Iran

This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Iran

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Iran is subdivided into thirty one provinces (Persian: استان Ostān, plural استان‌ها Ostānhā), each governed from a local center, usually the largest local city, which is called the capital (Persian: Markaz) of that province. The provincial authority is headed by a Governor-General^[1] (Persian: Ostāndār), who is appointed by the Minister of the Interior subject to approval of the cabinet.

Modern history[link]

According to Encyclopædia Britannica,^[2] in 1908 there were thirty five administrative divisions in Persia, as follows:

• Provinces: 1. Arabistan and Bakhtiari, 2. Astarabad and Gurgan, 3. Azerbaijan, 4. Fars, 5. Gerrus, 6. Gilan and Talish, 7. Hamada[n], 8. Irak, Gulpaigan, Khunsar, [Kezzaz, Ferakan, and Tusirkhan], 9. Isfahan, 10. Kashan, 11. Kazvin, 12. Kerman and Baluchistan, 13. Kermanshah, 14. Kamseh, 15. Khar, 16. Khorasan, 17. Kum, 18. Kurdistan, 19. Luristan and Burujird, 20. Mazandaran, 21. Nehavend, Malayir and Kamereh, 22. Savah, 23. Samnan and Damghan, 24. Shahrud and Bostam, 25. Teheran, 26. Zerend and Bagdadi Shahsevens.
• Dependencies: 1. Asadabad, 2. Demavend, 3. Firuzkuh, 4. Josehekan, 5. Kangaver, 6. Natanz, 7. [], 8. Tarom Ulia, 9. Kharakan.

Until 1950, Iran was divided into twelve provinces: Ardalan, Azerbaijan, Baluchestan, Fars, Gilan, Araq-e Ajam, Khorasan, Khuzestan, Kerman, Larestan, Lorestan, and Mazandaran.^[3]

In 1950, Iran was reorganized to form ten numbered provinces with subordinate governorates: Gilan; Mazandaran; East Azerbaijan; West Azerbaijan; Kermanshah; Khuzestan; Fars; Kerman; Khorasan; Isfahan.^[3]

From 1960 to 1981 the governorates were raised to provincial status one by one. Since then several new provinces have been created, most recently in 2004 when the province of Khorasan was split into three new provinces^[4] as well as splitting of the new Alborz province from Teheran province in 2010.

• 

  1814 Thomson Map of the administrative divisions of Persia

Current provinces[link]

Provinces of Iran

Alborz Ardabil Bushehr Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Isfahan Fars Gilan Golestan Hamadan Hormozgan Ilam Kerman Kermanshah Khuzestan Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Kurdistan Loristan Markazi Mazandaran Qazvin Qom Razavi Khorasan Semnan Sistan and Baluchestan Tehran Yazd Zanjan North Khorasan South Khorasan West Azerbaijan East Azerbaijan Caspian Sea Persian Gulf Turkmenistan Afghanistan Pakistan Azerbaijan Armenia T u r k e y Iraq Kuwait Saudi Arabia

Information[link]

• 

  Pie chart of Iran population by province^[5]

• 

  Pie chart of province's contribution to GDP

List[link]

Province	Capital	Area[6]	Population[7]	Density (population/km²)	Shahrestans (counties)	Notes	Map
Alborz	Karaj	5,833 km2 (2,252 sq mi)	1,375,450	235.8 inhabitants per square kilometre (611 /sq mi)	4	Until 23/06/2010, Alborz was part of Tehran province.
Ardabil	Ardabil	17,800 km2 (6,900 sq mi)	1,257,624	70.7 inhabitants per square kilometre (183 /sq mi)	9	Until 1993, Ardabil was part of East Azerbaijan province.[8]
Azerbaijan, East	Tabriz	45,650 km2 (17,630 sq mi)	3,620,183	76.7 inhabitants per square kilometre (199 /sq mi)	19
Azerbaijan, West	Urmia	37,437 km2 (14,455 sq mi)	2,949,426	78.8 inhabitants per square kilometre (204 /sq mi)	14	During the Pahlavi Dynasty Urmia was known as Rezaiyeh.[9]
Bushehr	Bushehr	22,743 km2 (8,781 sq mi)	887,115	35.9 inhabitants per square kilometre (93 /sq mi)	9	Originally part of Fars province. Until 1977, the province was known as Khalij-e Fars (Persian Gulf).[10]
Chahar Mahaal and Bakhtiari	Shahrekord	16,332 km2 (6,306 sq mi)	842,002	51.6 inhabitants per square kilometre (134 /sq mi)	6	Until 1973 was part of Isfahan province.[11]
Fars	Shiraz	122,608 km2 (47,339 sq mi)	4,385,869	35.8 inhabitants per square kilometre (93 /sq mi)	23
Gilan	Rasht	14,042 km2 (5,422 sq mi)	2,410,523	171.7 inhabitants per square kilometre (445 /sq mi)	16
Golestan	Gorgan	20,195 km2 (7,797 sq mi)	1,637,063	81.1 inhabitants per square kilometre (210 /sq mi)	11	On the 31 May 1997, the shahrestans of Aliabad, Gonbad-e-kavus, Gorgan, Kordkuy, Minudasht, and Torkaman were separated from Mazandaran province to form Golestan province. Gorgan was called Esteraba or Astarabad until 1937.[10]
Hamadan	Hamadan	19,368 km2 (7,478 sq mi)	1,790,770	91 inhabitants per square kilometre (240 /sq mi)	8	Originally part of Kermanshah province.[10]
Hormozgān	Bandar Abbas	70,669 km2 (27,285 sq mi)	1,410,667	18.6 inhabitants per square kilometre (48 /sq mi)	11	Originally part of Kerman province.[10] Until 1977, the province was known as Banader va Jazayer-e Bahr-e Oman (Ports and Islands of the Sea of Oman).[10]
Ilam	Ilam	20,133 km2 (7,773 sq mi)	545,093	27.1 inhabitants per square kilometre (70 /sq mi)	7	Originally part of Kermanshah province.[10]
Isfahan	Isfahan	107,029 km2 (41,324 sq mi)	4,590,595	41.6 inhabitants per square kilometre (108 /sq mi)	21	In 1986, some parts of Markazi province were transferred to Isfahan, Semnan, and Zanjan provinces.[10]
Kerman	Kerman	180,836 km2 (69,821 sq mi)	2,660,927	13.5 inhabitants per square kilometre (35 /sq mi)	14
Kermanshah	Kermanshah	24,998 km2 (9,652 sq mi)	1,938,060	77.5 inhabitants per square kilometre (201 /sq mi)	13	Between 1950 and 1979, both Kermanshah province and city were known as Kermanshahan and between 1979 and 1995 were known as Bakhtaran.[10]
Khorasan, North	Bojnourd	28,434 km2 (10,978 sq mi)	820,918	27.7 inhabitants per square kilometre (72 /sq mi)	6	On 29 September 2004, Khorasan was divided into three provinces. North Khorasan; Razavi Khorasan; South Khorasan.[4]
Khorasan, Razavi	Mashhad	144,681 km2 (55,862 sq mi)	5,620,770	36.0 inhabitants per square kilometre (93 /sq mi)	19	On 29 September 2004, Khorasan was divided into three provinces. North Khorasan; Razavi Khorasan; South Khorasan.[4]
Khorasan, South	Birjand	69,555 km2 (26,855 sq mi)	640,218	7.3 inhabitants per square kilometre (19 /sq mi)	8	On 29 September 2004, Khorasan was divided into three provinces. North Khorasan; Razavi Khorasan; South Khorasan.[4]
Khuzestan	Ahvaz	64,055 km2 (24,732 sq mi)	4,345,607	67.8 inhabitants per square kilometre (176 /sq mi)	18
Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad	Yasuj	15,504 km2 (5,986 sq mi)	695,099	44.8 inhabitants per square kilometre (116 /sq mi)	5	Originally part of Khuzestan province. Until 1990, the province was known as Bovir Ahmadi and Kohkiluyeh.[10]
Kurdistan	Sanandaj	29,137 km2 (11,250 sq mi)	1,574,118	54.0 inhabitants per square kilometre (140 /sq mi)	9	Originally part of Gilan province.[10]
Lorestan	Khorramabad	28,294 km2 (10,924 sq mi)	1,758,628	62.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (161 /sq mi)	9	Originally part of Khuzestan province.[10]
Markazi	Arak	29,130 km2 (11,250 sq mi)	1,361,394	46.7 inhabitants per square kilometre (121 /sq mi)	10	Originally part of Mazandaran province.[10] In 1986, some parts of Markazi province were transferred to Isfahan, Semnan, and Zanjan provinces.[10]
Mazandaran	Sari	23,701 km2 (9,151 sq mi)	2,940,831	118.9 inhabitants per square kilometre (308 /sq mi)	15
Qazvin	Qazvin	15,549 km2 (6,004 sq mi)	1,166,861	75.0 inhabitants per square kilometre (194 /sq mi)	5	On 31 December 1996, the shahrestans of Qazvin and Takestan were separated from Zanjan province to form the province of Qazvin.[10]
Qom	Qom	11,526 km2 (4,450 sq mi)	1,064,456	92.4 inhabitants per square kilometre (239 /sq mi)	1	Until 1995, Qom was a shahrestan of Tehran province.[10]
Semnan	Semnan	97,491 km2 (37,641 sq mi)	590,512	6.0 inhabitants per square kilometre (16 /sq mi)	4	Originally part of Mazandaran province.[10] In 1986, some parts of Markazi province were transferred to Isfahan, Semnan, and Zanjan provinces.[10]
Sistan and Baluchistan	Zahedan	181,785 km2 (70,188 sq mi)	2,410,076	12.6 inhabitants per square kilometre (33 /sq mi)	8	Until 1986, the province was known as Baluchestan and Sistan.[10]
Tehran	Tehran	18,814 km2 (7,264 sq mi)	13,530,742	645.8 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,673 /sq mi)	13	Until 1986, Tehran was part of Markazi province.
Yazd	Yazd	129,285 km2 (49,917 sq mi)	992,318	7.4 inhabitants per square kilometre (19 /sq mi)	10	Originally part of Isfahan province.[11] In 1986, part of Kerman province was transferred to Yazd province. In 2002, Tabas shahrestan (area: 55,344 km²) was transferred from Khorasan province to Yazd.[10]
Zanjan	Zanjan	21,773 km2 (8,407 sq mi)	970,946	44.6 inhabitants per square kilometre (116 /sq mi)	7	Originally part of Gilan province. In 1986, some parts of Markazi province were transferred to Isfahan, Semnan, and Zanjan provinces.[10]
Iran (Total)	Tehran	1,628,554 km2 (628,788 sq mi)	71,767,413	44.0 inhabitants per square kilometre (114 /sq mi)	324

Historical provinces of Iran[link]

v t e Provinces of the Achaemenid Empire (Behistun, Persepolis, Naqsh-e Rustam, Susa, Susa foundation charter, and Daiva inscriptions) Across the sea Akaufaka Arabia Arachosia Aria Armenia Assyria Babylonia Bactria Cappadocia Caria Chorasmia Dahae Drangiana 1t Egyptian Satrapy / 2nd Egyptian Satrapy Eber-Nari Elam Gandhara Gedrosia Hyrcania Ionia Indus Libya Maka Media Parthia Persia Quadia Saka Sardis Sattagydia Skudra Sogdia Yehud See also Districts of the Achaemenid Empire according to Herodotus

v t e Provinces of the Sassanid Empire Abarshahr Adiabene Albania Arabistan Aria Armenia Asuristan Atropatene Balasagan Carmania Elam Egypt Hyrcania Iberia India Kushanshahr Machelonia Maishan Margiana Mazun Media Mokran Paratan Parthia Patishkhwagar Persis Sakastan Susiana Turan

See also[link]

Iran portal

• List of current Iranian provincial governors-general
• Counties of Iran
• Geography of Iran
• ISO 3166-2:IR

References and notes[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Provinces of Iran

• Wikimedia Atlas of Iran
• Statistical Centre, Government of Iran
• Iranian Provinces Investment - Trade Promotion Organization of Iran, affiliated to the Ministry of Commerce (Iran)
• Provinces of Iran at statoids.com

v t e Provinces of Iran Alborz Ardabil Bushehr Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari East Azerbaijan Isfahan Fars Gilan Golestan Hamadan Hormozgan Ilam Kerman Kermanshah Khuzestan Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Kurdistan Lorestan Markazi Mazandaran North Khorasan Qazvin Qom Razavi Khorasan Semnan Sistan and Baluchestan South Khorasan Tehran West Azerbaijan Yazd Zanjan

Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53

Islamic Republic of Iran جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān
Flag Emblem
Motto: استقلال. آزادی. جمهوری اسلامی Independence, Freedom, Islamic Republic
Anthem: National Anthem of Islamic Republic of Iran
Capital (and largest city)		Tehran 35°41′N 51°25′E / 35.683°N 51.417°E / 35.683; 51.417
Official language(s)		Persian
Spoken languages		Persian, Azeri, Kurdish, Arabic, Balochi, Lori, Gilaki, Mazandarani, Turkmen, Armenian, Aramaic
Demonym		Iranian
Government		Unitary state, Islamic republic
-	Supreme Leader	Ali Khamenei
-	President	Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
-	First Vice President	Mohammad-Reza Rahimi
-	Speaker of the Parliament	Ali Larijani
-	Chief Justice	Sadeq Larijani
Legislature		Islamic Consultative Assembly
Unification[3]
-	Median Empire	625 BCE
-	Achaemenid Empire	550 BCE
-	Safavid Empire	1501[4]
-	Islamic Republic	24 October 1979
-	Current constitution
Area
-	Total	1,648,195 km2 (18th) 636,372 sq mi
-	Water (%)	0.7
Population
-	2012 estimate	78,868,711[5] (18th)
-	2011 census	74,700,000
-	Density	48/km2 (162rd) 124/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$990.219 billion[6]
-	Per capita	$13,053[6]
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$482.445 billion[6]
-	Per capita	$6,359[6]
Gini (2008)		38[7] (medium)
HDI (2011)		0.707[8] (high) (88th)
Currency		Rial (﷼) (IRR)
Time zone		IRST (UTC+3:30)
-	Summer (DST)	IRDT (UTC+4:30)
Drives on the		right
ISO 3166 code		IR
Internet TLD		.ir, ایران.
Calling code		98
1	Bookrags.com
2	Iranchamber.com
3	Statistical Center of Iran. "جمعيت و متوسط رشد سالانه" (in Persian). http://www.sci.org.ir/content/userfiles/_sci/sci/SEL/f02/2.1.html. Retrieved 13 February 2009. [dead link][dead link]
4	CIA Factbook

This article contains Persian text, written from right to left with some letters joined. Without proper rendering support, you may see unjoined letters written left-to-right, instead of right-to-left or other symbols instead of Persian script.

Iran (ⁱ/ɪˈrɑːn/^[9] or /aɪˈræn/;^[10] Persian: ایران‎ [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران‎ Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia.^[11][12] The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia ( /ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/).^[10][13] Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.^[14][15]

The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km² (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million.^[5] It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power,^[16][17] and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.^[18]

Iran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations.^[19] The first dynasty in Iran formed during the Elamite kingdom in 2800 BC. The Iranian Medes unified Iran into an empire in 625 BC.^[3] They were succeeded by the Iranian Achaemenid Empire, the Hellenic Seleucid Empire and two subsequent Iranian empires, the Parthians and the Sassanids, before the Muslim conquest in 651 AD. Iranian post-Islamic dynasties and empires expanded the Persian language and culture throughout the Iranian plateau. Early Iranian dynasties which re-asserted Iranian independence included the Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanids and Buyids.

The blossoming of Persian literature, philosophy, medicine, astronomy, mathematics and art became major elements of Muslim civilization. Iranian identity continued despite foreign rule in the ensuing centuries^[20] and Persian culture was adopted also by the Ghaznavids,^[21] Seljuk,^[22][23] Ilkhanid^[24] and Timurid^[25] rulers. The emergence in 1501 of the Safavid dynasty,^[4] which promoted Twelver Shia Islam^[26] as the official religion of their empire, marked one of the most important turning points in Iranian and Muslim history.^[27] The Persian Constitutional Revolution established the nation's first parliament in 1906, within a constitutional monarchy. In 1953 Iran became an authoritarian regime, following a coup d'état instigated by the UK and US. Growing dissent with foreign influence culminated during the Iranian Revolution which led to establishment of an Islamic republic on 1 April 1979.^[28][29]

Iran is a founding member of the UN, NAM, OIC and OPEC. The political system of Iran, based on the 1979 constitution, comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. The highest state authority is the Supreme Leader. Shia Islam is the official religion and Persian is the official language.^[30]

Etymology[link]

The name of Iran (ایران) is the Modern Persian derivative from the Proto-Iranian term Aryānā,, meaning "Land of the Aryans", first attested in Zoroastrianism's Avesta tradition.^{[31][32][33][34]} The term Ērān is found to refer to Iran in a 3rd century Sassanid inscription, and the Parthian inscription that accompanies it uses the Parthian term "aryān" in reference to Iranians.^[35] However historically Iran has been referred to as Persia or similar (La Perse, Persien, Perzië, etc.) by the Western world, mainly due to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis (Περσίς), meaning land of the Persians. In 1935 Rezā Shāh requested that the international community should refer to the country as Iran. Opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and in 1959 both names were to be used interchangeably.^[36] Since the Iranian Revolution in 1979 the official name of the country has been the "Islamic Republic of Iran."

History[link]

Pre-Historic era[link]

The earliest archaeological artifacts in Iran were found in the Kashafrud and Ganj Par sites that date back to the Lower Paleolithic era. Mousterian Stone tools made by Neanderthal man have also been found.^[37] There are more cultural remains of Neanderthal man dating back to the Middle Paleolithic period, which have been found mainly in the Zagros region and less frequently in central Iran at sites such as Shanidar, Kobeh, Kunji, Bisetun, Tamtama, Warwasi, Palegawra, and Yafteh Cave.^[38] Discovery of human skeletons in the Huto cave and the adjacent Kamarband cave near the town of Behshahr in the Mazandaran Province, and Amol and Babol old cities north of Iran, south of the Caspian Sea, suggest human habitation of the area as early as 75,000 years ago.^[39] However, recent studies in the valleys of Shuresh, around the earlier mentioned caves, led to the discovery of 400,000 year old stone tools.^[40] Evidence for Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic periods are known mainly from the Zagros region in the caves of Kermanshah and Khorramabad.

Early agricultural communities such as Chogha Bonut in 8000 BC,^[41][42] Susa (now a city still existing since 7000 BC)^[43][44] and Chogha Mish dating back to 6800 BC.^[45][46] started to form in the western Iran. Dozens of pre-historic sites across the Iranian plateau point to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the 4th millennium BC,^[46][47][48] centuries before the earliest civilizations arose in nearby Mesopotamia.^[49]

Early history (3200 BC – 625 BC)[link]

19th century reconstruction of a map of the world by Eratosthenes, c.200 BC. The name Ariana (Aryânâ) was used to describe the region where the Iranian plateau is found.

Elam was part of the early urbanization during the Chalcolithic. The emergence of written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Mesopotamian history. In the Old Elamite period (Middle Bronze Age), from around 2800 BC, Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. The Elamite kingdom continued its existence until the emergence of the Median and Achaemenid Empires.

Proto-Iranians first emerged following the separation of Indo-Iranians, and are traced to the Andronovo culture.^[50] Proto-Iranian tribes arrived in the Iranian plateau in the third and second millennium BC, probably in more than one wave of emigration, and settled as nomads.

Further separation of Proto-Iranians into "Eastern" and "Western" groups occurred due to migration. By the first millennium BC, Medes, Persians, Bactrians and Parthians populated the western part, while Cimmerians, Sarmatians and Alans populated the steppes north of the Black Sea.

Other tribes began to settle on the eastern edge, as far as on the mountainous frontier of the north-western Indian subcontinent and into the area which is now Balochistan. Others, such as the Scythian tribes, spread as far west as the Balkans and as far east as Xinjiang. Avestan is an eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of the Zoroastrian Gathas in c. 1000 BC.

Pre-Islamic statehood (625 BC – 651 AD)[link]

The Cyrus Cylinder a document issued by Cyrus the Great and regarded by some as a charter of human rights

The Medes are credited with the unification^[3] of Iran as a nation and empire (625^[3]–559  BC), the largest of its day, until Cyrus the Great established a unified empire of the Medes and Persians leading to the Achaemenid Empire (559–330  BC), and further unification between peoples and cultures. After Cyrus' death, his son Cambyses II continued his father's work of conquest, making significant gains in Egypt.

Following a power struggle after Cambyses' death, Darius the Great was declared king (ruled 522–486 BC). Under Cyrus and Darius, the Persian Empire eventually became the largest and most powerful empire in human history up until that point.^[51] The borders of the Persian empire stretched from the Indus and Oxus Rivers in the east to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, extending through Anatolia (modern day Turkey) and Egypt.

The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent, at about 500 BC

In 499 BC, Athens lent support to a revolt in Miletus which resulted in the sacking of Sardis. This led to an Achaemenid campaign against Greece known as the Greco-Persian Wars which continued through the first half of the 5th century BC. During the Greco-Persian Wars Persia made some major advances and razed Athens in 480 BC, but after a string of Greek victories the Persians were forced to withdraw. Fighting ended with the peace of Callias in 449 BC.

The rules and ethics emanating from Zoroaster's teachings were strictly followed by the Achaemenids who introduced and adopted policies based on human rights, equality and banning of slavery.^{[citation needed]} Zoroastrianism spread unimposed during the time of the Achaemenids and through contacts with the exiled Jewish people in Babylon freed by Cyrus, Zoroastrian concepts further propagated and influenced the Abrahamic religions. The Golden Age of Athens marked by Aristotle, Plato and Socrates also came about during the Achaemenid period while their contacts with Persia and the Near East abounded. The peace, tranquility, security and prosperity that were afforded to the people of the Near East and Southeast Europe proved to be a rare historical occurrence, an unparalleled period where commerce prospered and the standard of living for all people of the region improved.^[52]

In 334 BC, Alexander the Great invaded the Achaemenid Empire, defeating the last Achaemenid Emperor Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC. He left the annexed territory in 328–327. In each of the former Achaemenid territories he installed his own officers as caretakers, which led to friction and ultimately to the partitioning of the former empire after Alexander's death, and the subsequent formation of the Seleucid Empire.

A bust from the National Museum of Iran of Musa of Parthia

The Parthian Empire (238 BC–226 AD), led by the Arsacid Dynasty, was the third Iranian kingdom to dominate the Iranian plateau, after defeating the Greek Seleucid Empire, beginning in the late 3rd century BC, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca. 150 BC and 224 AD. This was the third native dynasty of ancient Iran and lasted five centuries. After the conquests of Media, Assyria, Babylonia and Elam, the Parthians had to organize their empire. The former elites of these countries were Greek, and the new rulers had to adapt to their customs if they wanted their rule to last. As a result, the cities retained their ancient rights and civil administrations remained more or less undisturbed.

Parthia was the arch-enemy of the Roman Empire in the east, limiting Rome's expansion beyond Cappadocia (central Anatolia). By using a heavily armed and armoured cataphract cavalry, and lightly armed but highly mobile mounted archers, the Parthians "held their own against Rome for almost 300 years".^[53] Rome's acclaimed general Mark Antony led a disastrous campaign against the Parthians in 36 BC, in which he lost 32,000 men. By the time of Roman emperor Augustus, Rome and Parthia were settling some of their differences through diplomacy. By this time, Parthia had acquired an assortment of golden eagles, the cherished standards of Rome's legions, captured from Mark Antony, and Crassus, who was defeated by General Surena in the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.^[54]

Persian and Median soldiers at Persepolis

The end of the Parthian Empire came in 224 AD, when the empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by Ardashir I, one of the empire's vassals. Ardashir I then went on to create the Sassanid Empire. Soon he started reforming the country both economically and militarily. The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, referring to it as Erânshahr or Iranshahr, , "Dominion of the Iranians", (i.e. of Iranians), with their capital at Ctesiphon.^[55] Unlike the diadochic Seleucids and the succeeding Arsacids, who used a vassalary system, the Sassanids—like the Achaemenids—had a system of governors (MP: shahrab) personally appointed by the Emperor and directed by the central government. The Romans suffered repeated losses particularly by Ardashir I, Shapur I, and Shapur II.^[56] During their reign, Sassanid battles with the Roman Empire caused such pessimism in Rome that the historian Cassius Dio wrote:

Geographical extent of Iranian influence in the 1st century BC. The Parthian Empire (mostly Western Iranian) is shown in red, other areas, dominated by Scythia (mostly Eastern Iranian), in orange.

In 632 raiders from the Arab peninsula began attacking the Sassanid Empire. Iran was defeated in the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, paving way for the Muslim conquest of Persia.

During the Parthian and later Sassanid eras, trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the great civilizations of China, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Indian subcontinent, and Rome, and helped to lay the foundations for the modern world. Parthian remains display classical Greek influences in some instances and retain their oriental mode in others, a clear expression of the cultural diversity that characterized Parthian art and life.^[58]

The Parthians were innovators of many architecture designs such as that of Ctesiphon, which later influenced European Romanesque architecture.^[59][60] Under the Sassanids, Iran expanded relations with China. Arts, music, and architecture greatly flourished, and centers such as the School of Nisibis and Academy of Gundishapur became world renowned centers of science and scholarship.

Middle Ages (652–1501)[link]

Map of Iranian Dynasties c. 1000

After the Muslim conquest of Persia, most of the urban lands of the Sassanid Empire, with the exception of Caspian provinces and Transoxiana, came under Islamic rule.^[61] Many provinces in Iran defended themselves against the Arab invaders, although none in the end were able to repulse the invaders. However, when the Arabs had subdued the country, many of the cities rose in rebellion, killing Arab governors, although reinforcement by Arab armies succeeded in putting down the rebellions.

However, the Iranians' conversion to Islam was a complex process and is generally considered to have been gradual; the notion of force has largely been discredited,^[62] although occasional acts of violence did take place, with Zoroastrian scriptures being burned and Zoroastrian priests being executed.^[61][63]

By the 9th century, Islam became a dominant religion in Persia and the conversion of Iranians to Islam brought profound changes to their life and culture.^[61] However, in some regions, such as the Fars province, Zoroastrianism remained strong up to the 9th century, although Sufis such as Abu Eshaq Kazeruni, the founder of Kazeruni Sufi order, brought mass conversion of Zoroastrians to Islam in the 10th century.^[61]

Persian manuscript describing how an ambassador from India brought chess to the Persian court.

During the Abbasid caliphate decline, independent^[64][65] and semi-independent native Iranian dynasties arose in different parts of Persia including the Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanids, Afrighids, Ghurids, Sallarids, Justanids, Shaddadids and Buyids. Socially, the Arabs abolished the previous social class system of Sassanians while later, especially under the Ummayyads, another form of discrimination and exclusion against non-Arabs evolved.^[66] In reaction to these, Abu Moslem, an Iranian^[67][68] general, expelled the Umayyads from Damascus and helped the Abbasid caliphs to conquer Baghdad. The Abbasid caliphs frequently chose their Iranians as their "wazirs" (viziers), and Iranian governors acquired a certain amount of local autonomy. Thus in 822, the governor of Khorasan, Tahir, proclaimed his independence and founded a new Persian dynasty of Tahirids. And by the Samanid era, Iran's efforts to regain its independence had been well solidified.^[69]

Attempts at Arabization thus never succeeded in Iran, and movements such as the Shu'ubiyya became catalysts for Iranians to regain their independence in their relations with the Arab invaders.^[70] Other notable major revolts, some by Iranian Muslims and others by practitioners of old Iranian religions against Arab rule were led by Al-Muqanna, Sunpadh, Khurramites, Babak Khorramdin, Maziar, Mardavij, Ustadh Sis and Ya'qub-i Laith Saffari.

The cultural revival of the post-Abbasid period led to a resurfacing of Iranian national identity. The resulting cultural movement reached its peak during the 9th and 10th centuries. The most notable effect of the movement was the continuation of the Persian language, the official language of Iran to the present day. Ferdowsi, Iran's greatest epic poet, is regarded today as the most important figure in maintaining the Persian language. After an interval of silence Iran re-emerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam.

In 1218, the eastern Khwarazmid provinces of Transoxiana and Khorasan suffered a devastating invasion by Genghis Khan. During this period more than half of Iran's population was killed,^[71] turning the streets of Persian cities such as Nishapur into "rivers of blood", as the severed heads of men, women, and children were "neatly stacked into carefully constructed pyramids around which the carcasses of the city's dogs and cats were placed".^[72]

Khwarezmid Empire around 1200

According to Steven R. Ward, "Overall, the Mongol violence and depredations killed up to three-fourths of the population of the Iranian plateau, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Some historians have estimated that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the mid-20th century."^[73] In a letter to King Louis IX of France, Holaku, one of the Genghis Khan's grandsons, took sole responsibility for 200,000 deaths in his raids of Iran and the Caliphate.^[74] He was followed by yet another conqueror, Tamerlane, who established his capital in Samarkand.^[75] The waves of devastation prevented many cities such as Nishapur from reaching their pre-invasion population levels until the 20th century, eight centuries later.^[76]

In 1387, Tamerlane avenged a revolt in Isfahan by massacring 70,000 people.^[77] But both Hulagu, Tamerlane, and their successors soon came to adopt the ways and customs of that which they had conquered, choosing to surround themselves with a culture that was distinctively Persian.^[78] The mid-14th-century Black Death killed about 30% of the country's population.^[79]

Illustration from Jami "Rose Garden of the Pious", dated 1553. The image blends Persian poetry and Persian miniature into one, as is the norm for many works of the Timurid era.

Iran was gradually Islamized after the collapse of the Sassanid Empire; however, it was not Arabized. Iranian culture re-emerged with a separate and distinctive character and made an immense contribution to the Islamic civilization.^[80][81] When Islam came through Iran, what developed was an Iranian Islam or Persian Islam rather than the original Arab Islam, and this new Islam is sometimes referred to by scholars as Islam-i Ajam (Persian Islam).^[80][82]

It was this Persian Islam and Sufism which was brought to new areas and new peoples such as the Turks of Central Asia, the Ottoman Empire, and the Indian subcontinent.^[80] Among the major Iranian Muslims who cultivated Sufism and helped the spread of Islam through Sufism, one can mention Habib Ajami, Hallaj, Hasan Basri, Junayd Baghdadi, Bayazid Bastami, Maruf Karkhi, Abdul-Qadir Gilani, Moinuddin Chishti, Jalaluddin Rumi, Najmuddin Kubra, and Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari. Note should also be made of Abu Hanifa, the founder of the Hanafi school of thought which is followed by most Muslims today.

Arabic writer Ibn Khaldun has remarked that the sedentary culture which was necessary for the development of civilization was rooted in the Persian empire.^[83]

One of the main developments after the advent of Islam in Iran was the rise of the New Persian language as an important Indo-European language. The New Persian language was an evolution of Middle Persian, which in turn was derived from Old Persian. New Persian absorbed a considerable amount of Arabic vocabulary^[84][85] during this era, although the Arabic vocabulary that was Persianized^[86] often took a different meaning than the Arabic origin. In terms of contribution to the Arabic language, Iranians like Sibawayhi^[87] pioneered writing books of grammar of the Arabic language.

Tamerlane defeating the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt.

Culturally, Iranians preserved their language, while they used Arabic for scientific and philosophical discourses;^[88] this enabled them to reach a worldwide audience for the first time.^[88] After the 10th century, Persian, written in the modified Perso-Arabic script alongside Arabic, was used for scientific, philosophical, historical, mathematical, musical, and medical works, as important Iranian writers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Avicenna, Qotb al-Din Shirazi, Gurgani, Nasir Khusraw, Biruni, Abd al-Qadir Maraghi made contributions to Persian scientific writing.