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v t e

Zoology /zoʊˈɒlədʒi/, occasionally spelt zoölogy, is the branch of biology that relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct. The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον (zōon, “animal”) + λόγος (logos, “knowledge”).

History[link]

Ancient history to Darwin[link]

Conrad Gesner (1516–1565). His Historiae animalium is considered the beginning of modern zoology.

The history of zoology traces the study of the animal kingdom from ancient to modern times. Although the concept of zoology as a single coherent field arose much later, the zoological sciences emerged from natural history reaching back to the works of Aristotle and Galen in the ancient Greco-Roman world. This ancient work was further developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians and scholars such as Albertus Magnus.^[1][2][3] During the Renaissance and early modern period, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism and the discovery of many novel organisms. Prominent in this movement were Vesalius and William Harvey, who used experimentation and careful observation in physiology, and naturalists such as Carl Linnaeus and Buffon who began to classify the diversity of life and the fossil record, as well as the development and behavior of organisms. Microscopy revealed the previously unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory.^[4] The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, encouraged the growth of natural history (although it entrenched the argument from design).

Over the 18th and 19th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline. Explorer-naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography, laying the foundations for biogeography, ecology and ethology. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and the mutability of species. Cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life.^[5]

Since Darwin[link]

These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur, and provided observational evidence that it had done so.^[6]

Darwin gave new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a common biological theory: the theory of organic evolution. The result was a reconstruction of the classification of animals upon a genealogical basis, fresh investigation of the development of animals, and early attempts to determine their genetic relationships. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation and the rise of the germ theory of disease, though the mechanism of inheritance remained a mystery. In the early 20th century, the rediscovery of Mendel's work led to the rapid development of genetics by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his students, and by the 1930s the combination of population genetics and natural selection in the "neo-Darwinian synthesis".^[7]

Research[link]

Structural[link]

Cell biology studies the structural and physiological properties of cells, including their behaviors, interactions, and environment. This is done on both the microscopic and molecular levels, for single-celled organisms such as bacteria as well as the specialized cells in multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. The similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology.

Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems.^[8]

Physiological[link]

Animal anatomical engraving from Handbuch der Anatomie der Tiere für Künstler.

Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. The theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of human physiology to non-human species. Physiology studies how for example nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and circulatory systems, function and interact.

Evolutionary[link]

Evolutionary research is concerned with the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many taxonomically oriented disciplines. For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, or herpetology, but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution.

Evolutionary biology is partly based on paleontology, which uses the fossil record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of evolution,^[9] and partly on the developments in areas such as population genetics^[10] and evolutionary theory. In the 1980s, developmental biology re-entered evolutionary biology from its initial exclusion from the modern synthesis through the study of evolutionary developmental biology.^[11] Related fields often considered part of evolutionary biology are phylogenetics, systematics, and taxonomy.

Systematics[link]

Scientific classification in zoology, is a method by which zoologists group and categorize organisms by biological type, such as genus or species. Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy. Modern biological classification has its root in the work of Carolus Linnaeus, who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics. These groupings have since been revised to improve consistency with the Darwinian principle of common descent. Molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions and is likely to continue to do so. Biological classification belongs to the science of zoological systematics.

Linnaeus's table of the Animal Kingdom from the first edition of Systema Naturae (1735).

Many scientists now consider the five-kingdom system outdated. Modern alternative classification systems generally begin with the three-domain system: Archaea (originally Archaebacteria); Bacteria (originally Eubacteria); Eukaryota (including protists, fungi, plants, and animals)^[12] These domains reflect whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the chemical composition of the cell exteriors.^[12]

Further, each kingdom is broken down recursively until each species is separately classified. The order is: Domain; Kingdom; Phylum; Class; Order; Family; Genus; Species. The scientific name of an organism is generated from its genus and species. For example, humans are listed as Homo sapiens. Homo is the genus, and sapiens the species. When writing the scientific name of an organism, it is proper to capitalize the first letter in the genus and put all of the species in lowercase. Additionally, the entire term may be italicized or underlined.^[13][14]

The dominant classification system is called the Linnaean taxonomy. It includes ranks and binomial nomenclature. The classification, taxonomy, and nomenclature of zoological organisms is administered by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, and International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria for animals and bacteria, respectively. The classification of viruses, viroids, prions, and all other sub-viral agents that demonstrate biological characteristics is conducted by the International Code of Virus classification and nomenclature.^{[15][16][17][18]} However, several other viral classification systems do exist.

A merging draft, BioCode, was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize nomenclature in these areas, but has yet to be formally adopted.^[19] The BioCode draft has received little attention since 1997; its originally planned implementation date of January 1, 2000, has passed unnoticed. However, a 2004 paper concerning the cyanobacteria does advocate a future adoption of a BioCode and interim steps consisting of reducing the differences between the codes.^[20] The International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN) remains outside the BioCode.

Ethology[link]

Kelp Gull chicks peck at red spot on mother's beak to stimulate regurgitating reflex.

Ethology studies animal behavior (particularly that of social animals such as primates and canids), and is sometimes considered a separate branch of study. Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the evolution of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of natural selection. In one sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose book, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, influenced many ethologists to come.^[21]

Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms on the Earth,^[22] focusing on topics like plate tectonics, climate change, dispersal and migration, and cladistics.

Branches of zoology[link]

Although the study of animal life is ancient, its scientific incarnation is relatively modern. This mirrors the transition from natural history to biology at the start of the nineteenth century. Since Hunter and Cuvier, comparative anatomical study has been associated with morphography shapins the modern areas of zoological investigation: anatomy, physiology, histology, embryology, teratology and ethology. Modern zoology first arose in German and British universities. In Britain, Thomas Henry Huxley was a prominent figure. His ideas were centered on the morphology of animals. Many consider him the greatest comparative anatomist of the latter half of the nineteenth century. Similar to Hunter, his courses were composed of lectures and laboratory practical classes in contrast the previous format of lectures only. This system became widely spread.

Gradually zoology expanded beyond Huxley's comparative anatomy to include the following sub-disciplines:

• Zoography, also known as descriptive zoology, describes animals and their habitats
• Comparative anatomy studies the structure of animals.
• Animal physiology
• Behavioral ecology
• Ethology is the study of animal behavior.
• The various taxonomically oriented disciplines such as mammalogy, herpetology, ornithology and entomology identify and classify species and study the structures and mechanisms specific to those groups.

Related fields:

• Evolutionary biology: Development of both animals and plants is considered in the articles on evolution, population genetics, heredity, variation, Mendelism, reproduction.
• Molecular Biology studies the common genetic and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants
• Palaeontology
• Systematics, cladistics, phylogenetics, phylogeography, biogeography and taxonomy classify and group species via common descent and regional associations.

See also[link]

	Animals portal
	Biology portal
	Palaeontology portal

• Astrobiology
• Important Publications in Zoology
• List of Russian zoologists
• List of zoologists
• Outline of zoology
• Timeline of zoology
• Zoological distribution
• Zootomy - the study of animal anatomy or animal dissection

References[link]

External links[link]

At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Zoology at:

The School of Zoology

Wikibooks has more on the topic of Zoology

• Books on Zoology at Project Gutenberg
• Online Dictionary of Invertebrate Zoology

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Chris Humphrey

Personal information
Full name	Christopher Charles Humphrey
Date of birth	(1987-09-19) 19 September 1987 (age 24)
Place of birth	Saint Catherine[1], Jamaica
Height	5 ft 9 in (1.75 m)
Playing position	Winger
Club information
Current club	Motherwell
Number	7
Youth career
200?–2004	Walsall
2004–2006	West Bromwich Albion
Senior career*
Years	Team	Apps†	(Gls)†
2006–2009	Shrewsbury Town	74	(2)
2007	→ Stafford Rangers (loan)	4	(0)
2009–	Motherwell	99	(5)
National team
2012–	Jamaica	1	(0)
* Senior club appearances and goals counted for the domestic league only and correct as of 28 May 2012. † Appearances (Goals).

Christopher Charles "Chris" Humphrey (born 19 September 1987) is a Jamaican professional footballer who plays as a winger for Scottish Premier League side Motherwell and the Jamaica national team.^[2]

Career[link]

Born in Jamaica before moving to Walsall^[3] at the age of 5, Humphrey was at Walsall's Centre of Excellence until he joined West Bromwich Albion.

Shrewsbury Town[link]

After playing in a reserve team match against Shrewsbury Town on 4 September 2006, Shrews manager Gary Peters was impressed by Humphrey's performance and inquired about his availability, discovering that he was out of contract. Two days later Humphrey had signed for Shrewsbury on a free transfer until the end of the 2006–07 season, with Peters joking that he had kidnapped Humphrey.^[3][4]

Three days after signing, on 9 September, Humphrey made his debut as a 79th minute substitute for Shrewsbury in a 1–0 home defeat to Lincoln City. On 8 February 2007, and having made nine substitute appearances, Humphrey's progress had pleased Peters sufficiently to earn him a one year contract extension until summer 2008.^[5]

In his first season he made a total of 14 league appearances for Salop, all but one as a substitute. Humphrey played for Shrewsbury, as a late second half substitute, in the 2007 Football League Two play-off Final. Shrewsbury lost 3–1 to Bristol Rovers at Wembley. A mistake was made on his shirt, spelling his surname as "Humphery".

After making three league and three cup appearances in the early part of the 2007–08 season Humphrey joined Conference National side Stafford Rangers on 2 November 2007 on loan for a month, playing four games. On 25 January 2008, his contract was extended by another year, until the end of the 2008–09 season.^[6]

He scored his first goal on 25 October 2008, two minutes after coming on as a 78th minute substitute to earn the Shrews a 1–1 draw with Brentford at Griffin Park. Late in the January 2009 transfer window, and with Humphrey about to be out of contract in summer, it was claimed that he had attracteded the interest of various clubs, including Aston Villa, following a number of eye-catching performances that season.^[7] On 2 May, Humphrey set up one goal and scored another as Shrewsbury beat Dagenham & Redbridge 2–1 at to ensure the Shrews finished in seventh place in League Two, the fourth and final play-off spot.^[8]

On 23 May Humphrey played for Shrewsbury in the League Two play-off Final at Wembley, which they lost 1–0 to Gillingham.^[5] On 25 June Sky Sports claimed that Shrewsbury had turned down a bid for Humphrey by Championship side Blackpool.^[9] On 3 July, Shrews manager Paul Simpson confirmed the Blackpool approach.^[10][11]

Motherwell[link]

On 15 July, Scottish Premier League club Motherwell announced Humphrey as new manager Jim Gannon's second signing of the summer. He spent most of his first season with the club on the bench, due to the form of Jim O'Brien.^[12] After O'Brien moved to Barnsley in 2010, Humphrey began playing regularly for the first team.^[12]

On 28 January 2011, Humphrey signed a one-year extension to his current contract.^[13]

International career[link]

Impressive performances early in the 2010–11 season saw him linked with selection for the Scotland national football team.^[12] Humphrey would be eligible to play for Scotland because his mother was born in Kilmarnock.^[12] However, on 17 May 2011, Humphrey was given a call-up to the Jamaica squad.^[2]. He was given another call-up a year later and made his debut in a 1-0 defeat to Panama.

Career statistics[link]

As of 13 May 2012

References[link]

External links[link]

• Chris Humphrey profile at Motherwell FC official website
• Chris Humphrey career stats at Soccerbase
• Profile at shrewsburytown.com

Lucas Miltiades Miller (September 15, 1824 - December 4, 1902) was a U.S. Representative from Wisconsin.

Born in Livadia, Greece, Miller was left an orphan at the age of four, when he was adopted by J.P. Miller, an American who served as a colonel in the Greek Army during the Greek revolution. He accompanied his foster father upon his return to the United States and settled in Montpelier, Vermont, in 1828. He attended the common schools and studied law, being admitted to the bar in 1845 with a practice in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, in 1846. He also engaged in agricultural pursuits and served as colonel of militia in the Mexican War. Serving as member of the Wisconsin State Assembly in 1853, he was commissioner of the Wisconsin Board of Public Works and served ten years as chairman of the Winnebago County Board of Supervisors.

Miller was elected as a Democrat to the Fifty-second Congress (March 4, 1891-March 3, 1893) though was an unsuccessful candidate for renomination in 1892. He died in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, December 4, 1902 and was interred in Riverside Cemetery.

While serving in Congress, he proposed a Constitutional amendment to change the country's name to "the United States of the Earth".^[1]

Source[link]

• Lucas M. Miller at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress

References[link]

3D illustration of Gabriel's Horn.

Gabriel's Horn (also called Torricelli's trumpet) is a geometric figure which has infinite surface area, but finite volume. The name refers to the tradition identifying the Archangel Gabriel as the angel who blows the horn to announce Judgment Day, associating the divine, or infinite, with the finite. The properties of this figure were first studied by Italian physicist and mathematician Evangelista Torricelli.

Mathematical definition[link]

Graph of y = 1/x

Gabriel's horn is formed by taking the graph of Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): y= \frac{1} {x} , with the domain Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): x \ge 1

(thus avoiding the asymptote at x = 0) and rotating it in three dimensions about the x-axis. The discovery was made using Cavalieri's principle before the invention of calculus, but today calculus can be used to calculate the volume and surface area of the horn between x = 1 and x = a, where a > 1. Using integration (see Solid of revolution and Surface of revolution for details), it is possible to find the volume Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): V
and the surface area Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): A

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): V = \pi \int_{1}^{a} {1 \over x^2}\mathrm{d}x = \pi \left( 1 - {1 \over a} \right)

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): A = 2\pi \int_1^a \frac{\sqrt{1 + \frac{1}{x^4}}}{x}\mathrm{d}x > 2\pi \int_1^a \frac{\sqrt{1}}{x}\ \mathrm{d}x = 2\pi \ln a.

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): a

can be as large as required, but it can be seen from the equation that the volume of the part of the horn between Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): x = 1
and Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): x = a
will never exceed Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \pi

however, it will get closer and closer to Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \pi

as Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): a

becomes larger. Mathematically, the volume approaches Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \pi

as Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): a

approaches infinity. Using the limit notation of calculus, the volume may be expressed as:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \lim_{a \to \infty}\pi \left( 1 - {1 \over a} \right) = \pi.

This is so because as Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): a

approaches infinity, Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): 1/a
approaches zero. This means the volume approaches Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \pi

(1 - 0) which equals Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \pi .

As for the area, the above shows that the area is greater than Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): 2\pi

times the natural logarithm of Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): a

. There is no upper bound for the natural logarithm of Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): a

as it approaches infinity. That means, in this case, that the horn has an infinite surface area. That is to say; 

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): 2 \pi \ln a \rightarrow \infty

 as  Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.):  a \rightarrow \infty

or

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \lim_{a \to \infty}2 \pi \ln a = \infty.

Apparent paradox[link]

When the properties of Gabriel's Horn were discovered, the fact that the rotation of an infinite curve about the x-axis generates an object of finite volume was considered paradoxical. However, the explanation is that the bounding curve, Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): y= \tfrac{1}{x} , is simply a special case–just like the simple harmonic series (Σx⁻¹)–for which the successive area 'segments' do not decrease rapidly enough to allow for convergence to a limit. For volume segments (Σ1/x²) however, and in fact for any generally constructed higher degree curve (e.g. y = 1/x^1.001), the same is not true and the rate of decrease in the associated series is sufficiently rapid for convergence to a (finite) limiting sum.

The apparent paradox formed part of a great dispute over the nature of infinity involving many of the key thinkers of the time including Thomas Hobbes, John Wallis and Galileo Galilei.^[1]

Painter's Paradox[link]

The paradox can also be considered from a non-mathematical perspective. If Gabriel’s Horn existed in reality, it could be filled with a finite amount of paint since it has a finite volume; yet it could never be completely filled, because the first drop would never reach the bottom. But even ignoring this latter consideration, the Horn has an infinite area; so an infinite amount of paint would therefore be required to cover its inner surface: it seems nonsensical to be able to completely fill a space with paint, yet fail to cover all that space's internal surface. The real-world solution to the paradox is that paint is not infinitely divisible; at some point, the throat of the Horn will become too small to allow even a single paint molecule to pass. When considering the Horn to this limited length, the practicably paintable surface of the inner surface is less than the amount of paint needed to fill it to that point. (If paint were infinitely divisible, however, a coat of paint could conceivably have zero thickness, thus making the amount of paint required to cover an infinite surface negligible; and no paradox would result.)^[2]

See also[link]

• Pseudosphere
• Hyperbola
• Koch snowflake
• Surface of revolution
• Zeno's paradoxes

References[link]

External links[link]

• Information and diagrams about Gabriel's Horn
• Torricelli's Trumpet at PlanetMath
• Weisstein, Eric W., "Gabriel's Horn" from MathWorld.
• "Gabriel's Horn" by John Snyder, the Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007.