Bristol and West Building Society v Mothew [1998] Ch 1
  50. ^ Keech v Sandford (1726) Sel Cas Ch 61
  51. ^ Nestlé v National Westminster Bank plc [1993] 1 WLR 1260
  52. ^ A Guide to the Treaty of Lisbon, The Law Society
  53. ^ Berle, Modern Corporation and Private Property
  54. ^ WIPO, Intellectual Property, 3
  55. ^ Modern scholars argue that the significance of this distinction has progressively declined; the numerous legal transplants, typical of modern law, result in the sharing by modern legal systems of many features traditionally considered typical of either common law or civil law (Mattei, Comparative Law and Economics, 71)
  56. ^ Civil law jurisdictions recognise custom as "the other source of law"; hence, scholars tend to divide the civil law into the broad categories of "written law" (ius scriptum) or legislation, and "unwritten law" (ius non scriptum) or custom. Yet they tend to dismiss custom as being of slight importance compared to legislation (Georgiadis, General Principles of Civil Law, 19; Washofsky, Taking Precedent Seriously, 7).
  57. ^ Gordley-von Mehren, Comparative Study of Private Law, 18
  58. ^ Gordley-von Mehren, Comparative Study of Private Law, 21
  59. ^ Stein, Roman Law in European History, 32
  60. ^ Stein, Roman Law in European History, 35
  61. ^ Stein, Roman Law in European History, 43
  62. ^ Hatzis, The Short-Lived Influence of the Napoleonic Civil Code in Greece, 253–263
  63. ^ Demirgüç-Kunt -Levine, Financial Structures and Economic Growth, 204
  64. ^ The World Factbook – Field Listing – Legal system, CIA
  65. ^ Magna Carta, Fordham University
  66. ^ Gordley-von Mehren, Comparative Study of Private Law, 4
  67. ^ Gordley-von Mehren, Comparative Study of Private Law, 3
  68. ^ Pollock (ed) Table Talk of John Selden (1927) 43; "Equity is a roguish thing. For law we have a measure... equity is according to the conscience of him that is Chancellor, and as that is longer or narrower, so is equity. 'Tis all one as if they should make the standard for the measure a Chancellor's foot."
  69. ^ Gee v Pritchard (1818) 2 Swans. 402, 414
  70. ^ Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, Book the First – Chapter the First
  71. ^ Gordley-von Mehren, Comparative Study of Private Law, 17
  72. ^ Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 159
  73. ^ Anderson, Law Reform in the Middle East, 43
  74. ^ Giannoulatos, Islam, 274–275
  75. ^ Sherif, Constitutions of Arab Countries, 157–158
  76. ^ Saudi Arabia, Jurist
  77. ^ Akhlagi, Iranian Commercial Law, 127
  78. ^ Hallaq, The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law, 1
  79. ^ Théodoridés. "law". Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. 
  80. ^ VerSteeg, Law in ancient Egypt
  81. ^ Richardson, Hammurabi's Laws, 11
  82. ^ Kelly, A Short History of Western Legal Theory, 5–6
  83. ^ J.P. Mallory, "Law", in Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, 346
  84. ^ Ober, The Nature of Athenian Democracy, 121
  85. ^ Kelly, A Short History of Western Legal Theory, 39
  86. ^ Stein, Roman Law in European History, 1
  87. ^ As a legal system, Roman law has affected the development of law worldwide. It also forms the basis for the law codes of most countries of continental Europe and has played an important role in the creation of the idea of a common European culture (Stein, Roman Law in European History, 2, 104–107).
  88. ^ Sealey-Hooley, Commercial Law, 14
  89. ^ Mattei, Comparative Law and Economics, 71
  90. ^ For discussion of the composition and dating of these sources, see Olivelle, Manu's Code of Law, 18–25.
  91. ^ Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 276
  92. ^ Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 273
  93. ^ Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 287
  94. ^ Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 304
  95. ^ Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 305
  96. ^ Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 307
  97. ^ Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World, 309
  98. ^ Farah, Five Years of China WTO Membership, 263–304
  99. ^ Rousseau, The Social Contract, Book II: Chapter 6 (Law)
  100. ^ Bix, John Austin
  101. ^ Fritz Berolzheimer, The World's Legal Philosophies, 115–116
  102. ^ Kant, Immanuel, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, 42 (par. 434)
  103. ^ Green, Legal Positivism
  104. ^ Nietzsche, Zur Genealogie der Moral, Second Essay, 11
  105. ^ Kazantzakis, Friedrich Nietzsche and the Philosophy of Law, 97–98
  106. ^ Linarelli, Nietzsche in Law's Cathedral, 23–26
  107. ^ Marmor, The Pure Theory of Law
  108. ^ Bielefeldt, Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism, 25–26
  109. ^ Finn, Constitutions in Crisis, 170–171
  110. ^ Bayles, Hart's Legal Philosophy, 21
  111. ^ Dworkin, Law's Empire, 410
  112. ^ Raz, The Authority of Law, 3–36
  113. ^ Raz, The Authority of Law, 37 etc.
  114. ^ According to Malloy (Law and Economics, 114), Smith established "a classical liberal philosophy that made individuals the key referential sign while acknowledging that we live not alone but in community with others".
  115. ^ Jakoby, Economic Ideas and the Labour Market, 53
  116. ^ "The Becker-Posner Blog". http://uchicagolaw.typepad.com/beckerposner/. Retrieved 20 May 2010. 
  117. ^ Coase, The Nature of the Firm, 386–405
  118. ^ Coase, The Problem of Social Cost, 1–44
  119. ^ Coase, The Problem of Social Cost, IV, 7
  120. ^ Coase, The Problem of Social Cost, V, 9
  121. ^ Coase, The Problem of Social Cost, VIII, 23
  122. ^ a b Jary, Collins Dictionary of Sociology, 636
  123. ^ Rottleuthner, La Sociologie du Droit en Allemagne, 109
  124. ^ Rottleuthner, Rechtstheoritische Probleme der Sociologie des Rechts, 521
  125. ^ Rheinstein, Max Weber on Law and Economy in Society, 336
  126. ^ Johnson, The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology, 156
  127. ^ Gurvitch, Sociology of Law, 142
  128. ^ Papachristou, Sociology of Law, 81–82
  129. ^ Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws, Book XI: Of the Laws Which Establish Political Liberty, with Regard to the Constitution, Chapters 6–7
  130. ^ Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, XVII
  131. ^ A Brief Overview of the Supreme Court, Supreme Court of the United States
  132. ^ House of Lords Judgments, House of Lords
  133. ^ Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts, Bundesverfassungsgericht
  134. ^ Jurisprudence, publications, documentation, Cour de cassation
  135. ^ Goldhaber, European Court of Human Rights, 1–2
  136. ^ Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education
  137. ^ Dicey, Law of the Constitution, 37–82
  138. ^ E.g., the court president is a political appointee (Jensen–Heller, Introduction, 11–12). About the notion of "judicial independence" in China, see Findlay, Judiciary in the PRC, 282–284
  139. ^ a b Sherif, Constitutions of Arab Countries, 158
  140. ^ Rasekh, Islamism and Republicanism, 115–116
  141. ^ Riker, The Justification of Bicameralism, 101
  142. ^ Riker, The Justification of Bicameralism, 101
  143. ^ About "cabinet accountability" in both presidential and parliamentary systems, see Shugart–Haggard, Presidential Systems, 67 etc.
  144. ^ Haggard, Presidents, Parliaments and Policy, 71
  145. ^ Haggard, Presidents, Parliaments and Policy, 71
  146. ^ Olson, The New Parliaments of Central and Eastern Europe, 7
  147. ^ See, eg Tuberville v Savage (1669), 1 Mod. Rep. 3, 86 Eng. Rep. 684, where a knight said in a threatening tone to a layman, "If it were not assize time, I would not take such language from you."
  148. ^ History of Police Forces, History.com Encyclopedia
  149. ^ Des Sergents de Ville et Gardiens de la Paix à la Police de Proximité, La Préfecture de Police
  150. ^ Weber, Politics as a Vocation
  151. ^ Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation, 154
  152. ^ In these cases sovereignty is eroded, and often warlords acquire excessive powers (Fukuyama, State-Building, 166–167).
  153. ^ Bureaucracy, Online Etymology Dictionary
  154. ^ Albrow, Bureaucracy, 16
  155. ^ Mises, Bureaucracy, II, Bureaucratic Management
  156. ^ a b Kettl, Public Bureaucracies, 367
  157. ^ Weber, Economy and Society, I, 393
  158. ^ Kettl, Public Bureaucracies, 371
  159. ^ Hazard–Dondi, Legal Ethics, 22
  160. ^ Hazard–Dondi, Legal Ethics, 1
  161. ^ The Sunday Times v The United Kingdom [1979] ECHR 1 at 49 Case no. 6538/74
  162. ^ Higher academic degrees may also be pursued. Examples include a Master of Laws, a Master of Legal Studies or a Doctor of Laws.
  163. ^ Ahamd, Lawyers: Islamic Law[dead link]
  164. ^ Hazard–Dondi, Legal Ethics, 22–23
  165. ^ Fine, The Globalisation of Legal Education, 364
  166. ^ Fine, The Globalisation of Legal Education, 364
  167. ^ Warren, Civil Society, 3–4
  168. ^ Locke, Second Treatise, Chap. VII, Of Political or Civil_Society. Chapter 7, section 87
  169. ^ Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of Right, 3, II, 182; Karkatsoulis, The State in Transition, 277–278
  170. ^ (Pelczynski, The State and Civil Society, 1–13; Warren, Civil Society, 5–9)
  171. ^ Zaleski, Pawel (2008). "Tocqueville on Civilian Society. A Romantic Vision of the Dichotomic Structure of Social Reality". Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte (Felix Meiner Verlag) 50. 
  172. ^ Robertson, Crimes Against Humanity, 98–99
  173. ^ There is no clear legal definition of the civil society, and of the institutions it includes. Most of the institutions and bodies who try to give a list of institutions (such as the European Economic and Social Committee) exclude the political parties. For further information, see Jakobs, Pursuing Equal Opportunities, 5–6; Kaldor–Anheier–Glasius, Global Civil Society, passim[dead link] (PDF); Karkatsoulis, The State in Transition, 282–283.

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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law

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The Rule
Background information
Origin Minnesota, United States
Genres pop, R&B, reggae
Labels R, R, & R Records
Website therulemusic.com
Members
Ryan Liestman
Jeff Love
Shawn Connelly
Past members
Gregory Washington

The Rule (formerly Ry and the Rule) is an American pop/R&B band, led by Ryan Liestman (keyboardist for the Jonas Brothers[1]). The group released its first album, the self-titled The Rule in the summer of 2006, under the indie label R, R, & R Records. Michael Bland, Tommy Barbarella, and Stokley Williams have also performed with The Rule.[2]

In the fall of 2006, The Rule toured the United States with American, Grammy Award-winning singer Cyndi Lauper.[3]

Contents

Discography[link]

Albums[link]

Additional images[link]

References[link]

first grad second grade third grade

External links[link]


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Related pages:

http://es.wn.com/The Rule




This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rule

This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.


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