- go to the top
- About WN
- Contact
- Feedback
- Privacy Policy
- © 2012 World News Inc., all Rights Reserved
Alcibiades
Branches of Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Applied mathematics
- Dynamical systems and differential equations
- Mathematical physics
- Computing
- Information theory and signal processing
- Probability and statistics
- Game theory
- Operations research
Related Topics
- Electromagnetic Spectrum
- Linear Equations
- Applied Physics
- Nano Technology
- Engineering Sciences
- Mathematical Medicine
- Fluid dynamics
- Computational Mathematics
- Gamma Ray Optics
- Onfrared Optics
- Relative Velocity
- Iciam
- Intelligent Imaging Neuroscience
- Biomedical Engineering
- Neuroscience Research
- Quantum Cosmology
- Brain Research
Open Collage in a new Window
Email the Collage
- Loading...
Loading suggestions ...
- Academician
- Achaemenid Dynasty
- Achilles
- Acropolis of Athens
- Aegean Sea
- Aegospotami
- Aeolic Greek
- Aeolis
- Aeschines
- Aeschines Socraticus
- Aeschylus
- Aesop
- Against Meidias
- Agesilaus II
- Agis II
- Agis IV
- Agora
- Agyrrhius
- Ajax (mythology)
- Alcaeus of Mytilene
- Alcibiades
- Alcmaeonidae
- Alexander the Great
- Alexandria
- Alternate history
- Anaxagoras
- Anaximander
- Ancient Corinth
- Ancient Greece
- Ancient Greek
- Ancient Greek law
- Ancient Greek temple
- Ancient history
- Ancient Macedonians
- Andocides
- Andros
- Antioch
- Antisthenes
- Apella
- Apology (Plato)
- Aratus of Sicyon
- Arcadocypriot Greek
- Archaic Greece
- Archilochus
- Archimedes
- Archinus
- Archons of Athens
- Areopagus
- Argos
- Aristides
- Aristophanes
- Aristophon of Azenia
- Aristotle
- Army of Macedon
- Arthur Hugh Clough
- Aspasia
- Aspendus
- Astiochus
- Athena
- Athenian
- Athenian democracy
- Athenian festivals
- Athens
- Attalid dynasty
- Attic Greek
- Attic numerals
- Attica
- Authority control
- Autocles
- Autokrator
- Bacchylides
- Battle of Abydos
- Battle of Cynossema
- Battle of Cyzicus
- Battle of Delium
- Battle of Notium
- Battle of Potidaea
- Benjamin Jowett
- Blasphemy
- Brandeis University
- Brown University
- Byzantium
- Cardia
- Caria
- Carthage
- Catana
- Cato the Elder
- Cato the Younger
- Ceramic Gulf
- Chalcedon
- Chremonides
- Cicero
- Cimon
- Classical Athens
- Classical Greece
- Cleinias
- Cleisthenes
- Cleomenes III
- Cleon
- Companion cavalry
- Cornelius Nepos
- Courtesan
- Crete
- Critias
- Cyprus
- Cyrus the Younger
- Cyzicus
- Daniel Chavarria
- Dardanelles
- Darius II of Persia
- Decelea
- Deinomache
- Delian League
- Delos
- Delphi
- Demades
- Demochares
- Democles
- Democritus
- Demosthenes
- Diadochi
- Diodorus
- Diodorus Siculus
- Diogenes of Sinope
- Dion of Syracuse
- Donald Kagan
- Doric Greek
- Doris (Asia Minor)
- Douglas MacArthur
- Draco (lawgiver)
- Eleusinian Mysteries
- Eleusis
- Elis
- Empedocles
- Endius
- Epaminondas
- Ephesus
- Ephialtes
- Ephor
- Epicurus
- Erik Satie
- Eubulus (statesman)
- Euclid
- Eumenes
- Eupolis
- Euripides
- Eurysaces
- Fabius Maximus
- First Alcibiades
- Félix Auvray
- G. R. G. Mure
- Gaius Gracchus
- Gaius Marius
- Galba
- Gallipoli Peninsula
- General officer
- George Cawkwell
- Gertrude Atherton
- Gorgias
- Graphē paranómōn
- Greece
- Greek alphabet
- Greek astronomy
- Greek Chorus
- Greek Dark Ages
- Greek language
- Greek mathematics
- Greek numerals
- Gytheion
- Harry Turtledove
- Heliaia
- Hellenistic armies
- Hellenistic Greece
- Hellespont
- Henry Graham Dakyns
- Heraclitus
- Herma
- Hermes
- Herodotus
- Hervey Cleckley
- Hesiod
- Hipparchus
- Hipparete
- Hippocrates
- Hipponax
- Hipponicus
- Historical novel
- History of Athens
- History of Sparta
- Homer
- Homeric Greek
- Hoplite
- Hypatia
- Hyperbolos
- Hyperbolus
- Hypereides
- Ibycus
- In absentia
- Ionia
- Ionian Sea
- Ionic Greek
- Isocrates
- Italy
- J. B. Bury
- Jacques Amyot
- Jean-Léon Gérôme
- Joel Richards
- John Dryden
- Joseph Heller
- JSTOR
- Julius Caesar
- King of Athens
- Kings of Macedon
- Koine Greek
- Laches (general)
- Laches (person)
- Lamachus
- League of Corinth
- Leo Strauss
- Leonidas I
- Leucippus
- Libya
- Linear A
- Linear B
- Lisp
- Locrian Greek
- Long Walls
- Lucian
- Lucullus
- Lycurgus of Athens
- Lycurgus of Sparta
- Lysander
- Lysias
- Magna Graecia
- Mantinea
- Mark Antony
- Megacles
- Melian dialogue
- Menander
- Messina
- Michele de Napoli
- Miletus
- Milo of Croton
- Mimnermus
- Mindarus
- Minoan civilization
- Moerocles
- Moralia
- Mycenaean Greece
- Mycenaean Greek
- Nebula award
- Nicias
- Notium
- Numa Pompilius
- Oligarchy
- Olympia, Greece
- Omen
- Ostracism
- Otho
- Paideia
- Pamphylian Greek
- Panache
- Parallel Lives
- Parmenides
- Parthenon
- Paul Levinson
- Pausanias (general)
- Peace of Nicias
- Peisistratos
- Pelopidas
- Peloponnese
- Peloponnesian War
- Peltast
- Penn State Press
- Pergamon
- Pericles
- Persia
- Persian Empire
- Persian Wars
- Pezhetairos
- Phalanx formation
- Phallus
- Philemon Holland
- Philinus of Athens
- Philip II of Macedon
- Philology
- Philopoemen
- Phocaea
- Phocion
- Phrygia
- Picture This (novel)
- Pietro Testa
- Pindar
- Piraeus
- Pisander
- Plato
- Plinth
- Plutarch
- Plynteria
- Polis
- Polybius
- Pompey
- Pontus
- Posterior Analytics
- Propontis
- Protagoras
- Proto-Greek language
- Pseudo-Plutarch
- Psychopathy
- Ptolemy
- Public speaking
- Pyrrhus of Epirus
- Pythagoras
- Quintus Sertorius
- Raphael Sealey
- Renaissance
- Rhetoric
- Rhodes
- Roman Greece
- Romulus and Remus
- Rosemary Sutcliff
- Routledge
- Russell Meiggs
- Sacrilege
- Samos
- Sappho
- Sarissa
- Satrap
- Scambonidae
- Second Alcibiades
- Segesta
- Seleucid army
- Selinus
- Selymbria
- Sestos
- Sestus
- Sicilian Expedition
- Sicily
- Siege
- Simonides of Ceos
- Socrate
- Socrates
- Socratic dialogue
- Solon
- Sophocles
- Sparta
- Spartan Army
- Stesichorus
- Steven Pressfield
- Strategos
- Sunium
- Symposium (Plato)
- Syracuse, Sicily
- Talent (weight)
- Template Plutarch
- Temple of Artemis
- Temple of Hephaestus
- Temple of Zeus
- Thales of Miletus
- The 48 Laws of Power
- The Mask of Sanity
- The Wasps
- Themistocles
- Theognis of Megara
- Theophrastus
- Theramenes
- Thermopylae
- Theseus
- Thomas North
- Thracian Chersonese
- Thrasybulus
- Thucydides
- Thurii
- Tiberius Gracchus
- Timaia
- Timandra
- Time travel
- Timocreon
- Timoleon
- Timon of Athens
- Tissaphernes
- Trial of Socrates
- Trierarch
- Trireme
- Troy
- Turkey
- Tyrtaeus
- Valenciennes
- Victor Cousin
- Wikipedia Persondata
- Wikisource
- Wikisource The Frogs
- William Shakespeare
- Xanthippus
- Xenophon
- Xyston
- Yale University
- Zeno of Citium
-
Abydos, Hellespont
http://wn.com/Abydos_Hellespont -
Achaemenid Dynasty
http://wn.com/Achaemenid_Dynasty -
Acropolis of Athens
The Acropolis of Athens or Citadel of Athens is the best known acropolis (Gr. akros, akron, edge, extremity + polis, city, pl. acropoleis) in the world. Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as The Acropolis without qualification. The Acropolis was formally proclaimed as the pre-eminent monument on the European Cultural Heritage list of monuments on 26 March 2007. The Acropolis is a flat-topped rock that rises above sea level in the city of Athens, with a surface area of about 3 hectares. It was also known as Cecropia, after the legendary serpent-man, Cecrops, the first Athenian king.
http://wn.com/Acropolis_of_Athens -
Aegean Sea
The Aegean Sea (, Egeo Pelagos ; ) is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the southern Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey respectively. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. The Aegean Islands are within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The Aegean Region consists of nine provinces in southwestern Turkey, in part bordering on the Aegean sea.
http://wn.com/Aegean_Sea -
Aegospotami
http://wn.com/Aegospotami -
Alexandria
http://wn.com/Alexandria -
Antioch
http://wn.com/Antioch -
Areopagus
:This article concerns the place where a classical judicial body met. It is also the term for the judicial body which met there. For the 16th century literary movement, see Areopagus (poetry). For the regional government during the Greek War of Independence, see Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece. For the modern Greek Supreme Court, see Court of Cassation (Greece).
http://wn.com/Areopagus -
Attalid dynasty
The Attalid dynasty was a Hellenistic dynasty that ruled the city of Pergamon after the death of Lysimachus, a general of Alexander the Great. The Attalid kingdom was the rump state left after the collapse of the Lysimachian Empire. One of Lysimachus' officers, Philetaerus, took control of the city in 282 BC. The later Attalids were descended from his father, and they expanded the city into a kingdom. Attalus I proclaimed himself King in the 230s BC, following his victories over the Galatians. The Attalids ruled Pergamon until Attalus III bequeathed the kingdom to the Roman Republic in 133 BC to avoid a likely succession crisis.
http://wn.com/Attalid_dynasty -
Brandeis University
Brandeis University () is an American private research university with a liberal arts focus. It is located in the southwestern corner of Waltham, Massachusetts, nine miles (14 km) west of Boston. The University has an enrollment of approximately 3,200 undergraduate and 2,100 graduate students. In 2010, it was ranked by the U.S. News and World Report as the number 34 national university in the United States. Forbes listed Brandeis University as number 57 among all national universities and liberal arts colleges combined in 2010.
http://wn.com/Brandeis_University -
Brown University
http://wn.com/Brown_University -
Carthage
http://wn.com/Carthage -
Catana
http://wn.com/Catana -
Chalcedon
http://wn.com/Chalcedon -
Classical Athens
The city of Athens during the classical period of Ancient Greece (508-322 BC) was a notable polis (city-state) of Attica, Greece, leading the Delian League in the Peloponnesian War against Sparta and the Peloponnesian League. Athenian democracy was established in 508 BC under Cleisthenes following the tyranny of Hippias. This system remained remarkably stable, and with a few brief interruptions remained in place for 180 years, until 322 BC (aftermath of Lamian War) . The peak of Athenian hegemony was achieved in the 440s to 430s BC, known as the Age of Pericles.
http://wn.com/Classical_Athens -
Crete
http://wn.com/Crete -
Cyprus
http://wn.com/Cyprus -
Dardanelles
The Dardanelles (, ), formerly known as the Hellespont
http://wn.com/Dardanelles -
Ephesus
http://wn.com/Ephesus -
Gallipoli Peninsula
http://wn.com/Gallipoli_Peninsula -
Greece
http://wn.com/Greece -
Hellespont
http://wn.com/Hellespont -
Ionian Sea
The Ionian Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea, south of the Adriatic Sea. It is bounded by southern Italy including Calabria, Sicily and the Salento peninsula to the west, and by southwestern Albania, including Saranda and Himara, and a large number of Greek islands, including Corfu, Zante, Kephalonia, Ithaka, and Lefkas to the east. The islands are collectively referred to as the Ionian Islands, and other islands include the Strophades, Sphagia, Schiza, Sapientza and Kythira. The sea is one of the most seismic areas in the world.
http://wn.com/Ionian_Sea -
Italy
http://wn.com/Italy -
Libya
http://wn.com/Libya -
Messina
Messina (, , Sicilian: Missina) is the third largest city on the island of Sicily, Italy and the capital of the province of Messina. It has a population of c. 240,000 inhabitants in the city proper and about 500,000 in the province. It is located near the northeast corner of Sicily, at the Strait of Messina, just opposite Villa San Giovanni on the mainland.
http://wn.com/Messina -
Miletus
http://wn.com/Miletus -
Notium
http://wn.com/Notium -
Parthenon
The Parthenon (Ancient Greek: ) is a temple in the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their protector. Its construction began in 447 BCE and was completed in 438 BCE, although decorations of the Parthenon continued until 431 BCE. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered to be the culmination of the development of the Doric order. Its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an enduring symbol of Ancient Greece and of Athenian democracy and one of the world's greatest cultural monuments. The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a programme of selective restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially ruined structure.
http://wn.com/Parthenon -
Peloponnese
http://wn.com/Peloponnese -
Pergamon
http://wn.com/Pergamon -
Persia
http://wn.com/Persia -
Persian Empire
http://wn.com/Persian_Empire -
Phocaea
http://wn.com/Phocaea -
Samos
http://wn.com/Samos -
Segesta
Segesta () was the political center of the Elymian people, located in the northwestern part of Sicily, in what are now the province of Trapani and the comune of Calatafimi-Segesta.
http://wn.com/Segesta -
Selinus
http://wn.com/Selinus -
Sestos
Sestos () was an ancient Greek town of the Thracian Chersonese, the modern Gallipoli peninsula in European Turkey. Situated on the Hellespont opposite Abydos, it was the home of Hero in the legend of Hero and Leander. Sestos was an Aeolian colony, as it was founded by settlers from Lesbos. The ruins of the town are near to Eceabat.
http://wn.com/Sestos -
Sestus
http://wn.com/Sestus -
Sparta
http://wn.com/Sparta -
Syracuse, Sicily
http://wn.com/Syracuse_Sicily -
Temple of Hephaestus
http://wn.com/Temple_of_Hephaestus -
Temple of Zeus
The Temple of Zeus at Olympia, was an ancient Greek temple in Olympia, Greece, dedicated to the chief of the gods, Zeus. It was the very model of the fully-developed classical Greek temple of the Doric order. The temple, built between 472 and 456 BC, stood in the most famous sanctuary of Greece, which had been dedicated to local and Pan-Hellenic deities and had probably been established towards the end of the Mycenaean period. The Altis, the enclosure with its sacred grove, open-air altars and the tumulus of Pelops, was first formed during the tenth and ninth centuries BCE, when the cult of Zeus was joined the already establish cult here of Hera.
http://wn.com/Temple_of_Zeus -
Thermopylae
http://wn.com/Thermopylae -
Thracian Chersonese
http://wn.com/Thracian_Chersonese -
Troy
http://wn.com/Troy -
Turkey
Turkey (), known officially as the Republic of Turkey (), is a Eurasian country that stretches across the Anatolian peninsula in western Asia and Thrace in the Balkan region of southeastern Europe. Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between Eastern Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.
http://wn.com/Turkey -
Yale University
Yale University is a private Ivy League university located in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States.
http://wn.com/Yale_University
-
Achilles
In Greek mythology, Achilles (Ancient Greek: , Achilleus) was a Greek hero of the Trojan War, the central character and the greatest warrior of Homer's Iliad.
http://wn.com/Achilles -
Aeschines
http://wn.com/Aeschines -
Aeschines Socraticus
http://wn.com/Aeschines_Socraticus -
Aeschylus
http://wn.com/Aeschylus -
Aesop
http://wn.com/Aesop -
Agesilaus II
Agesilaus II, or Agesilaos II (Greek ) (444 BC – 360 BC) was a king of Sparta, of the Eurypontid dynasty, ruling from approximately 400 BC to 360 BC, during most of which time he was, in Plutarch's words, "as good as thought commander and king of all Greece," and was for the whole of it greatly identified with his country's deeds and fortunes.
http://wn.com/Agesilaus_II -
Agis IV
:For other uses of this name, see Agis.
http://wn.com/Agis_IV -
Agyrrhius
Agyrrhius (Gr. ) was a native of Collytus in Attica, whom Andocides ironically calls "the noble and the good" () after being in prison many years for embezzlement of public money. He obtained around 395 BC the restoration of the Theorica, and also tripled the pay for attending the assembly, though he reduced the allowance previously given to the comic writers. By this expenditure of the public revenue Agyrrhius became so popular that he was appointed general (strategos) in 389 BC.
http://wn.com/Agyrrhius -
Ajax (mythology)
:"Aias" redirects here. For other uses of this name, see AIAS and Ajax (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Ajax_(mythology) -
Alcaeus of Mytilene
http://wn.com/Alcaeus_of_Mytilene -
Alcibiades
http://wn.com/Alcibiades -
Alexander the Great
http://wn.com/Alexander_the_Great -
Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras (, "lord of the assembly"; c. 500 BC – 428 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae in Asia Minor, Anaxagoras was the first philosopher to bring philosophy from Ionia to Athens. He attempted to give a scientific account of eclipses, meteors, rainbows, and the sun, which he described as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese. He was accused of contravening the established religion and was forced to flee to Lampsacus.
http://wn.com/Anaxagoras -
Anaximander
http://wn.com/Anaximander -
Andocides
http://wn.com/Andocides -
Antisthenes
Antisthenes (; c. 445-c. 365 BCE) was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. Antisthenes first learned rhetoric under Gorgias before becoming an ardent disciple of Socrates. He adopted and developed the ethical side of Socrates' teachings, advocating an ascetic life lived in accordance with virtue. Later writers regarded him as the founder of Cynic philosophy.
http://wn.com/Antisthenes -
Archilochus
:For the hummingbird genus, see ''Archilochus.
http://wn.com/Archilochus -
Archimedes
http://wn.com/Archimedes -
Archinus
Archinus (Ancient Greek: ) was an Athenian democratic politician who wielded substantial influence between the restoration of democracy in 403 BCE and the beginning of the Corinthian War in 395 BCE. In the early days of the restored democracy, he acted to weaken the oligarchic exiles at Eleusis by ending the period during which citizens could register to emigrate to Eleusis before its announced ending date. He seems to have advocated a moderate democratic policy, opposing motions to expand the franchise and restore the levels of pay for civil service that had typified the glory days of Periclean democracy in the 4th century. Archinus is also said to have motivated the official adoption by Athens of the 24-letter Ionic alphabet in 403/2 (Suda, ).
http://wn.com/Archinus -
Aristides
Aristides (or Aristeides from the Greek: , 530 BC - 468 BC) was an Athenian statesman, nicknamed "the Just".
http://wn.com/Aristides -
Aristophanes
http://wn.com/Aristophanes -
Aristophon of Azenia
http://wn.com/Aristophon_of_Azenia -
Aristotle
http://wn.com/Aristotle -
Arthur Hugh Clough
Arthur Hugh Clough (1 January 1819 – 13 November 1861) was an English poet, the brother of suffragist Anne Clough (who ended up as principal of Newnham College, Cambridge), and assistant to ground-breaking nurse Florence Nightingale.
http://wn.com/Arthur_Hugh_Clough -
Aspasia
Aspasia (ca. 470 BC–ca. 400 BC, Greek: ) was a Milesian woman who was famous for her involvement with the Athenian statesman Pericles. Very little is known about the details of her life. She spent most of her adult life in Athens, and she may have influenced Pericles and Athenian politics. She is mentioned in the writings of Plato, Aristophanes, Xenophon, and other authors of the day.
http://wn.com/Aspasia -
Autocles
http://wn.com/Autocles -
Bacchylides
Bacchylides () (5th century BC) was an Ancient Greek lyric poet. Later Greeks included him in the canonical list of nine lyric poets which included his uncle Simonides. The elegance and polished style of his lyrics have been a commonplace of Bacchylidean scholarship since at least Longinus (De Sublimitate 33,5). Some scholars however have associated these qualities with superficial charm. He has often been compared unfavourably with his contemporary, Pindar, as "a kind of Boccherini to Pindar's Haydn", yet the differences in their styles doesn't allow for easy comparison and "to blame Bacchylides for not being Pindar is as childish a judgement as to condemn...Marvel for missing the grandeur of Milton." His career coincided with the ascendency of dramatic styles of poetry, as embodied in the works of Aeschylus or Sophocles, and he is in fact one of the last poets of major significance within the more ancient tradition of purely lyric poetry. The most notable features of his lyrics are their clarity in expression and simplicity of thought, making them an ideal introduction to the study of Greek lyric poetry in general and to Pindar's verse in particular.
http://wn.com/Bacchylides -
Benjamin Jowett
http://wn.com/Benjamin_Jowett -
Caria
| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width: 250px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
http://wn.com/Caria -
Cato the Elder
Marcus Porcius Cato (234 BC, Tusculum – 149 BC) was a Roman statesman, commonly surnamed Censorius (the Censor), Sapiens (the Wise), Priscus (the Ancient), or Major (the Elder), or Cato the Censor, to distinguish him from his great-grandson, Cato the Younger.
http://wn.com/Cato_the_Elder -
Cato the Younger
Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis (95 BC, Rome – April 46 BC, Utica), commonly known as Cato the Younger (Cato Minor) to distinguish him from his great-grandfather (Cato the Elder), was a politician and statesman in the late Roman Republic, and a follower of the Stoic philosophy. He is remembered for his legendary stubbornness and tenacity (especially in his lengthy conflict with Gaius Julius Caesar), as well as his immunity to bribes, his moral integrity, and his famous distaste for the ubiquitous corruption of the period.
http://wn.com/Cato_the_Younger -
Chremonides
http://wn.com/Chremonides -
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero (; Classical Latin: ; January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC; sometimes anglicized as "Tully"), was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and Roman constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.
http://wn.com/Cicero -
Cimon
http://wn.com/Cimon -
Cleinias
Cleinias, son of (the elder) Alcibiades,, and member of the Alcmaeonidae family, was an Athenian who married Deinomache, the daughter of Megacles, and became the father of the famous Alcibiades. Plutarch tells us that he traced his family line back to Eurysaces, the son of Telamonian Ajax. He greatly distinguished himself in the Battle of Artemisium in 480 BC. Cleinias died at the Battle of Coronea in 447 BC.
http://wn.com/Cleinias -
Cleisthenes
Cleisthenes (, also Clisthenes or Kleisthenes) was a noble Athenian of the Alcmaeonid family. He is credited with reforming the constitution of ancient Athens and setting it on a democratic footing in 508/7 BC. For these accomplishments, historians refer to him as "the father of Athenian democracy." He was the maternal grandson of the tyrant Cleisthenes of Sicyon, as the younger son of the latter's daughter Agariste and her husband Megacles. Also, he was credited for increasing power of assembly and he also broke up power of nobility for Athens.
http://wn.com/Cleisthenes -
Cleomenes III
Cleomenes III () was the King of Sparta from 235-222 BC. He succeeded to the Agiad throne of Sparta after his father, Leonidas II in 235 BC.
http://wn.com/Cleomenes_III -
Cleon
http://wn.com/Cleon -
Critias
Critias (Greek Kritias, 460-403 BC), born in Athens, son of Callaeschrus, was an uncle of Plato, and a leading member of the Thirty Tyrants, and one of the most violent. He was an associate of Socrates, a fact that did not endear Socrates to the Athenian public. He was noted in his day for his tragedies, elegies and prose works. Some, like Sextus Empiricus, believe that Critias authored the Sisyphus fragment; others, however, attribute it to Euripides.
http://wn.com/Critias -
Cyrus the Younger
http://wn.com/Cyrus_the_Younger -
Darius II of Persia
http://wn.com/Darius_II_of_Persia -
Demades
http://wn.com/Demades -
Demochares
Demochares (c. 355-275 BC), nephew of Demosthenes, Athenian orator and statesman, was one of the few distinguished Athenians in the period of decline.
http://wn.com/Demochares -
Democles
http://wn.com/Democles -
Democritus
http://wn.com/Democritus -
Demosthenes
http://wn.com/Demosthenes -
Diodorus
http://wn.com/Diodorus -
Diodorus Siculus
Diodorus Siculus (Greek: ), was a Greek historian who lived in the 1st century BC. According to Diodorus' own work, he was born at Agyrium in Sicily (now called Agira). With one exception, antiquity affords no further information about Diodorus' life and doings beyond what is to be found in his own work, Bibliotheca historica. Only Jerome, in his Chronicon under the year of Abraham 1968 (49 BC), writes, "Diodorus of Sicily, a writer of Greek history, became illustrious". His English translator, Charles Henry Oldfather, remarks on the "striking coincidence" that one of only two known Greek inscriptions from Agyrium (I.G. XIV, 588) is the tombstone of one "Diodorus, the son of Apollonius".
http://wn.com/Diodorus_Siculus -
Diogenes of Sinope
Diogenes of Sinope ( Diogenes ho Sinopeus), was a Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Cynic philosophy. Also known as Diogenes the Cynic, he was born in Sinope (modern-day Sinop, Turkey) in 412 or 404 BCE
http://wn.com/Diogenes_of_Sinope -
Dion of Syracuse
http://wn.com/Dion_of_Syracuse -
Donald Kagan
http://wn.com/Donald_Kagan -
Douglas MacArthur
http://wn.com/Douglas_MacArthur -
Draco (lawgiver)
Draco (; from Greek , pronounced ) was the first legislator of ancient Athens, Greece, 7th century BC. He replaced the prevailing system of oral law and blood feud by a written code to be enforced only by a court. Because of its harshness, this code also gave rise to the term "draconian".
http://wn.com/Draco_(lawgiver) -
Empedocles
http://wn.com/Empedocles -
Endius
http://wn.com/Endius -
Epaminondas
Epaminondas (Greek: ) (ca. 410 BC – 362 BC) or Epameinondas was a Theban general and statesman of the 4th century BC who transformed the Ancient Greek city-state of Thebes, leading it out of Spartan subjugation into a preeminent position in Greek politics. In the process he broke Spartan military power with his victory at Leuctra and liberated the Messenian helots, a group of Peloponnesian Greeks who had been enslaved under Spartan rule for some 230 years, having been defeated in the Messenian War ending in 600 BC. Epaminondas reshaped the political map of Greece, fragmented old alliances, created new ones, and supervised the construction of entire cities. He was militarily influential as well, inventing and implementing several major battlefield tactics.
http://wn.com/Epaminondas -
Ephialtes
http://wn.com/Ephialtes -
Epicurus
http://wn.com/Epicurus -
Erik Satie
http://wn.com/Erik_Satie -
Eubulus (statesman)
Eubulus, or Euboulos (c.405 - c.335 BC) was a statesman of ancient Athens, probably the most important of the period 355-342 and notable for his focus on Athenian finances.
http://wn.com/Eubulus_(statesman) -
Euclid
http://wn.com/Euclid -
Eupolis
Eupolis (ca. 446 BC-411 BC) was an Athenian poet of the Old Comedy, who flourished during the time of the Peloponnesian War.
http://wn.com/Eupolis -
Euripides
http://wn.com/Euripides -
Fabius Maximus
:For others with a similar name, see Fabii Maximi.
http://wn.com/Fabius_Maximus -
Gaius Marius
:This article is about the Roman statesman who reorganized the army, and was seven times Consul. For other people with the name Marius see Marius (disambiguation)
http://wn.com/Gaius_Marius -
Galba
Servius Sulpicius Galba (24 December 3 BC – 15 January 69), commonly known as Galba, was Roman Emperor for seven months from 68 to 69. Galba was the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, and made a bid for the throne during the rebellion of Julius Vindex. He was the first emperor of the Year of the Four Emperors.
http://wn.com/Galba -
Gertrude Atherton
http://wn.com/Gertrude_Atherton -
Gorgias
Gorgias (, ca. 485-c.380 BCE) "the Nihilist", Greek sophist, pre-socratic philosopher and rhetorician, was a native of Leontini in Sicily. Along with Protagoras, he forms the first generation of Sophists. Several doxographers report that he was a pupil of Empedocles, although he would only have been a few years younger. "Like other Sophists he was an itinerant, practicing in various cities and giving public exhibitions of his skill at the great pan-Hellenic centers of Olympia and Delphi, and charged fees for his instruction and performances. A special feature of his displays was to invite miscellaneous questions from the audience and give impromptu replies."
http://wn.com/Gorgias -
Harry Turtledove
Harry Norman Turtledove (born June 14, 1949) is an American novelist, who has produced works in several genres including alternate history, historical fiction, fantasy and science fiction.
http://wn.com/Harry_Turtledove -
Heraclitus
Heraclitus of Ephesus (Ancient Greek: — ; c. 535–c. 475 BCE) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, a native of the Greek city Ephesus, Ionia, on the coast of Asia Minor. He was of distinguished parentage. Little is known about his early life and education, but he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the riddling nature of his philosophy and his contempt for humankind in general, he was called "The Obscure," and the "Weeping Philosopher."
http://wn.com/Heraclitus -
Herodotus
http://wn.com/Herodotus -
Hesiod
http://wn.com/Hesiod -
Hipparchus
http://wn.com/Hipparchus -
Hipparete
Hipparete (Greek: ) was the daughter of Hipponicus III, a wealthy Athenian. She was married circa 424 BC or earlier to the prominent Athenian statesman and general Alcibiades.
http://wn.com/Hipparete -
Hippocrates
http://wn.com/Hippocrates -
Hipponax
Hipponax of Ephesus was an Ancient Greek iambic poet.
http://wn.com/Hipponax -
Hipponicus
http://wn.com/Hipponicus -
Homer
http://wn.com/Homer -
Hypatia
http://wn.com/Hypatia -
Hyperbolos
http://wn.com/Hyperbolos -
Hyperbolus
http://wn.com/Hyperbolus -
Hypereides
http://wn.com/Hypereides -
Ibycus
Ibycus (Ancient Greek: ) (6th century BC), was an Ancient Greek lyric poet. He was included in the canonical list of nine lyric poets by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria. The extant fragments of his work contain the earliest-known example of the triadic choral lyric and epinician poetry.
http://wn.com/Ibycus -
Jacques Amyot
http://wn.com/Jacques_Amyot -
Jean-Léon Gérôme
http://wn.com/Jean-Léon_Gérôme -
John Dryden
http://wn.com/John_Dryden -
Julius Caesar
http://wn.com/Julius_Caesar -
Laches (general)
http://wn.com/Laches_(general) -
Laches (person)
http://wn.com/Laches_(person) -
Lamachus
Lamachus () was an Athenian general in the Peloponnesian War. He commanded as early as 435 BCE, and was prominent by the mid 420s. Aristophanes caricatured him in The Acharnians and subsequently honoured his memory in The Frogs. He was one of the three generals (alongside Nicias and Alcibiades) placed in command of the Sicilian Expedition.
http://wn.com/Lamachus -
Leo Strauss
Leo Strauss (September 20, 1899 – October 18, 1973) was a political philosopher who specialized in classical political philosophy. He was born in Germany to Jewish parents and later emigrated to the United States. He spent most of his career as a professor of political science at the University of Chicago, where he taught several generations of students and published fifteen books.
http://wn.com/Leo_Strauss -
Leonidas I
http://wn.com/Leonidas_I -
Leucippus
http://wn.com/Leucippus -
Lucullus
:For his grandfather and namesake, see Lucius Licinius Lucullus.
http://wn.com/Lucullus -
Lycurgus of Athens
http://wn.com/Lycurgus_of_Athens -
Lycurgus of Sparta
http://wn.com/Lycurgus_of_Sparta -
Lysander
http://wn.com/Lysander -
Lysias
http://wn.com/Lysias -
Mark Antony
http://wn.com/Mark_Antony -
Milo of Croton
http://wn.com/Milo_of_Croton -
Mindarus
Mindarus was a Spartan admiral who commanded the Peloponnesian fleet in 411 and 410 BC, during the Peloponnesian War. Successful in shifting the theater of war into the Hellespont, he then experienced a string of defeats; in the third and final of these, he himself was killed and the entire Peloponnesian fleet was captured or destroyed.
http://wn.com/Mindarus -
Moerocles
http://wn.com/Moerocles -
Nicias
http://wn.com/Nicias -
Otho
For other uses, see Otho (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Otho -
Parmenides
Parmenides of Elea (Greek: ; fl. early 5th century BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher born in Elea, a Greek city on the southern coast of Italy. He was the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. The single known work of Parmenides is a poem which has survived only in fragmentary form. In this poem, Parmenides describes two views of reality. In The Way of Truth (a part of the poem), he explains how reality is one, change is impossible, and existence is timeless, uniform, and unchanging. In The Way of Opinion, he explains the world of appearances, which is false and deceitful. These thoughts strongly influenced Plato, and through him, the whole of Western philosophy.
http://wn.com/Parmenides -
Paul Levinson
Paul Levinson (born 1947) is an American author and professor of communications and media studies at Fordham University in New York City. Levinson's novels, short fiction, and non-fiction works have been translated into twelve languages.
http://wn.com/Paul_Levinson -
Pausanias (general)
http://wn.com/Pausanias_(general) -
Pelopidas
:For the genus of grass skipper butterflies, see Pelopidas (skipper).
http://wn.com/Pelopidas -
Pericles
http://wn.com/Pericles -
Philemon Holland
http://wn.com/Philemon_Holland -
Philinus of Athens
Philinus (; lived during the 4th century BC) was an Athenian orator, a contemporary of Demosthenes and Lycurgus. He is mentioned by Demosthenes in his oration against Meidias, who calls him the son of Nicostratus, and says that he was trierarch with him. Harpocration mentions three orations of Philinus. These are Against the statues for Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, which was against a proposition of Lycurgus that statues should be erected to those poets;; Against Dorotheus, which was ascribed likewise to Hyperides; Judiciary litigation of the Croconidae against Coeronidas, which was ascribed by others to Lycurgus. An ancient grammarian, quoted by Clement of Alexandria, says that Philinus borrowed from Demosthenes.
http://wn.com/Philinus_of_Athens -
Philip II of Macedon
http://wn.com/Philip_II_of_Macedon -
Philopoemen
http://wn.com/Philopoemen -
Phocion
http://wn.com/Phocion -
Pietro Testa
Pietro Testa (1611–1650) was an Italian High Baroque artist, best known, both to his contemporaries and modern appreciation, as a printmaker and draftsman, who was active in Rome.
http://wn.com/Pietro_Testa -
Pindar
http://wn.com/Pindar -
Plato
:For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Plato -
Plutarch
http://wn.com/Plutarch -
Polybius
http://wn.com/Polybius -
Pompey
http://wn.com/Pompey -
Protagoras
Protagoras (Greek: ) (ca. 490– 420 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and is numbered as one of the sophists by Plato. In his dialogue Protagoras, Plato credits him with having invented the role of the professional sophist or teacher of virtue. He is also believed to have created a major controversy during ancient times through his statement that man is the measure of all things. This idea was very revolutionary for the time and contrasting to other philosophical doctrines that claimed the universe was based on something objective, outside the human influence.
http://wn.com/Protagoras -
Ptolemy
http://wn.com/Ptolemy -
Pyrrhus of Epirus
Pyrrhus or Pyrrhos (, Pyrros; 319-272 BC) was a Greek general of the Hellenistic era. He was king of the Greek tribe of Molossians, of the royal Aeacid house (from ca. 297 BC), and later he became King of Epirus (306-302, 297-272 BC) and Macedon (288-284, 273-272 BC). He was one of the strongest opponents of early Rome. Some of his battles, though successful, cost him heavy losses, from which the term "Pyrrhic victory" was coined. He is the subject of one of Plutarch's Parallel Lives.
http://wn.com/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus -
Pythagoras
Pythagoras of Samos (, O Pythagoras o Samios, "Pythagoras the Samian", or simply ; c. 570-c. 495 BC) was an Ionian Greek philosopher and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. Most of our information about Pythagoras was written down centuries after he lived, thus very little reliable information is known about him. He was born on the island of Samos, and may have travelled widely in his youth, visiting Egypt and other places seeking knowledge. Around 530 BC, he moved to Croton, a Greek colony in southern Italy, and there set up a religious sect. His followers pursued the religious rites and practices developed by Pythagoras, and studied his philosophical theories. The society took an active role in the politics of Croton, but this eventually led to their downfall. The Pythagorean meeting-places were burned, and Pythagoras was forced to flee the city. He is said to have ended his days in Metapontum.
http://wn.com/Pythagoras -
Romulus and Remus
Romulus and Remus are Rome's twin founders in its traditional foundation myth. They are descendants of the Trojan prince and refugee Aeneas, and are fathered by the god Mars or the demi-god Hercules on a royal Vestal Virgin, Rhea Silvia (also known as Ilia), whose uncle exposes them to die in the wild. They are found by a she-wolf who suckles and cares for them. The twins are eventually restored to their regal birthright, acquire many followers and decide to found a new city.
http://wn.com/Romulus_and_Remus -
Rosemary Sutcliff
http://wn.com/Rosemary_Sutcliff -
Russell Meiggs
http://wn.com/Russell_Meiggs -
Sappho
Sappho ( in English; Attic Greek ' , Aeolic Greek ' ) was an Ancient Greek poet, born on the island of Lesbos. Later Greeks included her in the list of nine lyric poets. Her birth was sometime between 630 and 612 BC, and it is said that she died around 570 BC, but little is known for certain about her life. The bulk of her poetry, which was well-known and greatly admired throughout antiquity, has been lost, but her immense reputation has endured through surviving fragments.
http://wn.com/Sappho -
Simonides of Ceos
http://wn.com/Simonides_of_Ceos -
Socrates
http://wn.com/Socrates -
Solon
Solon (ancient Greek: , c. 638 BC–558 BC) was an Athenian statesman, lawmaker, and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in archaic Athens. His reforms failed in the short term yet he is often credited with having laid the foundations for Athenian democracy.
http://wn.com/Solon -
Sophocles
http://wn.com/Sophocles -
Stesichorus
Stesichorus (Ancient Greek: , circa 640 - 555 BC) was the first great poet of the Greek West. He is best known for telling epic stories in lyric metres but he is also famous for some ancient traditions about his life, such as his opposition to the tyrant Phalaris, and the blindness he is said to have incurred and cured by composing verses first insulting and then flattering to Helen of Troy. He was ranked among the nine lyric poets esteemed by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria and yet his work attracted relatively little interest among ancient commentators, which in turn left a disproportionate number of gaps in the modern record as one scholar observed in 1967: "Time has dealt more harshly with Stesichorus than with any other major lyric poet." Recent discoveries, recorded on Egyptian papyrus (notably and controversially, the Lille papyrus, in 1974), have enhanced modern understanding of his work, confirming his role as a link between Homer's epic narrative and the lyric narrative of poets like Pindar.
http://wn.com/Stesichorus -
Steven Pressfield
Steven Pressfield (born September 1943 in Port of Spain, Trinidad) is an American novelist and author of screenplays, principally of military historical fiction set in classical antiquity. His historical fiction is well-researched, but for the sake of dramatic flow, Pressfield may alter some details, like the sequence of events, or make use of jarring contemporary terms and place names, his stated aim being an attempt to capture the spirit of the times.
http://wn.com/Steven_Pressfield -
Thales of Miletus
http://wn.com/Thales_of_Miletus -
Themistocles
Themistocles (Greek: ; "Glory of the Law"); c. 524–459 BC, was an Athenian politician and general. He was one of a new breed of politicians who rose to prominence in the early years of the Athenian democracy, along with his great rival Aristides. As a politician, Themistocles was a populist, having the support of lower class Athenians, and generally being at odds with the Athenian nobility. Elected archon in 493 BC, he took steps to increase the naval power of Athens, which would be a recurring theme in his political career. During the first Persian invasion of Greece, he fought at the Battle of Marathon, and was possibly one of the 10 Athenian strategoi (generals) in that battle.
http://wn.com/Themistocles -
Theophrastus
http://wn.com/Theophrastus -
Theramenes
http://wn.com/Theramenes -
Thomas North
Sir Thomas North (1535 - 1604) was an English translator of Plutarch, second son of the 1st Baron North.
http://wn.com/Thomas_North -
Thrasybulus
Thrasybulus (; 'brave-willed'; d. 388 BC) was an Athenian general and democratic leader. In 411 BC, in the wake of an oligarchic coup at Athens, the pro-democracy sailors at Samos elected him as a general, making him a primary leader of the successful democratic resistance to that coup. As general, he was responsible for recalling the controversial nobleman Alcibiades from exile, and the two worked together extensively over the next several years. In 411 and 410, Thrasybulus commanded along with Alcibiades and others at several critical Athenian naval victories.
http://wn.com/Thrasybulus -
Thucydides
http://wn.com/Thucydides -
Timocreon
Timocreon, of Ialysus in Rhodes, was a Greek lyric poet who flourished about 480 BC.
http://wn.com/Timocreon -
Tissaphernes
http://wn.com/Tissaphernes -
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare (baptised 26 April 1564; died 23 April 1616) was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon". His surviving works, including some collaborations, consist of about 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several other poems. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.
http://wn.com/William_Shakespeare -
Xanthippus
Xanthippus (Gr. ) was a wealthy Athenian politician and general during the early part of the fifth century BC. He was the son of Ariphron and father of Pericles . Xanthippus served as eponymous archon of Athens in 479 BC.
http://wn.com/Xanthippus -
Xenophon
http://wn.com/Xenophon -
Zeno of Citium
http://wn.com/Zeno_of_Citium
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
A Life of Reason? Socrates vs. Alcibiades
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:11
- Published: 05 Dec 2011
- Updated: 24 May 2012
September 29, 2010 - Professor R. Lanier Anderson questions the characters Socrates claim in Plato's Symposium that we only desire what we lack. The excerpt is from a lecture from "The Art of Living," a first-year Introduction to Humanities course examines the ways art can lead to a well-lived life. Stanford University: www.stanford.edu The Human Experience at Stanford: humanexperience.stanford.edu Stanford University Channel on YouTube: www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/A_Life_of_Reason?_Socrates_vs_Alcibiades
Alcibiades Alcmaeonid the Invincible
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:57
- Published: 02 Nov 2009
- Updated: 13 Jun 2012
Alcibiades Cleiniou Scambonides 450404 BC, was a prominent Athenian statesman, orator, and general. He was the last famous member of his mother's aristocratic family, the Alcmaeonidae, which fell from prominence after the Peloponnesian War. He played a major role in the second half of that conflict as a strategic advisor, military commander, and politician. During the course of the Peloponnesian War, Alcibiades changed his political allegiance on several occasions. In his native Athens in the early 410s BC, he advocated an aggressive foreign policy, and was a prominent proponent of the Sicilian Expedition, but fled to Sparta after his political enemies brought charges of sacrilege against him. In Sparta, he served as a strategic adviser, proposing or supervising several major campaigns against Athens. In Sparta too, however, Alcibiades soon made powerful enemies and was forced to defect to Persia. There he served as an adviser to the satrap Tissaphernes until his Athenian political allies brought about his recall. He then served as an Athenian General (Strategos) for several years, but his enemies eventually succeeded in exiling him a second time. The Sicilian Expedition was Alcibiades' idea, and scholars have argued that, had that expedition been under Alcibiades' command instead of Nicias', the expedition might not have met its eventual disastrous fate. In the years that he served Sparta, Alcibiades played a significant role in Athens' undoing; the capture of Decelea <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Alcibiades_Alcmaeonid_the_Invincible
The Life Of Alcibiades
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 16:29
- Published: 21 Jun 2011
- Updated: 16 Jun 2012
Ancient Civilizations Final Project I go hard.
http://wn.com/The_Life_Of_Alcibiades
alcibiades 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:23
- Published: 12 Sep 2011
- Updated: 23 Sep 2011
Socrates speaking with Alcibiades.
http://wn.com/alcibiades_1
Alcibiades & Socrates - The Romance
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:58
- Published: 25 Dec 2007
- Updated: 24 May 2012
Interpretation of Alcibiades' speech in Plato's Symposium, the Book with speeches about Love. The video was cut multiple times from a 12-minute clip to fit YouTube's silly limit. Intro & Credit theme song is Linkin Park's Numb [Techno Remix], copyrighted to them all.
http://wn.com/Alcibiades_Socrates_The_Romance
Alcibiades
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:17
- Published: 06 Oct 2011
- Updated: 04 May 2012
Alcibiades, the original "Snooky"
http://wn.com/Alcibiades
Alcibiades Flip Flopper
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:57
- Published: 22 Feb 2012
- Updated: 22 Feb 2012
A re-imagining of anti-Mitt Romney ad "Romney: Same Candidate, Different Positions" as an anti-Alcibiades ad. This video is set circa 410 BC when Alcibiades was hoping to return to Athens after spending time abroad. "Romney: Same Candidate, Different Positions": www.youtube.com This video was created in Spring 2012 for the University of Southern California class ARLT 100g "Masters of Power: Ten Ancient Lives."
http://wn.com/Alcibiades_Flip_Flopper
Alcibiades: Fact, Fiction, Farce by Jack Meyer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:16
- Published: 30 Dec 2010
- Updated: 11 Sep 2011
A book trailer for Alcibiades: Fact, Fiction, Farce by author Jack Meyer
http://wn.com/Alcibiades_Fact,_Fiction,_Farce_by_Jack_Meyer
Alcibiade ( Nicolas Pierre Rolin ) - Kapitalis
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:08
- Published: 01 May 2011
- Updated: 17 Jun 2012
18 ans TNH ( La Nuit des Hommages ) 1997
http://wn.com/Alcibiade_Nicolas_Pierre_Rolin_Kapitalis
Revelando a Identidade do Alcibiades ...
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:30
- Published: 03 Sep 2009
- Updated: 31 Jan 2012
Você que tem a imensa curiosidade de saber quem é o famosíssissimo Leão Alcibiades assista a esse video. Ass: ♥Samuel & Mara♥
http://wn.com/Revelando_a_Identidade_do_Alcibiades_
Minha homenagem ao meu amigo Alcibiades, diretamente do XII Congresso DT
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:00
- Published: 24 Apr 2011
- Updated: 08 Feb 2012
É pra vc amigo! HAHA, desculpa a gagueira, é q eu tava nervoso! RS Agrada-te do Senhor e ele concederá os desejos do teu coração!
http://wn.com/Minha_homenagem_ao_meu_amigo_Alcibiades,_diretamente_do_XII_Congresso_DT
Recado para Alcibiades, III Congresso Conectar Salvador
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:39
- Published: 13 Feb 2012
- Updated: 01 May 2012
Sara manda um alô para o Alcibiades
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:13
- Published: 17 Apr 2009
- Updated: 13 Sep 2011
Gota a gota. Alci Acosta
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:02
- Published: 16 Nov 2008
- Updated: 25 Jun 2012
Alcibiades Alfonso Acosta Cervantes. 1938 Colombia
http://wn.com/Gota_a_gota_Alci_Acosta
VOY A GUARDAR MI LAMENTO ALCI ACOSTA
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:16
- Published: 13 Apr 2009
- Updated: 05 Jun 2012
Alcibiades Alfonso Acosta Cervantes (*Soledad, Colombia, 5 de noviembre de 1938) Uno de los más conocidos intérpretes colombianos del bolero, además de pianista. Interpreta el hermoso tema de Raul Vasquez (Peruano)
http://wn.com/VOY_A_GUARDAR_MI_LAMENTO_ALCI_ACOSTA
Sabor de Mel - Crianças Diante do Trono (Sophia)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:10
- Published: 12 Apr 2009
- Updated: 18 Jun 2012
Esse video é uma prova de que Deus tambem usa as crianças!
http://wn.com/Sabor_de_Mel_Crianças_Diante_do_Trono_Sophia
Santo Deus - X Congresso de Louvor & Adoração Diante do Trono
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:39
- Published: 22 Apr 2009
- Updated: 28 May 2012
Ana Paula canta 'Santo Deus' na manhã do 3º Dia do X Congresso de Louvor & Adoração Diante do Trono.
http://wn.com/Santo_Deus_X_Congresso_de_Louvor_Adoração_Diante_do_Trono
Corpo e Familia - Diante do Trono
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:12
- Published: 19 Apr 2009
- Updated: 07 Jun 2012
Diante do Trono canta 'Corpo e Familia' no Culto IBL
http://wn.com/Corpo_e_Familia_Diante_do_Trono
Célula na Casa de Nívea Soares - Programa Nívea Soares
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:49
- Published: 04 Mar 2011
- Updated: 27 Jun 2012
O programa Nívea Soares mostra a reunião em célula realizada na casa da Nívea
http://wn.com/Célula_na_Casa_de_Nívea_Soares_Programa_Nívea_Soares
Lee 'Scratch' Perry & Dub Syndicate - SDI
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:28
- Published: 08 Jun 2010
- Updated: 09 Jun 2012
Opening track from the 1987 album 'Time Boom X De Devil Dead'. Written by Lee Perry & Style Scott. Produced by Adrian Sherwood & Lee Perry.
http://wn.com/Lee_'Scratch'_Perry_Dub_Syndicate_SDI
The Mountain Goats - Song For Dennis Brown
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:58
- Published: 02 Jul 2009
- Updated: 11 Jun 2012
From the 'Sunset Tree' album (4AD, 2005)
http://wn.com/The_Mountain_Goats_Song_For_Dennis_Brown
Misty In Roots - Ghetto Of The City (live)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:32
- Published: 13 May 2009
- Updated: 11 Jun 2012
From the classic "Live at the Counter Eurovision" LP (1979).
http://wn.com/Misty_In_Roots_Ghetto_Of_The_City_live
Coriolanus: 'There is a world elsewhere'
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:24
- Published: 22 Nov 2008
- Updated: 13 Jun 2012
The clip is from the BBC production of Shakespeare's The Tragedy of Coriolanus, with Alan Howard playing the eponymous Roman general, an arrogant patrician with a violent temper exiled after clashing with the plebeians who suspect the trenchant soldier is plotting to establish a dictatorship and do away with their rights. See also: hellenicantidote.blogspot.com
http://wn.com/Coriolanus_'There_is_a_world_elsewhere'
Creative Commons
Creative Commons
Creative Commons
Creative Commons
Loading results ...
photo: AP / Emil Salman
22 Jul 2012
Article by WN.com Guest Writer Gilad Atzmon Just hours after the attack on Israeli tourists in Bulgaria, Israeli PM Benjamin Netanyahu and his Defence Minister Ehud Barak were quick to announce that...
photo: AP / Mikhail Metzel
22 Jul 2012
Oil-rich states with an internationally mobile elite have been especially prone to watching their wealth disappear into offshore bank accounts. A GLOBAL super-rich elite has exploited gaps in...
photo: AP / Ed Andrieski
20 Jul 2012
DENVER, Colorado (Reuters) - A masked gunman killed 12 people at a midnight showing of the new Batman movie in a suburb of Denver early on Friday, sparking pandemonium when he hurled a gas canister...
photo: US Army file/Pvt. Ralph Forney
22 Jul 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling The liberation of the Nazi death camps near the end of World War II was unfortunately not a priority objective for Allied forces. Neither was it a...
photo: UN / DB
21 Jul 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling If Yasser Arafat, former co-founder of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), died from a lethal radioactive substance known as polonium, not...
The Washington Post
LEXINGTON, Ky. — Stephanie’s Kitten took the lead in the stretch and held on to win the $400,000 Darley Alcibiades Stakes on opening day at Keeneland. The 2-year-old filly defeated Heart of Destiny by 1½ lengths Friday, with...(size: 1.7Kb)
Stephanie's Kitten springs upset in Alcibiades
08 Oct 2011
Lexington Herald-Leader
LEXINGTON, Ky. — Stephanie's Kitten took the lead in the stretch and held on to win the $400,000 Darley Alcibiades Stakes on opening day at Keeneland. The 2-year-old filly...(size: 1.3Kb)
Yahoo Daily News
APELDOORN, Netherlands (AFP) – Colombia's Avila Alcibiades stunned reigning champion Cameron Meyer of Australia to win the men's points crown at the world track cycling championships Friday. Meyer, who had won the title the past two years, finished second to take the silver with...(size: 2.7Kb)
The Examiner
With her front-running victory in yesterday's Darley Alcibiades-G1 for two-year-old fillies at Keeneland, Wickedly Perfect became not only a leader of her division, but also the initial Grade I winner for her sire, Congrats, whose first foals hit the track this year. Unfortunately, it was discovered...(size: 3.4Kb)
The Examiner
To the delight of the 17,148 fans in attendance on a beautiful autumn day in Lexington, Ky.,Keeneland's first day of FallStars Weekend opened on Friday, Oct. 9, 2010, with a masterful performance by Wickedly Perfect, who led from start to finish to win the 59th running of the Darley Alcibiades...(size: 3.9Kb)
Wickedly Perfect takes Alcibiades
09 Oct 2010
Nashville Tennessean
individual: 11 numChar :2160 -->TOTAL ELEMENTS IN ARRAY: 12 TOTAL CHARACTERS IN ARRAY: 2160 TOTAL CHARACTERS IN PAGES: 2160 LAST PAGE CONTAINS: 0 -->--> LEXINGTON, Ky. The grand gelding Lava Man might have been 0-fer outside of California for his owner and trainer. But the same pair, owner Steve...(size: 4.0Kb)
Lexington Herald-Leader
Wickedly Perfect, with Rafael Bejarno up won the 59th Running of the Darley Alcibiades (Grade 1), during opening day at Keeneland on Friday October 8 , 2010 in Lexington, Ky....(size: 1.1Kb)
Wickedly Perfect wins Darley Alcibiades Stakes
09 Oct 2010
CNN
PRINT EMAIL ARTICLEURL FACEBOOK DIGG TWITTER RSS SHARE LEXINGTON, Ky. (AP) - Wickedly Perfect earned a spot in the Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies, winning the $400,000 Darley Alcibiades Stakes on Friday at Keeneland. The Doug O'Neil-trained filly, ridden by Rafael Bejarano, completed the 1 1-16-mile...(size: 2.0Kb)
Star Tribune
LEXINGTON, Ky. - Negligee stormed past heavily favored She Be Wild for a half-length victory in the $500,000 Darley Alcibiades Stakes at Keeneland on Friday. The 13-1 shot with Rajiv Maragh aboard covered the 1 1/16 miles in 1:43.76 on the fast Polytrack surface. The win means Negligee will be...(size: 11.1Kb)
For other uses, see Alcibiades (disambiguation).
| Alcibiades Ἀλκιβιάδης Alkibiádēs |
|
|---|---|
 Alcibiades |
|
| Born | c. 450 BC Athens, Greece |
| Died | 404 BC Phrygia |
| Allegiance | Athens (415–412 BC Sparta) (412–411 BC Persia) |
| Rank | general (strategos) |
| Battles/wars | Battle of Abydos (410 BC) Battle of Cyzicus (410 BC) Siege of Byzantium (408 BC) |
Alcibiades, son of Clinias, from the deme of Scambonidae (
/ˌælsɨˈbaɪ.ədiːz/;[1] Greek: Ἀλκιβιάδης Κλεινίου Σκαμβωνίδης, transliterated Alkibiádēs Kleiníou Skambōnidēs; c. 450–404 BC), was a prominent Athenian statesman, orator, and general. He was the last famous member of his mother's aristocratic family, the Alcmaeonidae, which fell from prominence after the Peloponnesian War. He played a major role in the second half of that conflict as a strategic advisor, military commander, and politician.
During the course of the Peloponnesian War, Alcibiades changed his political allegiance on several occasions. In his native Athens in the early 410s BC, he advocated an aggressive foreign policy, and was a prominent proponent of the Sicilian Expedition, but fled to Sparta after his political enemies brought charges of sacrilege against him. In Sparta, he served as a strategic adviser, proposing or supervising several major campaigns against Athens. In Sparta too, however, Alcibiades soon made powerful enemies and was forced to defect to Persia. There he served as an adviser to the satrap Tissaphernes until his Athenian political allies brought about his recall. He then served as an Athenian General (Strategos) for several years, but his enemies eventually succeeded in exiling him a second time.
The Sicilian Expedition was Alcibiades' idea, and scholars have argued that, had that expedition been under Alcibiades' command instead of Nicias', the expedition might not have met its eventual disastrous fate.[2] In the years that he served Sparta, Alcibiades played a significant role in Athens' undoing; the capture of Decelea and the revolts of several critical Athenian subjects occurred either at his suggestion or under his supervision. Once restored to his native city, however, he played a crucial role in a string of Athenian victories that eventually brought Sparta to seek a peace with Athens. He favored unconventional tactics, frequently winning cities over by treachery or negotiation rather than by siege.[3] Alcibiades' military and political talents frequently proved valuable to whichever state currently held his allegiance, but his propensity for making powerful enemies ensured that he never remained in one place for long; and, by the end of the war he had helped rekindle in the early 410s, his days of political relevance were a bygone memory.
Contents |
Early years[link]
Alcibiades was born in ancient Athens, the son of Cleinias and Deinomache. His mother was the daughter of Megacles, and could trace her family back to Eurysaces and the Telamonian Ajax.[4] Alcibiades thereby, through his mother, belonged to the powerful and controversial family of the Alcmaeonidae; the renowned Pericles and his brother Ariphron were Deinomache's cousins, as her father and their mother were siblings.[5] His maternal grandfather, also named Alcibiades, was a friend of Cleisthenes, the famous constitutional reformer of the late 6th century BC.[6] After the death of Cleinias at the Battle of Coronea (447 BC), Pericles and Ariphron became his guardians.[7] According to Plutarch, Alcibiades had several famous teachers, including Socrates, and was well trained in the art of Rhetoric.a[›] He was noted, however, for his unruly behavior, which was mentioned by ancient Greek and Latin writers on several occasions.b[›]
Alcibiades took part in the Battle of Potidaea in 432 BC, where Socrates was said to have saved his life[8] and again at the Battle of Delium in 424 BC.c[›] Alcibiades had a particularly close relationship with Socrates, whom he admired and respected.[9][10] According to Plutarch, Alcibiades "feared and reverenced Socrates alone, and despised the rest of his lovers".[11]
Alcibiades was married to Hipparete, the daughter of Hipponicus, a wealthy Athenian. According to Plutarch, Hipparete loved her husband, but she attempted to divorce him because he consorted with courtesans. She lived with him until her death and gave birth to two children, a daughter and a son, Alcibiades the Younger.[12]
Political career until 412 BC[link]
Rise to prominence[link]
Alcibiades first rose to prominence when he began advocating aggressive Athenian action after the signing of the Peace of Nicias. That treaty, an uneasy truce between Sparta and Athens signed midway through the Peloponnesian War, came at the end of seven years of fighting in which neither side had gained a decisive advantage. Historians Arnold W. Gomme and Raphael Sealey believe, and Thucydides reports,[13] that Alcibiades was offended that the Spartans had negotiated that treaty through Nicias and Laches, overlooking him on account of his youth.[14][15]
Disputes over the interpretation of the treaty led the Spartans to dispatch ambassadors to Athens with full powers to arrange all unsettled matters. The Athenians initially received these ambassadors well, but Alcibiades met with them in secret before they were to speak to the ecclesia (the Athenian Assembly) and told them that the Assembly was haughty and had great ambitions.[16] He urged them to renounce their diplomatic authority to represent Sparta, and instead allow him to assist them through his influence in Athenian politics.[17] The representatives agreed and, impressed with Alcibiades, they alienated themselves from Nicias, who genuinely wanted to reach an agreement with the Spartans.[16] The next day, during the Assembly, Alcibiades asked them what powers Sparta had granted them to negotiate and they replied, as agreed, that they had not come with full and independent powers. This was in direct contradiction to what they had said the day before, and Alcibiades seized on this opportunity to denounce their character, cast suspicion on their aims, and destroy their credibility. This ploy increased Alcibiades' standing while embarrassing Nicias, and Alcibiades was subsequently appointed General. He took advantage of his increasing power to orchestrate the creation of an alliance between Argos, Mantinea, Elis, and other states in the Peloponnese, threatening Sparta's dominance in the region. According to Gomme, "it was a grandiose scheme for an Athenian general at the head of a mainly Peloponnesian army to march through the Peloponnese cocking a snook at Sparta when her reputation was at its lowest".[18] This alliance, however, would ultimately be defeated at the Battle of Mantinea.[19]
Somewhere in the years 416–415 BC, a complex struggle took place between Hyperbolos on one side and Nicias and Alcibiades on the other. Hyperbolos tried to bring about the ostracism of one of this pair, but Nicias and Alcibiades combined their influence to induce the people to expel Hyperbolos instead.[20] This incident reveals that Nicias and Alcibiades each commanded a personal following, whose votes were determined by the wishes of the leaders.[15]
Alcibiades was not one of the Generals involved in the capture of Melos in 416–415 BC, but Plutarch describes him as a supporter of the decree by which the grown men of Melos were killed and the women and children enslaved.[21] The orator Andocides alleges that Alcibiades had a child by one of these enslaved women.[22]
Sicilian Expedition[link]
For more details on this topic, see Sicilian Expedition.
In 415 BC, delegates from the Sicilian city of Segesta (Greek: Egesta) arrived at Athens to plead for the support of the Athenians in their war against Selinus. During the debates on the undertaking, Nicias was vehemently opposed to Athenian intervention, explaining that the campaign would be very costly and attacking the character and motives of Alcibiades, who had emerged as the supporter of the expedition. On the other hand, Alcibiades argued that a campaign in this new theatre would bring riches to the city and expand the empire, just as the Persian Wars had. In his speech Alcibiades predicted (over-optimistically, in the opinion of most historians) that the Athenians would be able to recruit allies in the region and impose their rule on Syracuse, the most powerful city of Sicily.[23] In spite of Alcibiades' enthusiastic advocacy for the plan, it was Nicias, not he, who turned a modest undertaking into a massive campaign and made the conquest of Sicily seem possible and safe.[24] It was at his suggestion that the size of the fleet was significantly increased from 60 ships[25] to "140 galleys, 5,100 men at arms, and about 1300 archers, slingers, and light armed men".[26] Philosopher Leo Strauss underscores that the Sicilian expedition surpassed everything undertaken by Pericles. Almost certainly Nicias' intention was to shock the assembly with his high estimate of the forces required, but, instead of dissuading his fellow citizens, his analysis made them all the more eager.[27] Against his wishes Nicias was appointed General along with Alcibiades and Lamachus, all three of whom were given full powers to do whatever was in the best interests of Athens while in Sicily.[28]
One night during preparations for the expedition, the hermai, heads of the god Hermes on a plinth with a phallus, were mutilated throughout Athens. This was a religious scandal and was seen as a bad omen for the mission. Plutarch explains that Androcles, a political leader, used false witnesses who accused Alcibiades and his friends of mutilating the statues, and of profaning the Eleusinian Mysteries. Later his opponents, chief among them being Androcles and Thessalus, Cimon's son, enlisted orators to argue that Alcibiades should set sail as planned and stand trial on his return from the campaign. Alcibiades was suspicious of their intentions, and asked to be allowed to stand trial immediately, under penalty of death, in order to clear his name.[29] This request was denied, and the fleet set sail soon after, with the charges unresolved.[30]
| "Men do not rest content with parrying the attacks of a superior, but often strike the first blow to prevent the attack being made. And we cannot fix the exact point at which our empire shall stop; we have reached a position in which we must not be content with retaining but must scheme to extend it, for, if we cease to rule others, we are in danger of being ruled ourselves. Nor can you look at inaction from the same point of view as others, unless you are prepared to change your habits and make them like theirs." |
| Alcibiades' Oration before the Sicilian expedition as recorded by Thucydides, (VI, 18)d[›]; Thucydides disclaims verbal accuracy. |
As Alcibiades had suspected, his absence emboldened his enemies, and they began to accuse him of other sacrilegious actions and comments and even alleged that these actions were connected with a plot against the democracy.[31] According to Thucydides, the Athenians were always in fear and took everything suspiciously.[32] When the fleet arrived in Catana, it found the state trireme Salaminia waiting to bring Alcibiades and the others indicted for mutilating the hermai or profaning the Eleusinian Mysteries back to Athens to stand trial.[32] Alcibiades told the heralds that he would follow them back to Athens in his ship, but in Thurii he escaped with his crew; in Athens he was convicted in absentia and condemned to death. His property was confiscated and a reward of one talent was promised to whoever succeeded in killing any who had fled.[33] Meanwhile the Athenian force in Sicily, after a few early victories, moved against Messina, where the Generals expected their secret allies within the city to betray it to them. Alcibiades, however, foreseeing that he would be outlawed, gave information to the friends of the Syracusans in Messina, who succeeded in preventing the admission of the Athenians.[34] With the death of Lamachus in battle some time later, command of the Sicilian Expedition fell into the hands of Nicias, whom modern scholars have judged to be an inadequate military leader.[2]
Defection to Sparta[link]
After his disappearance at Thurii, Alcibiades quickly contacted the Spartans, "promising to render them aid and service greater than all the harm he had previously done them as an enemy" if they would offer him sanctuary.[35] The Spartans granted this request and received him among them. In the debate at Sparta over whether to send a force to relieve Syracuse, Alcibiades spoke and instilled fear of Athenian ambition into the Spartan ephors by informing them that the Athenians hoped to conquer Sicily, Italy, and even Carthage.[36] Yale historian Donald Kagan believes that Alcibiades knowingly exaggerated the plans of the Athenians to convince the Spartans of the benefit they stood to gain from his help. Kagan asserts that Alcibiades had not yet acquired his "legendary" reputation, and the Spartans saw him as "a defeated and hunted man" whose policies "produced strategic failures" and brought "no decisive result". If accurate, this assessment underscores one of Alcibiades' greatest talents, his highly persuasive oratory.[37] After making the threat seem imminent, Alcibiades advised the Spartans to send troops and most importantly, a Spartan commander to discipline and aid the Syracusans.[36]
| "Our party was that of the whole people, our creed being to do our part in preserving the form of government under which the city enjoyed the utmost greatness and freedom, and which we had found existing. As for democracy, the men of sense among us knew what it was, and I perhaps as well as any, as I have the more cause to complain of it; but there is nothing new to be said of a patent absurdity — meanwhile we did not think it safe to alter it under the pressure of your hostility." |
| Alcibiades' Speech to the Spartans as recorded by Thucydides, (VI, 89])d[›]; Thucydides disclaims verbal accuracy. |
Alcibiades served as a military adviser to Sparta and helped the Spartans secure several crucial successes. He advised them to build a permanent fort at Decelea, just over ten miles (16 km) from Athens and within sight of the city.[38] By doing this, the Spartans cut the Athenians off entirely from their homes and crops and the silver mines of Sunium.[37] This was part of Alcibiades'plan to renew the war with Athens in Attica. The move was devastating to Athens and forced the citizens to live within the long walls of the city year round, making them entirely dependent on their seaborne trade for food. Seeing Athens thus beleaguered on a second front, members of the Delian League began to contemplate revolt. In the wake of Athens' disastrous defeat in Sicily, Alcibiades sailed to Ionia with a Spartan fleet and succeeded in persuading several critical cities to revolt.[39][40]
In spite of these valuable contributions to the Spartan cause, Alcibiades fell out of favor with the Spartan government at around this time, ruled by Agis II.[41] Leotychides, the son born by Agis' wife Timaia shortly after this, was believed by many to be Alcibiades' son.[42][43] Alcibiades' influence was further reduced after the retirement of Endius, the ephor who was on good terms with him.[44] It is alleged that Astiochus, a Spartan Admiral, was sent orders to kill him, but Alcibiades received warning of this order and defected to the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, who had been supporting the Peloponnesian forces financially in 412 BC.[45]
In Asia Minor[link]
On his arrival in the local Persian court, Alcibiades won the trust of the powerful satrap and made several policy suggestions which were well received. According to Thucydides, Alcibiades immediately began to do all he could with Tissaphernes to injure the Peloponnesian cause. At his urging, the satrap reduced the payments he was making to the Peloponnesian fleet and began delivering them irregularly.[45] Alcibiades next advised Tissaphernes to bribe the Generals of the cities to gain valuable intelligence on their activities. Lastly, and most importantly, he told the satrap to be in no hurry to bring the Persian fleet into the conflict, as the longer the war dragged out the more exhausted the combatants would become. This would allow the Persians to more easily conquer the region in the aftermath of the fighting. Alcibiades tried to convince the satrap that it was in Persia's interest to wear both Athens and Sparta out at first, "and after docking the Athenian power as much as he could, forthwith to rid the country of the Peloponnesians".[46] Although Alcibiades' advice benefited the Persians, it was merely a means to an end; Thucydides tells us that his real motive was to use his alleged influence with the Persians to effect his restoration to Athens.[47]
Recall to Athens[link]
Negotiations with the Athenian oligarchs[link]
Alcibiades seemed to assume that the "radical democracy" would never agree to his recall to Athens.[48] Therefore, he exchanged messages with the Athenian leaders at Samos and suggested that if they could install an oligarchy friendly to him he would return to Athens and bring with him Persian money and possibly the Persian fleet of 147 triremes.[49] Alcibiades set about winning over the most influential military officers, and achieved his goal by offering them a threefold plan: the Athenian constitution was to be changed, the recall of Alcibiades was to be voted, and Alcibiades was to win over Tissaphernes and the King of Persia to the Athenian side. Most of the officers in the Athenian fleet accepted the plan and welcomed the prospect of a narrower constitution, which would allow them a greater share in determining policy. According to Thucydides, only one of the Athenian Generals at Samos, Phrynichus, opposed the plan and argued that Alcibiades cared no more for the proposed oligarchy than for the traditional democracy.[50] The involvement in the plot of another General, Thrasybulus, remains unclear.e[›]
These officers of the Athenian fleet formed a group of conspirators, but were met with opposition from the majority of the soldiers and sailors; these were eventually calmed down "by the advantageous prospect of the pay from the king".[51] The members of the group assembled and prepared to send Pisander, one of their number, on an embassy to Athens to treat for the restoration of Alcibiades and the abolition of the democracy in the city, and thus to make Tissaphernes the friend of the Athenians.[52]
Phrynichus, fearing that Alcibiades if restored would avenge himself upon him for his opposition, sent a secret letter to the Spartan Admiral, Astyochus, to tell him that Alcibiades was ruining their cause by making Tissaphernes the friend of the Athenians, and containing an express revelation of the rest of the intrigue. Astyochus went up to Alcibiades and Tissaphernes at Magnesia and communicated to them Phrynichus's letter. Alcibiades responded in kind, sending to the authorities at Samos a letter against Phrynichus, stating what he had done, and requiring that he should be put to death.[53] Phrynichus in desperation wrote again to Astyochus, offering him a chance to destroy the Athenian fleet at Samos. This also Astyochus revealed to Alcibiades who informed the officers at Samos that they had been betrayed by Phrynichus. Alcibiades however gained no credit, because Phrynichus had anticipated Alcibiades' letter and, before the accusations could arrive, told the army that he had received information of an enemy plan to attack the camp and that they should fortify Samos as quickly as possible.[54]
Despite these events, Pisander and the other envoys of the conspirators arrived at Athens and made a speech before the people. Pisander won the argument, putting Alcibiades and his promises at the center. The Ecclesia deposed Phrynichus and elected Pisander and ten other envoys to negotiate with Tissaphernes and Alcibiades.[55]
At this point, Alcibiades' scheme encountered a great obstacle. Tissaphernes would not make an agreement on any terms, wanting to follow his policy of neutrality.[56] As Kagan points out, Tissaphernes was a prudent leader and had recognized the advantages of wearing each side out without direct Persian involvement.[57] Alcibiades realized this and, by presenting the Athenians with stiffer and stiffer demands on Tissaphernes' behalf, attempted to convince them that he had persuaded Tissaphernes to support them, but that they had not conceded enough to him. Although the envoys were angered at the audacity of the Persian demands, they nevertheless departed with the impression that Alcibiades could have brought about an agreement among the powers if he had chosen to do so.[58] This fiasco at the court of Tissaphernes, however, put an end to the negotiations between the conspirators and Alcibiades.[56] The group was convinced that Alcibiades could not deliver his side of the bargain without demanding exorbitantly high concessions of them and they accordingly abandoned their plans to restore him to Athens.[58]
Reinstatement as an Athenian General[link]
See also: Athenian coup of 411 BC
In spite of the failure of the negotiations, the conspirators succeeded in overthrowing the democracy and imposing the oligarchic government of the Four Hundred, among the leaders of which were Phrynichus and Pisander. At Samos, however, a similar coup instigated by the conspirators did not go forward so smoothly. Samian democrats learned of the conspiracy and notified four prominent Athenians: the generals Leon and Diomedon, the trierarch Thrasybulus, and Thrasyllus, at that time a hoplite in the ranks. With the support of these men and the Athenian soldiers in general, the Samian democrats were able to defeat the 300 Samian oligarchs who attempted to seize power there.[59] Further, the Athenian troops at Samos formed themselves into a political assembly, deposed their generals, and elected new ones, including Thrasybulus and Thrasyllus. The army, stating that they had not revolted from the city but that the city had revolted from them, resolved to stand by the democracy while continuing to prosecute the war against Sparta.[60]
After a time, Thrasybulus persuaded the assembled troops to vote Alcibiades' recall, a policy that he had supported since before the coup. Then he sailed to retrieve Alcibiades and returned with him to Samos. The aim of this policy was to win away Persian support from the Spartans, as it was still believed that Alcibiades had great influence with Tissaphernes.[61] Plutarch claims that the army sent for Alcibiades so as to use his help in putting down the tyrants in Athens.[62] Kagan argues that this reinstatement was a disappointment to Alcibiades, who had hoped for a glorious return to Athens itself but found himself only restored to the rebellious fleet, where the immunity from prosecution he had been granted "protected him for the time being but not from a reckoning in the future"; furthermore, the recall, which Alcibiades had hoped to bring about through his own prestige and perceived influence, was achieved through the patronage of Thrasybulus.[63]
At his first speech to the assembled troops, Alcibiades complained bitterly about the circumstances of his exile, but the greatest part of the speech consisted of boasting about his influence with Tissaphernes. The primary motives of his speech were to make the oligarchs at Athens afraid of him and to increase his credit with the army at Samos. Upon hearing his speech the troops immediately elected him General alongside Thrasybulus and the others. In fact, he roused them so much that they proposed to sail at once for Piraeus and attack the oligarchs in Athens.[64] It was primarily Alcibiades, along with Thrasybulus, who calmed the people and showed them the folly of this proposal, which would have sparked civil war and led to the immediate defeat of Athens.[62] Shortly after Alcibiades' reinstatement as an Athenian general, the government of the Four Hundred was overthrown and replaced by a broader oligarchy, which would eventually give way to democracy.[65]
Presently Alcibiades sailed to Tissaphernes with a detachment of ships. According to Plutarch, the supposed purpose of this mission was to stop the Persian fleet from coming to the aid of the Peloponnesians.[62] Thucydides is in agreement with Plutarch that the Persian fleet was at Aspendus and that Alcibiades told the troops he would bring the fleet to their side or prevent it from coming at all, but Thucydides further speculates that the real reason was to flaunt his new position to Tissaphernes and try to gain some real influence over him.[64] According to the historian, Alcibiades had long known that Tissaphernes never meant to bring the fleet at all.[66]
Battles of Abydos and Cyzicus[link]
- For more details on this topic, see Battle of Abydos and Battle of Cyzicus
Alcibiades was recalled by the "intermediate regime" of The Five Thousand, the government which succeeded the Four Hundred in 411, but it is most likely that he waited until 407 BC to actually return to the city.[67] Plutarch tells us that, although his recall had already been passed on motion of Critias, a political ally of his, Alcibiades was resolved to come back with glory.[68] While this was certainly his goal, it was again a means to an end, that end being avoiding prosecution upon his return to Athens.
The next significant part he would play in the war would occur at the Battle of Abydos. Alcibiades had remained behind at Samos with a small force while Thrasybulus and Thrasyllus led the greater part of the fleet to the Hellespont. During this period, Alcibiades succeeded in raising money from Caria and the neighboring area, with which he was able to pay the rowers and gain their favor.[69] After the Athenian victory at Cynossema, both fleets summoned all their ships from around the Aegean to join them for what might be a decisive next engagement. While Alcibiades was still en route, the two fleets clashed at Abydos, where the Peloponnesians had set up their main naval base. The battle was evenly matched, and raged for a long time, but the balance tipped towards the Athenians when Alcibiades sailed into the Hellespont with eighteen triremes.[68][70] The Persian satrap Pharnabazus, who had replaced Tissaphernes as the sponsor of the Peloponnesian fleet, moved his land army to the shore to defend the ships and sailors who had beached their ships. Only the support of the Persian land army and the coming of night saved the Peloponnesian fleet from complete destruction.[71]
Shortly after the battle, Tissaphernes had arrived in the Hellespont and Alcibiades left the fleet at Sestos to meet him, bringing gifts and hoping to once again try to win over the Persian governor. Evidently Alcibiades had gravely misjudged his standing with the satrap, and he was arrested on arrival.[68] Within a month he would escape and resume command.[72] It was now obvious, however, that he had no influence with the Persians; from now on his authority would depend on what he actually could accomplish rather than on what he promised to do.[73]
After an interlude of several months in which the Peloponnesians constructed new ships and the Athenians besieged cities and raised money throughout the Aegean, the next major sea battle took place the spring of 410 BC at Cyzicus. Alcibiades had been forced to flee from Sestos to Cardia to protect his small fleet from the rebuilt Peloponnesian navy, but as soon as the Athenian fleet was reunited there its commanders led it to Cyzicus, where the Athenians had intelligence indicating that Pharnabazus and Mindarus, the Peloponnesian fleet commander, were together plotting their next move. Concealed by storm and darkness, the combined Athenian force reached the vicinity without being spotted by the Peloponnesians.[72] Here the Athenians devised a plot to draw the enemy into battle. According to Diodorus Siculus, Alcibiades advanced with a small squadron in order to draw the Spartans out to battle, and, after he successfully deceived Mindarus with this ploy, the squadrons of Thrasybulus and Theramenes came to join him, cutting off the Spartans' retreat.f[›][74]
The Spartan fleet suffered losses in the flight and reached the shore with the Athenians in close pursuit. Alcibiades' troops, leading the Athenian pursuit, landed and attempted to pull the Spartan ships back out to sea. The Peloponnesians fought to prevent their ships from being towed away, and Pharnabazus's troops came up to support them.[75] Thrasybulus landed his own force to temporarily relieve pressure on Alcibiades, and meanwhile ordered Theramenes to join up with Athenian land forces nearby and bring them to reinforce the sailors and marines on the beach. The Spartans and Persians, overwhelmed by the arrival of multiple forces from several directions, were defeated and driven off, and the Athenians captured all the Spartan ships which were not destroyed.[74][76] A letter dispatched to Sparta by Hippocrates, vice-admiral under Mindarus, was intercepted and taken to Athens; it ran as follows: "The ships are lost. Mindarus is dead. The men are starving. We know not what to do".[75] A short time later Sparta petitioned for peace, but their appeals were ultimately rejected by the Athenians.[77]
Further military successes[link]
After their victory, Alcibiades and Thrasybulus began the siege of Chalcedon in 409 BC with about 190 ships.[78] Although unable to attain a decisive victory or induce the city to surrender, Alcibiades was able to win a small tactical land battle outside of the city gates and Theramenes concluded an agreement with the Chalcedonians.[79] Afterwards they concluded a temporary alliance with Pharnabazus which secured some much needed immediate cash for the army, but despite this Alcibiades was still forced to depart in search for more booty to pay the soldiers and oarsmen of the fleet.
In pursuit of these funds he traveled to the Thracian Chersonese and attacked Selymbria. He plotted with a pro-Athenian party within the city and offered the Selymbrians reasonable terms and imposed strict discipline to see that they were observed. He did their city no injury whatsoever, but merely took a sum of money from it, set a garrison in it and left.[80] Epigraphical evidence indicates the Selymbrians surrendered hostages until the treaty was ratified in Athens.[3] His performance is judged as skillful by historians, since it saved time, resources, and lives and still fully achieved his goal.[3][81]
From here Alcibiades joined in the siege of Byzantium along with Theramenes and Thrasyllus. A portion of the citizens of the city, demoralized and hungry, decided to surrender the city to Alcibiades for similar terms as the Selymbrians had received. On the designated night the defenders left their posts, and the Athenians attacked the Peloponnesian garrison in the city and their boats in the harbor. The portion of the citizenry that remained loyal to the Peloponnesians fought so savagely that Alcibiades issued a statement in the midst of the fighting which guaranteed their safety and this persuaded the remaining citizens to turn against the Peloponnesian garrison, which was nearly totally destroyed.[79]
Return to Athens, Dismissal and Death[link]
Return to Athens[link]
It was in the aftermath of these successes that Alcibiades resolved to finally return to Athens in the spring of 407 BC. Even in the wake of his recent victories, Alcibiades was exceedingly careful in his return, mindful of the changes in government, the charges still technically hanging over him, and the great injury he had done to Athens. Thus Alcibiades, instead of going straight home, first went to Samos to pick up 20 ships and proceeded with them to the Ceramic Gulf where he collected 100 talents. He finally sailed to Gytheion to make inquiries, partly about the reported preparations of the Spartans there, and partly about the feelings in Athens about his return.[82] His inquiries assured him that the city was kindly disposed towards him and that his closest friends urged him to return.[83]
Therefore he finally sailed into Piraeus where the crowd had gathered, desiring to see the famous Alcibiades.[84] He entered the harbor full of fear till he saw his cousin and others of his friends and acquaintance, who invited him to land. Upon arriving on shore he was greeted with a hero's welcome.[85] Nevertheless, some saw an evil omen in the fact that he had returned to Athens on the very day when the ceremony of the Plynteria (the feast where the old statue of Athena would get cleansed) was being celebrated.[86] This was regarded as the unluckiest day of the year to undertake anything of importance. His enemies took note of this and kept it in mind for a future occasion.[87]
All the criminal proceedings against him were canceled and the charges of blasphemy were officially withdrawn. Alcibiades was able to assert his piety and to raise Athenian morale by leading the solemn procession to Eleusis (for the celebration of the Eleusinian Mysteries) by land for the first time since the Spartans had occupied Decelea.[88] The procession had been replaced by a journey by sea, but this year Alcibiades used a detachment of soldiers to escort the traditional procession.[89] His property was restored and the ecclesia elected him supreme commander of land and sea (strategos autokrator).[90]
Defeat at Notium[link]
For more details on this topic, see Battle of Notium.
In 406 BC Alcibiades set out from Athens with 1,500 hoplites and a hundred ships. He failed to take Andros and then he went on to Samos. Later he moved to Notium, closer to the enemy at Ephesus.[91] In the meanwhile Tissaphernes had been replaced by Cyrus the Younger (son of Darius II of Persia) who decided to financially support the Peloponnesians. This new revenue started to attract Athenian deserters to the Spartan navy. Additionally the Spartans had replaced Mindarus with Lysander, a very capable Admiral. These factors caused the rapid growth of the Peloponnesian fleet at the expense of the Athenian. In search of funds and needing to force another decisive battle, Alcibiades left Notium and sailed to help Thrasybulus in the siege of Phocaea.[92] Alcibiades was aware the Spartan fleet was nearby, so he left nearly eighty ships to watch them under the command of his personal helmsman Antiochus, who was given express orders not to attack. Antiochus disobeyed this single order and endeavored to draw Lysander into a fight by imitating the tactics used at Cyzicus. The situation at Notium, however, was radically different than that at Cyzicus; the Athenians possessed no element of surprise, and Lysander had been well informed about their fleet by deserters.[93] Antiochus's ship was sunk, and he was killed by a sudden Spartan attack; the remaining ships of the decoy force were then chased headlong back toward Notium, where the main Athenian force was caught unprepared by the sudden arrival of the whole Spartan fleet. In the ensuing fighting, Lysander gained an entire victory. Alcibiades soon returned and desperately tried to undo the defeat at Notium by scoring another victory, but Lysander could not be compelled to attack the fleet again.[94]
Responsibility for the defeat ultimately fell on Alcibiades, and his enemies used the opportunity to attack him and have him removed from command, although some modern scholars believe that Alcibiades was unfairly blamed for Antiochus's mistake.[95] Diodorus reports that, in addition to his mistake at Notium, Alcibiades was discharged on account of false accusations brought against him by his enemies.[74] According to Anthony Andrewes, professor of ancient history, the extravagant hopes that his successes of the previous summer had created were a decisive element in his downfall.[91] Consequently Alcibiades condemned himself to exile.[74] Never again returning to Athens, he sailed north to the castles in the Thracian Chersonese, which he had secured during his time in the Hellespont. The implications of the defeat were severe for Athens. Although the defeat had been minor, it occasioned the removal of not only Alcibiades but also his allies like Thrasybulus, Theramenes and Critias.[90] These were likely the most capable commanders Athens had at the time and their removal would help lead to the Athenian surrender only two years later after their complete defeat at Aegospotami.[96]
Death[link]
With one exception, Alcibiades' role in the war ended with his command. Prior to the Battle of Aegospotami, in the last attested fact of his career,[97] Alcibiades recognized that the Athenians were anchored in a tactically disadvantageous spot and advised them to move to Sestus where they could benefit from a harbor and a city.[98] Diodorus, however, does not mention this advice, arguing instead that Alcibiades offered the Generals Thracian aid in exchange for a share in the command.g[›] In any case, the Generals of the Athenians, "considering that in case of defeat the blame would attach to them and that in case of success all men would attribute it to Alcibiades", asked him to leave and not come near the camp ever again.[98][99] Days later the fleet would be annihilated by Lysander.
After the Battle of Aegospotami, Alcibiades crossed the Hellespont and took refuge in Phrygia, with the object of securing the aid of Artaxerxes against Sparta.
Much about Alcibiades' death is now uncertain, as there are conflicting accounts. According to the oldest of these, the Spartans and specifically Lysander were responsible.[100] Though many of his details cannot be independently corroborated, Plutarch's version is this: Lysander sent an envoy to Pharnabazus who then dispatched his brother to Phrygia where Alcibiades was living with his mistress, Timandra.h[›] In 404 BC, as he was about to set out for the Persian court, his residence was surrounded and set on fire. Seeing no chance of escape he rushed out on his assassins, dagger in hand, and was killed by a shower of arrows.[101] According to Aristotle, the site of Alcibiades’ death was Elaphus, a mountain in Phrygia.[102]
Assessments[link]
Political career[link]
In ancient Greece, Alcibiades was a polarizing figure. According to Thucydides, Alcibiades, being "exceedingly ambitious", proposed the expedition in Sicily in order "to gain in wealth and reputation by means of his successes". Alcibiades is not held responsible by Thucydides for the destruction of Athens, since "his habits gave offence to every one, and caused the Athenians to commit affairs to other hands, and thus before long to ruin the city".[103] Plutarch regards him as "the least scrupulous and most entirely careless of human beings".[104] On the other hand, Diodorus argues that he was "in spirit brilliant and intent upon great enterprises".[105] Sharon Press of Brown University points out that Xenophon emphasizes Alcibiades' service to the state, rather than the harm he was charged with causing it.[106][107] Demosthenes defends Alcibiades's achievements, saying that he had taken arms in the cause of democracy, displaying his patriotism, not by gifts of money or by speeches, but by personal service.[108] For Demosthenes and other orators, Alcibiades epitomized the figure of the great man during the glorious days of the Athenian democracy and became a rhetorical symbol.[109] One of Isocrates' speeches, delivered by Alcibiades the Younger, argues that the statesman deserved the Athenians' gratitude for the service he had given them.[110] Lysias, on the other hand, argued in one of his orations that the Athenians should regard Alcibiades as an enemy because of the general tenor of his life, as "he repays with injury the open assistance of any of his friends".[111][112] In the Constitution of the Athenians, Aristotle does not include Alcibiades in the list of the best Athenian politicians, but in Posterior Analytics he argues that traits of a proud man like Alcibiades are "equanimity amid the vicissitudes of life and impatience of dishonor".[113][114] Alcibiades excited in his contemporaries a fear for the safety of the political order.[115] Therefore, Andocides said of him that "instead of holding that he ought himself to conform with the laws of the state, he expects you to conform with his own way of life".[116] Central to the depiction of the Athenian statesman is Cornelius Nepos' famous phrase that Alcibiades "surpassed all the Athenians in grandeur and magnificence of living".[117]
Even today, Alcibiades divides scholars. For Malcolm F. McGregor, former head of the Department of Classics in the University of British Columbia, Alcibiades was rather a shrewd gambler than a mere opportunist.[118] Evangelos P. Fotiadis, a prominent Greek philologist, asserts that Alcibiades was "a first class diplomat" and had "huge skills". Nevertheless his spiritual powers were not counter-balanced with his magnificent mind and he had the hard luck to lead a people susceptible to demagoguery.[6] K. Paparrigopoulos, a major modern Greek historian, underlines his "spiritual virtues" and compares him with Themistocles, but he then asserts that all these gifts created a "traitor, an audacious and impious man".[119] Walter Ellis believes that his actions were outrageous, but they were performed with panache.[120] For his part, David Gribble argues that Alcibiades' actions against his city were misunderstood and believes that "the tension which led to Alcibiades' split with the city was between purely personal and civic values".[121] Russell Meiggs, a British ancient historian, asserts that the Athenian statesman was absolutely unscrupulous despite his great charm and brilliant abilities. According to Meiggs his actions were dictated by selfish motives and his feud with Cleon and his successors undermined Athens. The same scholar underscores the fact that "his example of restless and undisciplined ambition strengthened the charge brought against Socrates".[41] Even more critically, Athanasios G. Platias and Constantinos Koliopoulos, professors of strategic studies and international politics, state that Alcibiades' own arguments "should be sufficient to do away with the notion that Alcibiades was a great statesman, as some people still believe".[122] Writing from a different perspective, psychologist Anna C. Salter cites Alcibiades as exhibiting "all the classic features of psychopathy."[123] A similar assessment is made by Hervey Cleckley at the end of chapter 5 in his The Mask of Sanity.
Military achievements[link]
Despite his critical comments, Thucydides admits in a short digression that "publicly his conduct of the war was as good as could be desired".[103] Diodorus and Demosthenes regard him as a great general.[105][108] According to Fotiadis, Alcibiades was an invincible general and, wherever he went, victory followed him; had he led the army in Sicily, the Athenians would have avoided disaster and, had his countrymen followed his advice at Aegospotami, Lysander would have lost and Athens would have ruled Greece.[6] On the other hand, Paparrigopoulos believes that the Sicilian Expedition, prompted by Alcibiades, was a strategic mistake.[124] In agreement with Paparrigopoulos, Platias and Koliopoulos underscore the fact that the Sicilian expedition was a strategic blunder of the first magnitude, resulting from a "frivolous attitude and an unbelievable underestimation of the enemy".[23] For his part, Angelos Vlachos, a Greek Academician, underlines the constant interest of Athens for Sicily from the beginning of the war.i[›] According to Vlachos the expedition had nothing of the extravagant or adventurous and constituted a rational strategic decision based on traditional Athenian aspirations.[125] Vlachos asserts that Alcibiades had already conceived a broader plan: the conquest of the whole West.[126] He intended to conquer Carthage and Libya, then to attack Italy and, after winning these, to seize Italy and Peloponnesus.[127] The initial decision of the ecclesia provided however for a reasonable military force, which later became unreasonably large and costly because of Nicias' demands.[126] Kagan criticizes Alcibiades for failing to recognize that the large size of the Athenian expedition undermined the diplomatic scheme on which his strategy rested.[128]
Kagan believes that while Alcibiades was a commander of considerable ability, he was no military genius, and his confidence and ambitions went far beyond his skills. He thus was capable of important errors and serious miscalculations. Kagan argues that at Notium, Alcibiades committed a serious error in leaving the fleet in the hands of an inexperienced officer, and that most of the credit for the brilliant victory at Cyzicus must be assigned to Thrasybulus.[128] In this judgement, Kagan agrees with Cornelius Nepos, who said that the Athenians' extravagant opinion of Alcibiades' abilities and valor was his chief misfortune.[129]
Press argues that "though Alcibiades can be considered a good General on the basis of his performance in the Hellespont, he would not be considered so on the basis of his performance in Sicily", but "the strengths of Alcibiades' performance as a General outweigh his faults".[106] Professors David McCann and Barry Strauss attempt a comparison between Alcibiades and Douglas MacArthur, pointing out that "both men stood out as military leaders to whom a mystique attached itself".[130]
Skill in oratory[link]
Plutarch asserts that "Alcibiades was a most able speaker in addition to his other gifts", while Theophrastus argues that Alcibiades was the most capable of discovering and understanding what was required in a given case. Nevertheless, he would often stumble in the midst of his speech, but then he would resume and proceed with all the caution in the world.[131] Even the lisp he had, which was noticed by Aristophanes, made his talk persuasive and full of charm.[132][133] Eupolis says that he was "prince of talkers, but in speaking most incapable";[20] which is to say, more eloquent in his private discourses than when orating before the ecclesia. For his part, Demosthenes underscores the fact that Alcibiades was regarded as "the ablest speaker of the day".[108] Paparrigopoulos does not accept Demosthenes's opinion, but acknowledges that the Athenian statesman could sufficiently support his case.[119] Kagan acknowledges his rhetorical power, whilst Thomas Habinek, professor of Classics at the University of Southern California, believes that the orator Alcibiades seemed to be whatever his audience needed on any given occasion.[134][135] According to Habinek, in the field of oratory, the people responded to Alcibiades' affection with affection of their own. Therefore, the orator was "the institution of the city talking to — and loving — itself".[135] According to Aristophanes, Athens "yearns for him, and hates him too, but wants him back".[136]
References in Comedy, Philosophy, Art and Literature[link]
For more details on this topic, see Alcibiades (fictional character).
Alcibiades has not been spared by ancient comedy and stories attest to an epic confrontation between Alcibiades and Eupolis resembling that between Aristophanes and Cleon.[109] He also appears as a character in several Socratic dialogues (Symposium, Protagoras, Alcibiades I and II, as well as the eponymous dialogues by Aeschines Socraticus and Antisthenes). Purportedly based on his own personal experience, Antisthenes described Alcibiades' extraordinary physical strength, courage, and beauty, saying, "If Achilles did not look like this, he was not really handsome."[137] In his trial, Socrates must rebut the attempt to hold him guilty for the crimes of his former students, including Alcibiades.[138] Hence, he declares in Apology: "I have never been anyone's teacher".[139] Aristophanes mocked his heavy lisp in the satirical play, The Wasps, "Look, Thothiath, Theowuth ith twanthformed. He'th a waven!" He is portrayed as one of Cleon's close friends.
Long after his death, Alcibiades continues to appear in art, both in Medieval and Renaissance works, and in several significant works of modern literature as well.[140] He still fascinates the modern world, doing so most notably as the main character in historical novels of authors like Anna Bowman Dodd, Gertrude Atherton, Rosemary Sutcliff, Daniel Chavarria, Steven Pressfield and Peter Green.[141] He is also a central character in Paul Levinson's time travel novel The Plot To Save Socrates, in Kurt R. A. Giambastiani's time travel novel Unraveling Time, in Erik Satie's Socrate, a work for voice and small orchestra (the text is composed of excerpts of Victor Cousin's translation of works by Plato), and in Joel Richards' Nebula award-nominated short story The Gods Abandon Alcibiades.[142] Alcibiades also figures in the satirical Picture This by Joseph Heller and in William Shakespeare's Timon of Athens.
Alcibiades is mentioned in observance II of law 44 " Disarm and infuriate with the mirror effect " in Robert Greene's book The 48 Laws of Power. In it the author writes about Alcibiades ability to mimic the people he is in the presence of such as the Spartans and then the people of Persia.
In Harry Turtledove's 2002 alternate history story, The Daimon, the point of the departure is that Alcibiades commands the Sicilian Expedition to a decisive victory before returning to Athens. Uniting the Greek city-states, the conquest of the Persian Empire proceeds under the Athenian, Alcibiades, rather than under the Macedonian, Alexander the Great, roughly 80 years later.
Notes[link]
Timeline of Alcibiades' life (c. 450–404 BC)
<timeline> ImageSize = width:390 height:1000 PlotArea = left:40 right:10 top:10 bottom:10 DateFormat = yyyy TimeAxis = orientation:vertical format:yyyy Period = from:400 till:455 AlignBars = early ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:455 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:400
Colors =
id:gray value:gray(0.7) id:lightsteelblue value:rgb(0.418, 0.609, 0.800)
Define $dx = 20 # shift text to right side of bar
PlotData =
bar:event width:20 color:gray shift:($dx,-4) from:start till:end color:lightsteelblue mark:(line, white) at:450 text:450 BC - Born in Athens at:447 text:c.447 BC - Lost his father - Pericles became his guardian at:434 text:c.434 BC - Saved while fighting at Potidaea by Socrates at:424 text:c.424 BC - Saved Socrates while fighting at Delium at:422 text:c.422 BC - Entered politics at:420 text:420 BC - Lead a failed alliance with Argos, Mantinea and Elis at:417 text:c.417 BC - Ostracised Hyperbolos in collaboration with Nicias at:415 text:415 BC - Lead the fleet sailing to Italy - Defected to Sparta at:412 text:412 BC - Fled from Sparta and escaped to Tissaphernes at:411 text:411 BC - Reinstated as an Athenian General at:410 text:410 BC - Defeated the Spartans at Abydos and Cyzicus at:409 text:409 BC - Siege of Chalcedon, Selymria and Byzantium at:408 text:408 BC - Successful siege of Byzantium at:407 text:407 BC - Returned victorious to Athens at:406 text:406 BC - Sent to exile after the defeat at Notium at:405 text:405 BC - Tried in vain to help the Athenian fleet at Aegospotami at:404 text:404 BC - Murdered in Phrygia
TextData =
tabs:(25-left) pos:(100,710) fontsize:6 text:" "
</timeline>
^ a: Isocrates asserts that Alcibiades was never a pupil of Socrates.[143] Thus he does not agree with Plutarch's narration.[144] According to Isocrates, the purpose of this tradition was to accuse Socrates. The rhetorician makes Alcibiades wholly the pupil of Pericles.[145]
^ b: According to Plutarch, who is however criticized for using "implausible or unreliable stories" in order to construct Alcibiades' portrait,[146] Alcibiades once wished to see Pericles, but he was told that Pericles could not see him, because he was studying how to render his accounts to the Athenians. "Were it not better for him," said Alcibiades, "to study how not to render his accounts to the Athenians?".[144] Plutarch describes how Alcibiades "gave a box on the ear to Hipponicus, whose birth and wealth made him a person of great influence." This action received much disapproval, since it was "unprovoked by any passion of quarrel between them". To smooth the incident over, Alcibiades went to Hipponicus's house and, after stripping naked, "desired him to scourge and chastise him as he pleased". Hipponicus not only pardoned him but also bestowed upon him the hand of his daughter.[12] Another example of his flamboyant nature occurred during the Olympic games of 416 where "he entered seven teams in the chariot race, more than any private citizen had ever put forward, and three of them came in first, second, and fourth".[147] According to Andocides, once Alcibiades competed against a man named Taureas as choregos of a chorus of boys and "Alcibiades drove off Taureas with his fists. The spectators showed their sympathy with Taureas and their hatred of Alcibiades by applauding the one chorus and refusing to listen to the other at all."[116]
^ c: Plutarch and Plato agree that Alcibiades "served as a soldier in the campaign of Potidaea and had Socrates for his tentmate and comrade in action" and "when Alcibiades fell wounded, it was Socrates who stood over him and defended him".[144][148] Nonetheless, Antisthenes insists that Socrates saved Alcibiades at the Battle of Delium.[149]
^ d: Thucydides records several speeches which he attributes to Pericles; but Thucydides acknowledges that: "it was in all cases difficult to carry them word for word in one's memory, so my habit has been to make the speakers say what was in my opinion demanded of them by the various occasions, of course adhering as closely as possible to the general sense of what they really said."[150]
^ e: Kagan has suggested that Thrasybulus was one of the founding members of the scheme and was willing to support moderate oligarchy, but was alienated by the extreme actions taken by the plotters.[151] Robert J. Buck, on the other hand, maintains that Thrasybulus was probably never involved in the plot, possibly because he was absent from Samos at the time of its inception.[152]
^ f: In the case of the battle of Cyzicus, Robert J. Littman, professor at Brandeis University, points out the different accounts given by Xenophon and Diodorus. According to Xenophon, Alcibiades' victory was due to the luck of a rainstorm, while, according to Diodorus, it was due to a carefully conceived plan. Although most historians prefer the accounts of Xenophon,[153] Jean Hatzfeld remarks that Diodorus' accounts contain many interesting and unique details.[154]
^ g: Plutarch mentions Alcibiades' advice, writing that "he rode up on horseback and read the generals a lesson. He said their anchorage was a bad one; the place had no harbor and no city, but they had to get their supplies from Sestos".[155][156] B. Perrin regards Xenophon's testimony as impeachable[97] and prefers Diodorus' account.[99] According to A. Wolpert, "it would not have required a cynical reader to infer even from Xenophon's account that he (Alcibiades) was seeking to promote his own interests when he came forward to warn the generals about their tactical mistakes".[157]
^ h: According to Plutarch, some say that Alcibiades himself provoked his death, because he had seduced a girl belonging to a well-known family.[101] Thus there are two versions of the story: The assassins were probably either employed by the Spartans or by the brothers of the lady whom Alcibiades had seduced.[158] According to Isocrates, when the Thirty Tyrants established their rule, all Greece became unsafe for Alcibiades.[159]
^ i: Since the beginning of the war, the Athenians had already initiated two expeditions and sent a delegation to Sicily.[160] Plutarch underscores that "on Sicily the Athenians had cast longing eyes even while Pericles was living".[127]
Citations[link]
- ^ (listen)
- ^ a b A. Vlachos, Thucydides' Bias, 59 &c.
- ^ a b c P.B. Kern, Ancient Siege Warfare, 151.
- ^ Plato, Alcibiades 1, 121a.
- ^ C.A. Cox, Household Interests, 144.
- ^ a b c "Alcibiades". Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios. 1952.
- ^ N. Denyer, Commentary of Plato's Alcibiades, 88–89.
- ^ Plato, Symposium, 220e.
- ^ I. Sykoutris, Introduction to Symposium, 159–180.
- ^ Plato, Symposium, 215a–222b.
- ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, 6.
- ^ a b Plutarch, Alcibiades, 8.
- ^ Thucydides, "The History of the Peloponnesian Wars", 5.43.
- ^ A.W. Gomme, A Historical Commentary on Thucydides, 339.
- ^ a b R. Sealey, A History of the Greek City States, 353.
- ^ a b Plutarch, Alcibiades, 14.
- ^ Thucydides, V, 45.
- ^ A.W. Gomme, A Historical Commentary on Thucydides, 70.
- ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, 15.
- ^ a b Plutarch, Alcibiades, 13.
- ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, XVI.
- ^ Andocides, Against Alcibiades, 22.
- ^ a b Platias-Koliopoulos, Thucydides on Strategy, 237–46.
- ^ Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 322
- ^ Thucydides History of the Peloponnesian War VII 8
- ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, 20.
- ^ L. Strauss, The City and Man, 104.
- ^ Thucydides, 6.26.
- ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, 19.
- ^ Thucydides, 6.29.
- ^ Thucydides, 6.61.
- ^ a b Thucydides, 6.53.
- ^ D. Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 273
- ^ Thucydides, 6.74
- ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, 23.
- ^ a b Thucydides, 6.89–90.
- ^ a b D. Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 282–3.
- ^ Thucydides, 7.18.
- ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, 24.
- ^ Thucydides, 8.26.
- ^ a b "Alcibiades". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.
- ^ Plutarch, Lysander, 22.
- ^ Plutarch, Agesilaus, III.
- ^ P.J. Rhodes, A History of the Classical Greek World, 144.
- ^ a b Thucydides, 8.45
- ^ Thucydides, 8.46
- ^ Thucydides, 8.47
- ^ T. Buckley, Aspects of Greek History, 411.
- ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, 25.
- ^ R. Sealey, A History of the Greek City States, 359.
- ^ Thucydides, 8.48.
- ^ Thucydides, 8.49.
- ^ Thucydides, 8.50.
- ^ Thucydides, 8.51.
- ^ Thucydides, 8.53.
- ^ a b D. Kagan, The Fall of the Athenian Empire, 136–8.
- ^ Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 366.
- ^ a b Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, 8.56.
- ^ Thucydides, 8.73.
- ^ Thucydides, 8.76.
- ^ Thucydides, 8.81.
- ^ a b c Plutarch, Alcibiades, 26.
- ^ Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 389.
- ^ a b Thucydides, 8.82.
- ^ Thucydides, 8.97.
- ^ Thucydides, 8.88.
- ^ Cartwright-Warner, A Historical Commentary on Thucydides, 301.
- ^ a b c Plutarch, Alcibiades, 27.
- ^ Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 406.
- ^ Xenophon, Hellenica, 1.1.5.
- ^ Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 408
- ^ a b Plutarch, Alcibiades, 28.
- ^ Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 410.
- ^ a b c d Diodorus, XIII, 50–1.
- ^ a b Xenophon, Hellenica, 1.1.17–23.
- ^ Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 410–3.
- ^ Diodorus, Library, 52–3.
- ^ Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 429
- ^ a b Diodorus, Library, xiii, 66.3
- ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, 30
- ^ Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 410
- ^ Xenophon, Hellenica, 1, 4, 8–12.
- ^ B. Due, The Return of Alcibiades, 39
- ^ Xenophon, Hellenica, 1, 4, 13.
- ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, 32.
- ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, 34.
- ^ D Kagan, The Fall of the Athenian Empire, 290.
- ^ S. Price, Religions of the Ancient Greeks, 54
- ^ Xenophon, Hellenica, 1, 4, 18
- ^ a b Plutarch, Alcibiades, 33
- ^ a b A. Andrewes, The Spartan Resurgence, 490
- ^ Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 443
- ^ Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 444
- ^ For the accepted account of the battle see Plutarch, Alcibiades, 35 or the Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, 4.
- ^ G. Cawkwell, Thucydides and the Peloponnesian War, 143
- ^ Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 447
- ^ a b B. Perrin, The Death of Alcibiades , 25–37.
- ^ a b Xenophon, Hellenica, 2.1.25.
- ^ a b Diodorus, Library, xiii, 105.
- ^ Isocrates, Concerning the Team of Horses, 16.40
- ^ a b Plutarch, Alcibiades, 39.
- ^ Aristotle, History of Animals, 578b27; cf. John & William Langhorne, Plutarch's Lives (1819), vol. 2, p. 172, n. 99.
- ^ a b Thucydides, VI, 15.
- ^ Plutarch, The Comparison of Alcibiades with Coriolanus, 6
- ^ a b Diodorus, Library, xiii, 68.5.
- ^ a b S. Press, Was Alcibiades a Good General?
- ^ Xenophon, Hellenica, 1.4. 18.
- ^ a b c Demosthenes, Against Meidias, 144–5.
- ^ a b D. Gribble, Alcibiades and Athens, 32–3.
- ^ Isocrates, Concerning the Team of Horses, 15.
- ^ Lysias, Against Alcibiades 1, 1.
- ^ Lysias, Against Alcibiades 2, 10.
- ^ Aristotle, Constitution of the Athenians, 28.
- ^ Aristotle, Posterior Analytics, ii, 13.
- ^ D. Gribble, Alcibiades and Athens, 41.
- ^ a b Andocides, Against Alcibiades, 19.
- ^ Cornelius Nepos, Alcibiades, XI.
- ^ M.F. McGregor, The Genius of Alkibiades, 27–50.
- ^ a b Κ. Paparrigopoulos, History of the Greek Nation, Αβ, 264–8.
- ^ W. Ellis, Alcibiades, 18.
- ^ D. Gribble, Alcibiades and Athens, 55 &c.
- ^ A.G. Platias and C. Koliopoulos, Thucydides on Strategy, 240.
- ^ Anna C. Salter, Predators, 128.
- ^ Κ. Paparrigopoulos, History of the Greek Nation, Αβ, 272.
- ^ A. Vlachos, Thucydides' Bias, 206.
- ^ a b A. Vlachos, Thucydides' Bias, 202–3.
- ^ a b Plutarch, Alcibiades, 17.
- ^ a b D. Kagan, The Fall of the Athenian Empire, 419–20.
- ^ Cornelius Nepos, Alcibiades, VII.
- ^ D. McCann, B. Strauss, War and Democracy, xxv.
- ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, 10.
- ^ Aristophanes, Wasps, 44.
- ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, 1.
- ^ D. Kagan, The Fall of the Athenian Empire, 178.
- ^ a b T. Habinek, Ancient Rhetoric and Oratory, 23–4.
- ^ Aristophanes, Frogs, 1425.
- ^ E. Corrigan, Plato's Dialectic at Play, 169; C. Kahn, "Aeschines on Socratic Eros", 90
- ^ G.A. Scott, Plato's Socrates as Educator, 19
- ^ Plato, Apology, 33a
- ^ N. Endres, Alcibiades
- ^ T.T.B. Ryder, Alcibiades, 32
- ^ J. Richards, The Gods Abandon Alcibiades
- ^ Isocrates, Busiris, 5.
- ^ a b c Plutarch, Alcibiades, 7.
- ^ Y. Lee Too, The Rhetoric of Identity in Isocrates, 216.
- ^ D. Gribble, Alcibiades and Athens, 30.
- ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, 12.
- ^ Plato, Symposium, 221a.
- ^ I. Sykoutris, Symposium of Plato (Comments), 225.
- ^ Thucydides, 1.22.
- ^ Donald Kagan, The Peloponnesian War, 385.
- ^ R.J. Buck, Thrasybulus and the Athenian Democracy, 27–8.
- ^ R.J. Littman, The Strategy of the Battle of Cyzicus, 271.
- ^ J. Hatzfeld, Alcibiade, 271
- ^ Plutarch, Alcibiades, 36.
- ^ Plutarch, Comparison with Coriolanus, 2
- ^ A. Wolpert, Remembering Defeat, 5.
- ^ H.T. Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities and W. Smith, New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, 39.
- ^ Isocrates, Concerning the Team of Horses, 40.
- ^ A. Vlachos, Thucydides' Bias, 204.
References[link]
Primary sources[link]
- Andocides, Against Alcibiades. See original text in Perseus program
- Aristophanes.
The Frogs. Wikisource. - Aristophanes, Wasps. See original text in Perseus program
- Aristotle. Athenian Constitution. Trans. Frederic George Kenyon. Wikisource.
- Aristotle, History of Animals (translated in English by Wentworth Thompson)
- Aristotle. Posterior Analytics. Trans. Edmund Spenser Bouchier. Wikisource.
- Cornelius Nepos (1886). " Alcibiades". Lives of the Eminent Commanders. Trans. Rev. John Selby Watson. Wikisource.
- Demosthenes, Against Meidias. See original text in Perseus program
- Diodorus Siculus, Library, 13th Book. See original text in Perseus program.
- Isocrates, Busiris. See original text in Perseus program
- Isocrates, Concerning the Team of Horses. See original text in Perseus program
- Lysias (1898). " Alcibiades". The Orations of Lysias. David McKay. Wikisource.
- Lysias, Against Alcibiades 2. See original text in Perseus program
- Plato, Alcibiades. See original text in Perseus program. Translated in English by Sanderson Beck.
- Plato (1871). Apology. Trans. Benjamin Jowett. Wikisource.
- Plato (1871). Symposium. Trans. Benjamin Jowett. Wikisource.
- Plutarch (1683) [written in the late 1st century]. " Agesilaus". Lives. Trans. John Dryden. Wikisource.
- Translated in English by John Dryden
- Plutarch (1683) [written in the late 1st century]. " Alcibiades". Lives. Trans. John Dryden. Wikisource.
- Translated in English by Arthur H. Clough (New York: Collier Press, 1909), Aubrey Stewart-George Long and John Dryden.
- Plutarch (1683) [written in the late 1st century]. " Lysander". Lives. Trans. John Dryden. Wikisource.
- Plutarch (1683) [written in the late 1st century]. " Comparison of Alcibiades with Coriolanus". Lives. Trans. John Dryden. Wikisource.
- Translated into English by Aubrey Stewart-George Long and John Dryden.
- Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, V-VIII. See original text in Perseus program.
- Xenophon. Hellenica. Trans. Henry Graham Dakyns. Wikisource.
Secondary sources[link]
- "Alcibiades". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2005.
- "Alcibiades". Encyclopaedia of Ancient Greece. Routledge (UK). 2002. ISBN 0-415-97334-1.
- "Alcibiades". Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios. 1952. In Greek.
- Andrewes, A. (1992). "The Spartan Resurgence". The Cambridge Ancient History edited by David M. Lewis, John Boardman, J. K. Davies, M. Ostwald (Volume V). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23347-X.
- Buck, R.J. (1998). Thrasybulus and the Athenian Democracy: the Life of an Athenian Statesman. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 3-515-07221-7.
- Buckley, Terry (1996). Aspects of Greek History 750–323 BC. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-09957-9.
- Cartwright David, Warner Rex (1997). A Historical Commentary on Thucydides: A Companion to Rex Warner's Penguin Translation. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08419-4.
- Cawkwell, George (1997). Thucydides and the Peloponnesian War. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-16552-0.
- Corrigan, Elena (2004). "Alcibiades and the Conclusion of the Symposium". Plato's Dialectic at Play. Penn State Press. ISBN 0-271-02462-3.
- Cox, C.A. (1997). "What Was an Oikos?". Household Interests. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01572-4.
- Denyer, Nicolas (2001). Alcibiades (commentary). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-63414-8.
- Due, Bodil (1991). "The Return of Alcibiades in Xenophon's Hellenica". "Classica et Mediaevalia — Revue Danoise de Philologie et D'Histoire" (Museum Tusculanum Press) XLII: 39–54. ISBN 0-521-38867-8. http://books.google.com/?id=mzOt41gbQ70C&pg=PA39&lpg=PA40&dq=Gytheion,++Alcibiades,+return. Retrieved 2006-09-23.
- Ellis, Walter M. (1989). Alcibiades. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-00994-4.
- Gomme, A. W.; A. Andrewes and K. J. Dover (1945–81). An Historical Commentary on Thucydides (I–V). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814198-X.
- Gribble, David (1999). Alcibiades and Athens: A Study in Literary Presentation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815267-1.
- Habinek, Thomas N. (2004). Ancient Rhetoric and Oratory. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-23515-9.
- Hatzfeld, Jean (1951). Alcibiade (in French). Presses Universitaires de France.
- Kagan, Donald (1991). The Fall of the Athenian Empire. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-9984-4.
- Kagan, Donald (2003). The Peloponnesian War. Viking Penguin (Penguin Group). ISBN 0-670-03211-5.
- Kahn, C. (1994). "Aeschines on Socratic Eros". In Paul A. Vander Waerdt. The Socratic Movement. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-9903-8.
- Kern, Paul Bentley (1999). "Treatment of Captured Cities". Ancient Siege Warfare. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-33546-9.
- Lee Too, Yun (1995). "The Politics of Discipleship". The Rhetoric of Identity in Isocrates. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-47406-X.
- Littman, Robert J. (1968). "The Strategy of the Battle of Cyzicus". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 99: 265–72. DOI:10.2307/2935846. JSTOR 2935846.
- McCann David, Strauss Barry (2001). War and Democracy: A Comparative Study of the Korean War and the Peloponnesian War. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-0695-X.
- McGregor, Malcolm F. (1965). "The Genius of Alkibiades". Phoenix 19 (1): 27–50. DOI:10.2307/1086688. JSTOR 1086688.
- Paparrigopoulos, Konstantinos (-Pavlos Karolidis) (1925), History of the Hellenic Nation (Volume Ab). Eleftheroudakis (in Greek).
- Peck, Harry Thurston (1898). Harper's Dictionary Of Classical Literature And Antiquities.
- Perrin, Bernadotte (1906). "The Death of Alcibiades". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 37: 25–37. DOI:10.2307/282699. JSTOR 282699.
- Platias Athanasios G., Koliopoulos Constantinos (2006). Thucydides on Strategy. Eurasia Publications. ISBN 960-8187-16-8.
- Press, Sharon (1991). "Was Alcibiades a Good General?". Brown Classical Journal 7. http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Classics/bcj/07-Contents.html.
- Price, Simon (1999). "Religious Places". Religions of the Ancient Greeks. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-38867-8.
- Rhodes, P.J. (2005). A History of the Classical Greek World. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-22564-1.
- Sealey, Raphael (1976). "The Peloponnesian War". A History of the Greek City States, 700–338 BC. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03177-6.
- Scott, Gary Alan (2000). "Socrates and Teaching". Plato's Socrates as Educator. SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-4723-5.
- Smith, Willian (1851). A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Mythology and Geography. Harper & brothers.
- Strauss, Leo (1978). The City and Man. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-77701-4.
- Sykoutris, Ioannis (1934). Symposium (Introduction and Comments). Estia. In Greek.
- Vlachos, Angelos (1974). Thucydides' Bias. Estia (in Greek).
- Wolpert, Andrew (2002). Remembering Defeat: Civil War and Civic Memory in Ancient Athens. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6790-8.
Further reading[link]
- Atherton, Gertrude (2004). The Jealous Gods. Kessinger Publishing Co. ISBN 1-4179-2807-7.
- Benson, E.F. (1929). The Life of Alcibiades: The Idol of Athens. New York: D. Appleton Co. ISBN 1-4563-0333-3.
- Bury, J.B.; Meiggs, Russell (1975). A History of Greece (4th ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press.
- Bury, J.B.; Cook, S.A.; Adcock, F.E., eds. (1927). The Cambridge Ancient History. 5. New York: Macmillan.
- Chavarria, Daniel (2005). The Eye Of Cybele. Akashic Books. ISBN 1-888451-67-X.
- Forde, Steven (1989). The Ambition to Rule Alcibiades and the Politics of Imperialism in Thucydides. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
- Green, Peter (1967). Achilles his Armour. Doubleday.
- Henderson, Bernard W. (1927). The Great War Between Athens and Sparta: A Companion to the Military History of Thucydides. London: Macmillan.
- Hughes-Hallett, Lucy. Heroes: A History of Hero Worship. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, New York, 2004. ISBN 1-4000-4399-9.
- Meiggs, Russell (1972). The Athenian Empire. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Pressfield, Steven. Tides of War: A Novel of Alcibiades and the Peloponnesian War. Doubleday, New York, New York, 2000. ISBN 0-385-49252-9.
- Robinson, Cyril Edward (1916). The Days of Alkibiades. E. Arnold.
- Romilly de, Jacqueline (1997). Alcibiade, ou, Les Dangers de l'Ambition (in French). LGF. ISBN 2-253-14196-8.
- Sutcliff, Rosemary (1971). Flowers of Adonis. Hodder & Stoughton Ltd. ISBN 0-340-15090-4.
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Alcibiades |
- Biographical
- "Alcibiades was an Athenian general in the Peloponnesian War". Bingley. http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/people/a/alcibiades.htm.
- "Alcibiades". Endres, Nikolai. http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/alcibiades.html. Retrieved 22 September 2006.
- "Alcibiades: Aristocratic Ideal or Antisocial Personality Disorder". Evans, Kathleen. http://h06.cgpublisher.com/proposals/41/index_html. Retrieved 5 August 2006.
- "Alcibiades". Meiggs, Russell. http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9005499/Alcibiades. Retrieved 5 August 2006.
- "Alcibiades". Prins, Marco-Lendering, Jona. http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alcibiades/alcibiades.html. Retrieved 5 August 2006.
- "Alcibiades". The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05.. http://www.bartleby.com/65/al/Alcibiad.html. Retrieved 5 August 2006.
- Texts and analyses
- "Good Man, Bad Man, Traitor: Aspects of Alcibiades". Arcan, Gabriela. http://faculty.ccc.edu/colleges/wright/greatbooks/Program/Symposm/Issue1/Arcan.htm. Retrieved 5 August 2006.
- "Thucydides and Civil War: the Case of Alcibiades". Faulkner, Robert. http://66.102.9.104/search?q=cache:Xj7eK3ojC6AJ:www.prio.no/files/file46395_robert_faulkner_7final-thuccivil_war.doc+Alcibiades,+Thucydides&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=7. Retrieved 5 August 2006.
- "Survie d’un lion : Alcibiade". Loicq-Berger, Marie-Paule. http://bcs.fltr.ucl.ac.be/FE/10/Lion/Lion2.html. Retrieved 22 September 2006.
- "Alcibiades and the Sicilian Expedition". Rubio, Alexander G. http://www.bitsofnews.com/content/view/3686/42/. Retrieved 5 August 2006.
- "Plato, Thucydides, and Alcibiades". Syse, Henrik. http://66.102.9.104/search?q=cache:o22heq1uEUgJ:www.prio.no/files/file46404_thucydides_draft_henrik_syse.doc+Alcibiades,+Thucydides&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=27. Retrieved 5 August 2006.
- "Alcibiades, Athens, and the Human Condition in Thucydides’ History". Warren, Brian. http://www.apaclassics.org/AnnualMeeting/03mtg/abstracts/warren.html. Retrieved 5 August 2006.
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Alcibiades |
| Alternative names | Alcibiades Cleiniou Scambonides (full name); Ἀλκιβιάδης Κλεινίου Σκαμβωνίδης (Greek); Alkibiades (alternate transliteration) |
| Short description | Athenian statesman, orator, and general |
| Date of birth | 450 BC |
| Place of birth | Athens, (now Greece) |
| Date of death | 404 BC |
| Place of death | Phrygia (now Turkey) |
http://wn.com/Alcibiades
Related pages:
http://ru.wn.com/Алкивиад
http://es.wn.com/Alcibíades
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcibiades
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For other uses, see Plutarch (disambiguation).
| Plutarch Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus Μέστριος Πλούταρχος |
|
|---|---|
 Parallel Lives, Amyot translation, 1565 |
|
| Born | c. AD 46 Chaeronea, Boeotia |
| Died | c. AD 120 (aged 74) Delphi, Phocis |
| Occupation | Biographer, essayist, priest, ambassador, magistrate |
| Nationality | Roman (Greek ethnicity) |
| Subjects | Biography, various |
| Literary movement | Middle Platonism, Hellenistic literature |
Plutarch (English pronunciation: /'pluːtɑːk/; Greek: Πλούταρχος, Ploútarkhos, Koine Greek: [plŭːtarkʰos]) then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus (Μέστριος Πλούταρχος),[1] c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia.[2] He was born to a prominent family in Chaeronea, Boeotia, a town about twenty miles east of Delphi.
Contents |
Early life[link]
Plutarch was born in 46 AD [a] in the small town of Chaeronea, in the Greek region known as Boeotia. His family was wealthy. The name of Plutarch's father has not been preserved, but it was probably Nikarchus (Greek: Nίκαρχoς), from the common habit of Greek families to repeat a name in alternate generations. The name of Plutarch's grandfather was Lamprias, as he attested in Moralia[3] and in his Life of Antony.
His brothers, Timon and Lamprias, are frequently mentioned in his essays and dialogues, where Timon is spoken of in the most affectionate terms. Rualdus, in his 1624 work Life of Plutarchus, recovered the name of Plutarch's wife, Timoxena, from internal evidence afforded by his writings. A letter is still extant, addressed by Plutarch to his wife, bidding her not give way to excessive grief at the death of their two year old daughter, who was named Timoxena after her mother. Interestingly, he hinted at a belief in reincarnation in that letter of consolation.
The exact number of his sons is not certain, although two of them, Autobulus and second Plutarch, are often mentioned. Plutarch's treatise De animae procreatione in Timaeo is dedicated to them, and the marriage of his son Autobulus is the occasion of one of the dinner-parties recorded in the 'Table Talk.' Another person, Soklarus, is spoken of in terms which seem to imply that he was Plutarch's son, but this is nowhere definitely stated. His treatise on marriage questions, addressed to Eurydice and Pollianus, seems to speak of her as having been recently an inmate of his house, but without enabling us to form an opinion whether she was his daughter or not.[4]
Plutarch studied mathematics and philosophy at the Academy of Athens under Ammonius from 66 to 67.[5] He had a number of influential friends, including Quintus Sosius Senecio and Fundanus, both important senators, to whom some of his later writings were dedicated.[citation needed] Plutarch travelled widely in the Mediterranean world, including central Greece, Sparta, Corinth, Patrae (Patras), Sardes, Alexandria, and two trips to Rome[b].
At some point, Plutarch took up Roman citizenship. As evidenced by his new name, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus, his sponsor for citizenship was Lucius Mestrius Florus, a Roman of consular status whom Plutarch also used as an historical source for his Life of Otho.[6]
| "The soul, being eternal, after death is like a caged bird that has been released. If it has been a long time in the body, and has become tame by many affairs and long habit, the soul will immediately take another body and once again become involved in the troubles of the world. The worst thing about old age is that the soul's memory of the other world grows dim, while at the same time its attachment to things of this world becomes so strong that the soul tends to retain the form that it had in the body. But that soul which remains only a short time within a body, until liberated by the higher powers, quickly recovers its fire and goes on to higher things." |
| Plutarch (The Consolation, Moralia) |
He lived most of his life at Chaeronea, and was initiated into the mysteries of the Greek god Apollo. However, his duties as the senior of the two priests of Apollo at the Oracle of Delphi (where he was responsible for interpreting the auguries of the Pythia) apparently occupied little of his time. He led an active social and civic life while producing an extensive body of writing, much of which is still extant.
For many years Plutarch served as one of the two priests at the temple of Apollo at Delphi, the site of the famous Delphic Oracle, twenty miles from his home. By his writings and lectures Plutarch became a celebrity in the Roman empire, yet he continued to reside where he was born, and actively participated in local affairs, even serving as mayor. At his country estate, guests from all over the empire congregated for serious conversation, presided over by Plutarch in his marble chair. Many of these dialogues were recorded and published, and the 78 essays and other works which have survived are now known collectively as the Moralia.
Work as magistrate and ambassador[link]
In addition to his duties as a priest of the Delphic temple, Plutarch was also a magistrate in Chaeronea and he represented his home on various missions to foreign countries during his early adult years. Plutarch held the office of archon in his native municipality, probably only an annual one which he likely served more than once. He busied himself with all the little matters of the town and undertook the humblest of duties.[7]
The Suda, a medieval Greek encyclopedia, states that emperor Trajan made Plutarch procurator of Illyria. However, most historians consider this unlikely, since Illyria was not a procuratorial province, and Plutarch probably did not speak Illyrian[citation needed].
According to the 10th century historian George Syncellus, late in Plutarch's life, emperor Hadrian appointed him nominal procurator of Achaea – a position that entitled him to wear the vestments and ornaments of a consul himself.[citation needed]
Plutarch died between the years AD 119 and 127.
[edit] Lives of the Roman emperors
The first biographical works to be written by Plutarch were the Lives of the Roman Emperors from Augustus to Vitellius. Of these, only the Lives of Galba and Otho survive. The Lives of Tiberius and Nero are extant only as fragments, provided by Dasmascius (Life of Tiberius, cf. his Life of Isidore)[8] and Plutarch himself (Life of Nero, cf. Galba 2.1), respectively. These early emperors’ biographies were probably published under the Flavian dynasty or during the reign of Nerva (CE 96-98).
There is reason to believe that the two Lives still extant, those of Galba and Otho, “ought to be considered as a single work.”[9] Therefore they do not form a part of the Plutarchian canon of single biographies – as represented by the Life of Aratus of Sicyon and the Life of Artaxerxes (the biographies of Hesiod, Pindar, Crates and Daiphantus were lost). Unlike in these biographies, in Galba-Otho the individual characters of the persons portrayed are not depicted for their own sake but instead serve as an illustration of an abstract principle; namely the adherence or non-adherence to Plutarch’s morally founded ideal of governing as a Princeps (cf. Galba 1.3; Moralia 328D-E).[10]
Arguing from the perspective of Platonian political philosophy (cf. Republic 375E, 410D-E, 411E-412A, 442B-C), in Galba-Otho Plutarch reveals the constitutional principles of the Principate in the time of the civil war after Nero’s death. While morally questioning the behavior of the autocrats, he also gives an impression of their tragic destinies, ruthlessly competing for the throne and finally destroying each other.[11] “The Caesars’ house in Rome, the Palatium, received in a shorter space of time no less than four Emperors,” Plutarch writes, “passing, as it were, across the stage, and one making room for another to enter” (Galba 1).[12]
Galba-Otho was handed down through different channels. It can be found in the appendix to Plutarch’s Parallel Lives as well as in various Moralia manuscripts, most prominently in Maximus Planudes’s edition where Galba and Otho appear as “Opera” XXV and XXVI. Thus it seems reasonable to maintain that Galba-Otho was from early on considered as an illustration of a moral-ethical approach, possibly even by Plutarch himself.[13]
[edit] Parallel Lives
Main article: Parallel Lives
Plutarch's best-known work is the Parallel Lives, a series of biographies of famous Greeks and Romans, arranged in pairs to illuminate their common moral virtues and vices. The surviving Lives contain 23 pairs, each with one Greek Life and one Roman Life, as well as four unpaired single Lives.
As is explained in the opening paragraph of his Life of Alexander, Plutarch was not concerned with history so much as the influence of character, good or bad, on the lives and destinies of men. Whereas sometimes he barely touched on epoch-making events, he devoted much space to charming anecdote and incidental triviality, reasoning that this often said far more for his subjects than even their most famous accomplishments. He sought to provide rounded portraits, likening his craft to that of a painter; indeed, he went to tremendous lengths (often leading to tenuous comparisons) to draw parallels between physical appearance and moral character. In many ways, he must be counted amongst the earliest moral philosophers.
Some of the Lives, such as those of Heracles, Philip II of Macedon and Scipio Africanus, no longer exist; many of the remaining Lives are truncated, contain obvious lacunae or have been tampered with by later writers. Extant Lives include those on Solon, Themistocles, Aristides, Pericles, Alcibiades, Nicias, Demosthenes, Pelopidas, Philopoemen, Timoleon, Dion of Syracuse, Alexander the Great, Pyrrhus of Epirus, Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Coriolanus, Theseus, Aemilius Paullus, Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus, Gaius Marius, Sulla, Sertorius, Lucullus, Pompey, Julius Caesar, Cicero, Cato the Younger, Mark Antony, and Marcus Junius Brutus.
[edit] Life of Alexander
Plutarch's Life of Alexander, written as a parallel to that of Julius Caesar, is one of only five extant tertiary sources on the Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great. It includes anecdotes and descriptions of events that appear in no other source, just as Plutarch's portrait of Numa Pompilius, the putative second king of Rome, holds much that is unique on the early Roman calendar.
Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander's drive and desire, and strives to determine how much of it was presaged in his youth. He also draws extensively on the work of Lysippus, Alexander's favourite sculptor, to provide what is probably the fullest and most accurate description of the conqueror's physical appearance.
When it comes to his character, however, Plutarch is often rather less accurate, ascribing inordinate amounts of self-control to a man who very often lost it.[14] It is significant, though, that the subject incurs less admiration from his biographer as the narrative progresses and the deeds that it recounts become less savoury.
Much, too, is made of Alexander's scorn for luxury: "He desired not pleasure or wealth, but only excellence and glory." This is most true, for Alexander's tastes grew more extravagant as he grew older only in the last year of his life and only as a means of approaching the image of a ruler his Persian subjects were better accustomed to - thus making it easier for him to succeed in uniting the Greek and Persian worlds together, according to the plan he had announced in his famous Speech given in Opis in 324 BC.
[edit] Life of Caesar
Together with Suetonius's The Twelve Caesars this Life is the main account of Julius Caesar's feats by ancient historians. Plutarch starts by telling us the audacity of Caesar and his refusal of dismissing Cinna's daughter, Cornelia. Other important parts are these containing his military deeds, accounts of battles and Caesar's capacity of inspiring the soldiers.
His soldiers showed such good will and zeal in his service that those who in their previous campaigns had been in no way superior to others were invincible and irresistible in confronting every danger to enhance Caesar's fame. Such a man, for instance, was Acilius, who, in the sea-fight at Massalia, boarded a hostile ship and had his right hand cut off with a sword, but clung with the other hand to his shield, and dashing it into the faces of his foes, routed them all and got possession of the vessel. Such a man, again, was Cassius Scaeva, who, in the battle at Dyrrhachium, had his eye struck out with an arrow, his shoulder transfixed with one javelin and his thigh with another, and received on his shield the blows of one hundred and thirty missiles. In this plight, he called the enemy to him as though he would surrender. Two of them, accordingly, coming up, he lopped off the shoulder of one with his sword, smote the other in the face and put him to flight, and came off safely himself with the aid of his comrades. Again, in Britain, when the enemy had fallen upon the foremost centurions, who had plunged into a watery marsh, a soldier, while Caesar in person was watching the battle, dashed into the midst of the fight, displayed many conspicuous deeds of daring, and rescued the centurions, after the Barbarians had been routed. Then he himself, making his way with difficulty after all the rest, plunged into the muddy current, and at last, without his shield, partly swimming and partly wading, got across. Caesar and his company were amazed and came to meet the soldier with cries of joy; but he, in great dejection, and with a burst of tears, cast himself at Caesar's feet, begging pardon for the loss of his shield. Again, in Africa, Scipio captured a ship of Caesar's in which Granius Petro, who had been appointed quaestor, was sailing. Of the rest of the passengers Scipio made booty, but told the quaestor that he offered him his life. Granius, however, remarking that it was the custom with Caesar's soldiers not to receive but to offer mercy, killed himself with a blow of his sword.
— Life of Caesar, XVI
However, this Life shows few differences between Suetonius' work and Caesar's own works (see De Bello Gallico and De Bello Civili). Sometimes, Plutarch quotes directly from the De Bello Gallico and even tell us of the moments when Caesar was dictating his works.
In the final part of this Life, Plutarch counts Caesar's assassination, and several details. The book ends on telling the destiny of his murderers, and says that Caesar's "great guardian-genius" avenged him after life.
[edit] Life of Pyrrhus
Plutarch's Life of Pyrrhus is a key text because it is the main historical account on Roman history for the period from 293 to 264 BC, for which neither Dionysius nor Livy have surviving texts.[15]
[edit] Criticism of Parallel Lives
| "It is not histories I am writing, but lives; and in the most glorious deeds there is not always an indication of virtue or vice, indeed a small thing like a phrase or a jest often makes a greater revelation of a character than battles where thousands die." |
| Plutarch (Life of Alexander/Life of Julius Caesar, Parallel Lives, [tr. E.L. Bowie]) |
Plutarch stretches and occasionally fabricates the similarities between famous Greeks and Romans in order to be able to write their biographies as parallel. The lives of Nicias and Crassus, for example, have nothing in common except that both were rich and both suffered great military defeats at the ends of their lives.[16]
In his Life of Pompey, Plutarch praises Pompey's trustworthy character and tactful behaviour in order to conjure a moral judgement that opposes most historical accounts. Plutarch delivers anecdotes with moral points, rather than in-depth comparative analyses of the causes of the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and the Roman Republic,[17] and tends on occasion to fit facts to hypotheses rather than the other, more scholastically acceptable way round.
On the other hand, he generally sets out his moral anecdotes in chronological order (unlike, say, his Roman contemporary Suetonius)[17] and is rarely narrow-minded and unrealistic, almost always prepared to acknowledge the complexity of the human condition where moralising cannot explain it.
[edit] Moralia
Main article: Moralia
The remainder of Plutarch's surviving work is collected under the title of the Moralia (loosely translated as Customs and Mores). It is an eclectic collection of seventy-eight essays and transcribed speeches, which includes On Fraternal Affection—a discourse on honour and affection of siblings toward each other, On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great—an important adjunct to his Life of the great king, On the Worship of Isis and Osiris (a crucial source of information on Egyptian religious rites),[18] along with more philosophical treatises, such as On the Decline of the Oracles, On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance, On Peace of Mind and lighter fare, such as Odysseus and Gryllus, a humorous dialogue between Homer's Odysseus and one of Circe's enchanted pigs. The Moralia was composed first, while writing the Lives occupied much of the last two decades of Plutarch's own life.
[edit] On the Malice of Herodotus
In On the Malice of Herodotus Plutarch criticizes the historian Herodotus for all manner of prejudice and misrepresentation. It has been called the “first instance in literature of the slashing review.”[19] The 19th century English historian George Grote considered this essay a serious attack upon the works of Herodotus, and speaks of the "honourable frankness which Plutarch calls his malignity."[20] Plutarch makes some palpable hits, catching Herodotus out in various errors, but it is also probable that it was merely a rhetorical exercise, in which Plutarch plays devil's advocate to see what could be said against so favourite and well-known a writer.[4] According to Plutarch scholar R. H. Barrow, Herodotus’ real failing in Plutarch’s eyes was to advance any criticism at all of those states that saved Greece from Persia. “Plutarch,” he concluded, “is fanatically biased in favor of the Greek cities; they can do no wrong.”[21]
Questions[link]
Book IV of the Moralia contains the Roman and Greek Questions. The customs of Romans and Greeks are illuminated in little essays that pose questions such as 'Why were patricians not permitted to live on the Capitoline?' (no. 91) and then suggests answers to them, often several mutually exclusive.
Pseudo-Plutarch[link]
Main article: Pseudo-Plutarch
Pseudo-Plutarch is the conventional name given to the unknown authors of a number of pseudepigrapha attributed to Plutarch. Some editions of the Moralia include several works now known to be pseudepigrapha: among these are the Lives of the Ten Orators (biographies of the Ten Orators of ancient Athens, based on Caecilius of Calacte), The Doctrines of the Philosophers, and On Music. One "pseudo-Plutarch" is held responsible for all of these works, though their authorship is of course unknown.[citation needed] The thoughts and opinions recorded are not Plutarch's and come from a slightly later era, though they are all classical in origin.
Lost works[link]
The Romans loved the Lives, and enough copies were written out over the centuries so that a copy of most of the lives managed to survive to the present day. Some scholars, however, believe that only a third to one-half of Plutarch’s corpus is extant.[citation needed] The lost works of Plutarch are determined by references in his own texts to them and from other authors' references over time. There are traces of twelve more Lives that are now lost.[22]
Plutarch's general procedure for the Lives was to write the life of a prominent Greek, then cast about for a suitable Roman parallel, and end with a brief comparison of the Greek and Roman lives. Currently, only nineteen of the parallel lives end with a comparison while possibly they all did at one time. Also missing are many of his Lives which appear in a list of his writings, those of Hercules, the first pair of Parallel Lives, Scipio Africanus and Epaminondas, and the companions to the four solo biographies. Even the lives of such important figures as Augustus, Claudius and Nero have not been found and may be lost forever.[19][23]
Philosophy[link]
Plutarch was a Platonist, but was open to the influence of the Peripatetics, and in some details even to Stoicism despite his polemics against their principles.[24] He rejected absolutely only Epicureanism.[24] He attached little importance to theoretical questions and doubted the possibility of ever solving them.[25] He was more interested in moral and religious questions.[25]
In opposition to Stoic materialism and Epicurean "atheism" he cherished a pure idea of God that was more in accordance with Plato.[25] He adopted a second principle (Dyad) in order to explain the phenomenal world.[25] This principle he sought, however, not in any indeterminate matter but in the evil world-soul which has from the beginning been bound up with matter, but in the creation was filled with reason and arranged by it.[25] Thus it was transformed into the divine soul of the world, but continued to operate as the source of all evil.[25] He elevated God above the finite world, and thus daemons became for him agents of God's influence on the world. He strongly defends freedom of the will, and the immortality of the soul.[25]
Platonic-Peripatetic ethics were upheld by Plutarch against the opposing theories of the Stoics and Epicureans.[25] The most characteristic feature of Plutarch's ethics is, however, its close connection with religion.[26] However pure Plutarch's idea of God is, and however vivid his description of the vice and corruption which superstition causes, his warm religious feelings and his distrust of human powers of knowledge led him to believe that God comes to our aid by direct revelations, which we perceive the more clearly the more completely that we refrain in "enthusiasm" from all action; this made it possible for him to justify popular belief in divination in the way which had long been usual among the Stoics.[26]
His attitude to popular religion was similar. The gods of different peoples are merely different names for one and the same divine Being and the powers that serve it.[26] The myths contain philosophical truths which can be interpreted allegorically.[26] Thus Plutarch sought to combine the philosophical and religious conception of things and to remain as close as possible to tradition.[26]
Influence[link]
Plutarch's writings had an enormous influence on English and French literature. Shakespeare in his plays paraphrased parts of Thomas North's translation of selected Lives, and occasionally quoted from them in verbatim.[27]
Ralph Waldo Emerson and the Transcendentalists were greatly influenced by the Moralia — so much so, in fact, that Emerson called the Lives "a bible for heroes" in his glowing introduction to the five-volume 19th-century edition.[28] He also opined that it was impossible to "read Plutarch without a tingling of the blood; and I accept the saying of the Chinese Mencius: 'A sage is the instructor of a hundred ages. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become intelligent, and the wavering, determined.'"[29]
Montaigne's own Essays draw extensively on Plutarch's Moralia and are consciously modelled on the Greek's easygoing and discursive inquiries into science, manners, customs and beliefs. Essays contains more than 400 references to Plutarch and his works.[19]
James Boswell quoted Plutarch on writing lives, rather than biographies, in the introduction to his own Life of Samuel Johnson. Other admirers included Ben Jonson, John Dryden, Alexander Hamilton, John Milton, Louis L'amour, and Francis Bacon, as well as such disparate figures as Cotton Mather and Robert Browning.
Plutarch's influence declined in the 19th and 20th centuries, but it remains embedded in the popular ideas of Greek and Roman history. One of his most famous quotes was one that he included in one of his earliest works. "The world of man is best captured through the lives of the men who created history."
The name influenced the character, Plutarch Heavensbee, in the Hunger Games Trilogy, which is based on the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur, as described by Plutarch.
[edit] Translations of Lives and Moralia
There are translations in Latin, English, French, German, Italian, Polish and Hebrew.
Italian translations[link]
Giuliano Pisani, Moralia I - «La serenità interiore» e altri testi sulla terapia dell'anima, with Greek text, Italian translation, introduction and notes, La Biblioteca dell'Immagine, Pordenone 1989, pp. LIX-508 (De tranquillitate animi; De virtute et vitio; De virtute morali; An virtus doceri possit; Quomodo quis suos in virtute sentiat profectus; Animine an corporis affectiones sint peiores; De vitioso pudore; De cohibenda ira; De garrulitate; De curiositate ; De invidia et odio ; De cupiditate divitiarum)
Giuliano Pisani, Moralia II - L'educazione dei ragazzi, with Greek text, Italian translation, introduction and notes, La Biblioteca dell'Immagine, Pordenone, 1990, pp. XXXVIII-451 (De liberis educandis; Quomodo adolescens poetas audire debeat ; De recta ratione audiendi ; De musica, in collaboration with Leo Citelli)
Giuliano Pisani, Moralia III - Etica e politica, with Greek text, Italian translation, introduction and notes, La Biblioteca dell'Immagine, Pordenone, 1992, pp. XLIII-490 (Praecepta gerendae rei publicae; An seni sit gerenda res publica; De capienda ex inimicis utilitate; De se ipsum citra invidiam laudando; Maxime cum principibus philosopho esse disserendum; Ad principem ineruditum; De unius in republica dominatione, populari statu et paucorum imperio; De exilio)
Giuliano Pisani, Plutarco, Vite di Lisandro e Silla, Fondazione Lorenzo Valla, 1997 (in collaboration with Maria Gabriella Angeli Bertinelli, Mario Manfredini, Luigi Piccirilli).
French translations[link]
Jacques Amyot's translations brought Plutarch's works to Western Europe. He went to Italy and studied the Vatican text of Plutarch, from which he published a French translation of the Lives in 1559 and Moralia in 1572, which were widely read by educated Europe.[30] Amyot's translations had as deep an impression in England as France, because Thomas North later published his English translation of the Lives in 1579 based on Amyot’s French translation instead of the original Greek.
English translations[link]
Plutarch's Lives were translated into English, from Amyot's version, by Sir Thomas North in 1579. The complete Moralia was first translated into English from the original Greek by Philemon Holland in 1603.
In 1683, John Dryden began a life of Plutarch and oversaw a translation of the Lives by several hands and based on the original Greek. This translation has been reworked and revised several times, most recently in the 19th century by the English poet and classicist Arthur Hugh Clough which can be found in The Modern Library Random House, Inc. translation.
In 1770 the English brother John and his brother William Langhorne published "Plutarch's Lives from the original Greek, with notes critical and historical, and a new life of Plutarch" in 6 volumes and dedicated to Lord Folkestone. Their translation was re-edited by Archdeacon Wrangham in the year 1819.
From 1901–1912, American classicist Bernadotte Perrin produced a new translation of the Lives for the Loeb Classical Library series. The Moralia are also included in the Loeb series, though are translated by various authors.
Latin translations[link]
There are multiple translations of Parallel Lives into Latin, most notably the one titled "Pour le Dauphin" (French for "for the Prince") written by a scribe in the court of Louis XV of France and a 1470 Ulrich Han translation.
German translations[link]
Hieronymus Emser[link]
In 1519, Hieronymus Emser translated De capienda ex inimicis utilitate (wie ym eyner seinen veyndt nutz machen kan, Leipzig).
Gottlob Benedict von Schirach[link]
The biographies were translated by Gottlob Benedict von Schirach (1743–1804) and printed in Vienna by Franz Haas, 1776–80.
Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser[link]
Plutarch's Lives and Moralia were translated into German by Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser:
- Vitae parallelae. Vergleichende Lebensbeschreibungen. 10 Bände. Magdeburg 1799-1806.
- Moralia. Moralische Abhandlungen. 9 Bde. Frankfurt a.M. 1783-1800.
Subsequent German translations[link]
- Biographies
- Konrat Ziegler (Hrsg.): Große Griechen und Römer. 6 Bde. Zürich 1954-1965. (Bibliothek der alten Welt).
- Moralia
- Konrat Ziegler (Hrsg.):Plutarch. Über Gott und Vorsehung, Dämonen und Weissagung, Zürich 1952. (Bibliothek der alten Welt)
- Bruno Snell (Hrsg.):Plutarch. Von der Ruhe des Gemüts - und andere Schriften, Zürich 1948. (Bibliothek der alten Welt)
- Hans-Josef Klauck (Hrsg.): Plutarch. Moralphilosophische Schriften, Stuttgart 1997. (Reclams Universal-Bibliothek)
- Herwig Görgemanns (Hrsg.):Plutarch. Drei Religionsphilosophische Schriften, Düsseldorf 2003. (Tusculum)
Hebrew translations[link]
Following some Hebrew translations of selections from Plutarch's Parallel Lives published in the 1920s and the 1940s a complete translation was published in three volumes by the Bialik Institution in 1954, 1971 and 1973. The first volume, Roman Lives, first published in 1954, presents the translations of Joseph G. Liebes to the biographies of Coriolanus, Fabius Maximus, Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus, Cato the Elder, Gaius Marius, Sulla, Sertorius, Lucullus, Pompey, Crassus, Cicero, Julius Caesar, Cato the Younger, Brutus and Mark Anthony.
The second volume, Greek Lives, first published in 1971 presents A. A. Halevy's translations of the biographies of Lycurgus, Aristides, Cimon, Pericles, Nicias, Lysander, Agesilaus, Pelopidas, Dion, Timoleon, Demosthenes, Alexander the Great, Eumenes and Phocion. Three more biographies presented in this volume, those of Solon, Themistocles and Alcibiades were translated by M. H. Ben-Shamai. The third volume, Greek and Roman Lives, published in 1973, presented the remaining biographies and parallels as translated by A. A. Halevy.
Including the biographies of Demetrius, Pyrrhus, Agis and Cleomenes, Aratus and Artaxerxes, Philopoemen, Camillus, Marcellus, Flamininus, Aemilius Paulus, Galba and Otho, Theseus, Romulus, Numa Pompilius and Poplicola it completes the translation of the known remaining biographies. In the introduction to the third volume Halevy explains that originally the Bilaik Institution intended to publish only a selection of biographies, leaving out mythological figures and biographies that had no parallels. Thus, to match the first volume in scope the second volume followed the same path and the third volume was required[citation needed].
See also[link]
Notes[link]
a. ^ Plutarch was probably born during the reign of the Roman Emperor Claudius and between 45 AD and 50 AD. The exact date is debated.[4][citation needed]
b. ^ Plutarch was once believed to have spent 40 years in Rome, but it is currently thought that he traveled to Rome once or twice for a short period.[citation needed]
c. ^ Plutarch died between the years 119 AD and 127 AD.[citation needed]
Footnotes[link]
- ^ The name Mestrius or Lucius Mestrius was taken by Plutarch, as was common Roman practice, from his patron for citizenship in the empire; in this case Lucius Mestrius Florus, a Roman consul.
- ^ "Plutarch". Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
- ^ Symposiacs, Book IX, questions II & III
- ^ a b c Aubrey Stewart, George Long. "Life of Plutarch". Plutarch's Lives, Volume I (of 4). The Gutenberg Project. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14033/14033.txt. Retrieved 2007-01-03.
- ^ "Plutarch Bio(46c.-125)". The Online Library of Liberty. http://oll.libertyfund.org/Intros/Plutarch.php. Retrieved 2006-12-06.
- ^ Plutarch, Otho 14.1
- ^ Clough, Arthur Hugh (1864). "Introduction". Plutarch's Lives. Liberty Library of Constitutional Classics. http://www.constitution.org/rom/plutarch/intro.htm.
- ^ Ziegler, Konrad, Plutarchos von Chaironeia (Stuttgart 1964), 258. Citation translated by the author.
- ^ Cf. among others, Holzbach, M.-C.(2006). Plutarch: Galba-Otho und die Apostelgeschichte : ein Gattungsvergleich. Religion and Biography, 14 (ed.by Detlev Dormeyer et al.). Berlin London: LIT, p.13
- ^ Cf. Holzbach, op.cit.,24, 67-83
- ^ Cf. Holzbach, op.cit.,24, 67-83
- ^ The citation from Galba was extracted from the Dryden translation as given at the MIT Internet Classics Archive
- ^ Cf. Holzbach, op.cit.,24
- ^ The murder of Cleitus the Black, which Alexander instantly and deeply regretted, is commonly cited to this end.
- ^ Cornell, T.J. (1995). "Introduction". The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). Routledge. pp. 3.
- ^ Plutarch (1972). "Translator's Introduction". Fall Of The Roman Republic: Six Lives by Plutarch. translated by Rex Warner. Penguin Books. p. 8.
- ^ a b "Plutarch of Chaeronea". Livius.Org. http://www.livius.org/pi-pm/plutarch/plutarch.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-06.
- ^ (but which according to Erasmus referred to the Thessalonians)Plutarch; translated by Frank Cole Babbitt. "Isis and Osiris". http://altreligion.about.com/library/texts/bl_isisandosiris.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-10.
- ^ a b c Kimball, Roger. "Plutarch & the issue of character". The New Criterion Online. http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/19/dec00/plutarch.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-11.
- ^ Grote, George (2000-10-19) [1830]. A History of Greece: From the Time of Solon to 403 B.C.. Routledge. p. 203.
- ^ Barrow, R.H. (1979) [1967]. Plutarch and His Times.
- ^ "Translator's Introduction". The Parallel Lives (Vol. I ed.). Loeb Classical Library Edition. 1914. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Introduction*.html.
- ^ McCutchen, Wilmot H.. "Plutarch - His Life and Legacy". http://www.e-classics.com/plutarch.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-10.
- ^ a b Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th edition, page 306
- ^ a b c d e f g h Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th edition, page 307
- ^ a b c d e Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th edition, page 308
- ^ Honigmann 1959.
- ^ Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1870). "Introduction". In William W. Goodwin. Plutarch's Morals. London: Sampson, Low. p. xxi.
- ^ Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1850). "Uses of Great Men". Representative Men.
- ^ "Amyot, Jacques (1513-1593)". Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910-1911).
References[link]
- Blackburn, Simon (1994). Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Russell, D.A. (2001) [1972]. Plutarch. Duckworth Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85399-620-7.
- Duff, Timothy (2002) [1999]. Plutarch's Lives: Exploring Virtue and Vice. UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925274-9.
- Hamilton, Edith (1957). The Echo of Greece. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 194. ISBN 0-393-00231-4.
- Holzbach, M.-C. (2006). Plutarch: Galba-Otho und die Apostelgeschichte: ein Gattungsvergleich. Religion and Biography, 14 (ed.by Detlev Dormeyer et al.). Berlin London: LIT. ISBN 3-8258-9603-X.
- Honigmann, E. A. J. "Shakespeare's Plutarch." Shakespeare Quarterly, 1959: 25-33.
- Pelling, Christopher: Plutarch and History. Eighteen Studies, London 2002.
- Wardman, Alan (1974). Plutarch's "Lives". Elek. p. 274. ISBN 0-236-17622-6.
External links[link]
- Plutarch's works
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Plutarch |
 |
Wikisource has original text related to this article: |
- Perseus Project: many texts of Plutarch and Pseudo-Plutarch in Greek and English
- Didot edition of Plutarch's works in Greek, with Latin translation (1857–1876): vol. 1 (Lives, pt. 1), vol. 2 (Lives, pt. 2), vol. 3 (Moralia, pt. 1), vol. 4 (Moralia, pt. 2), vol. 5 (fragmenta et spuria) (also via BNF)
- Collections of works in English translation: at University of Adelaide, at LacusCurtius, Project Gutenberg, Lives, trans. North (PDF)
- Secondary material
- Plutarch entry by George Karamanolis in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Plutarch of Chaeronea by Jona Lendering at Livius.Org
- The International Plutarch Society
- The relevance of Plutarch's book De Defectu Oraculorum for Christian Theology (Ploutarchos, Journal of the International Plutarch Society)
|
||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Plutarch |
| Alternative names | Mestrius Plutarchus; Πλούταρχος (Greek) |
| Short description | Greek writer- historian and essayist |
| Date of birth | c. 46 |
| Place of birth | Chaeronea, Boeotia |
| Date of death | 127 |
| Place of death | Delphi, Phocis |
http://wn.com/Plutarch
Related pages:
http://ru.wn.com/Плутарх
http://es.wn.com/Plutarco
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is about the professional baseball player. For the English educator and cricketer, see Jack Meyer (educator and cricketer).
| Jack Meyer | |
|---|---|
| Pitcher | |
| Born: (1932-03-23)March 23, 1932 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |
|
| Died: March 9, 1967(1967-03-09) (aged 34) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |
|
| Batted: Right | Threw: Right |
| MLB debut | |
| April 16, 1955 for the Philadelphia Phillies | |
| Last MLB appearance | |
| April 30, 1961 for the Philadelphia Phillies | |
| Career statistics | |
| Win-loss record | 24-34 |
| Earned run average | 3.92 |
| Strikeouts | 375 |
| Teams | |
|
|
John Robert "Jack" Meyer (March 23, 1932 – March 9, 1967) is a former professional baseball player. He was a right-handed pitcher over parts of seven seasons (1955–1961) with the Philadelphia Phillies. For his career, he compiled a 24–34 record in 202 appearances, most as a relief pitcher, with an 3.92 earned run average and 375 strikeouts.
Meyer, who was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, collapsed from a heart attack while watching a basketball game on television and died later at the Jefferson hospital in Philadelphia. Meyer, who was 34 years old, had a history of heart problems. He left a wife and 3 children. He was an alumnus of Wake Forest University.
His nephew, Brian Meyer, pitched briefly for the Houston Astros from 1988 to 1990.[1]
See also[link]
References[link]
External links[link]
- Career statistics and player information from Baseball-Reference
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Meyer, Jack |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | American baseball player |
| Date of birth | March 23, 1932 |
| Place of birth | Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |
| Date of death | March 9, 1967 |
| Place of death | Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |
.jpg){kind=small}   |
This biographical article relating to an American baseball pitcher born in the 1930s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. |
http://wn.com/Jack_Meyer
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Meyer
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Alci Acosta | |
|---|---|
| Birth name | Alcibiades Alfonso Acosta Cervantes |
| Also known as | Alci Acosta |
| Born | (1938-11-05)November 5, 1938 Soledad, Atlántico, Colombia |
| Genres | bolero, pasillo, corrido, valse, ranchera |
| Instruments | piano, vocals |
| Associated acts | Julio Jaramillo |
Alci Acosta (born Alcibiades Alfonso Acosta Cervantes on November 5, 1938) is a Colombian singer, pianist, and performer of Latin American music including boleros, pasillos, corridos, valses, and rancheras.
Acosta is a hugely successful artist throughout Latin America having partnered with other notable artists such as Ecuadorian singer, Julio Jaramillo, who died in 1978.
Acosta's best-selling single to date is "Traicionera" which has sold over 1,300,000 copies across Latin America.[1] Other notable hits are "La Cárcel De Sing Sing", "La Copa Rota", "Hola Soledad", "Tango Negro", "Señora Bonita", "El Preso Número 9", and "El Contragolpe".[2]
Acosta has released numerous albums over his career including Tropicales Ilegales, 16 Éxitos De Oro, Mis Mejores Canciones, and Solo Hits (a compilation of hit singles).
Acosta is the father of singer, Checo Acosta (born on June 14, 1965).[3]
References[link]
- ^ "Traicionera". bioandlyrics.com. http://www.bioandlyrics.com/alciacosta. Retrieved 2009-03-15.
- ^ "discography". CDUniverse. http://www.cduniverse.com/search/xx/music/artist/Acosta,+Alci/a/Alci+Acosta.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-15.
- ^ "Father of Checo Acosta". answers.com. http://www.answers.com/topic/checo-acosta.
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Acosta, Alci |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Colombian musician |
| Date of birth | 5 November 1938 |
| Place of birth | Soledad, Atlántico |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Alci_Acosta
Related pages:
http://es.wn.com/Alci Acosta
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alci_Acosta
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
3:16
VOY A GUARDAR MI LAMENTO ALCI ACOSTA
victorruiz46
VOY A GUARDAR MI LAMENTO ALCI ACOSTA
Alcibiades Alfonso Acosta Cervantes (*Soledad, Colombia, 5 de noviembre de 1938) Uno de los más conocidos intérpretes colombianos del bolero, además de pianista. Interpreta el hermoso tema de Raul Vasquez (Peruano)
show more
add to playlist
clear
