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truth \truth\, v. t. To assert as true; to declare. [R.] [1913 Webster]
Had they [the ancients] dreamt this, they would have truthed it heaven. --Ford. [1913 Webster] -
truth \truth\, n.; pl. Truths. [OE. treuthe, trouthe, treowpe, AS. tre['o]w?. See True; cf. Troth, Betroth.] 1. The quality or being true; as: (a) Conformity to fact or reality; exact accordance with that which is, or has been; or shall be. [1913 Webster] (b) Conformity to rule; exactness; close correspondence with an example, mood, object of imitation, or the like. [1913 Webster]
Plows, to go true, depend much on the truth of the ironwork. --Mortimer. [1913 Webster] (c) Fidelity; constancy; steadfastness; faithfulness. [1913 Webster]
Alas! they had been friends in youth, But whispering tongues can poison truth. --Coleridge. [1913 Webster] (d) The practice of speaking what is true; freedom from falsehood; veracity. [1913 Webster]
If this will not suffice, it must appear That malice bears down truth. --Shak. [1913 Webster]
2. That which is true or certain concerning any matter or subject, or generally on all subjects; real state of things; fact; verity; reality. [1913 Webster]
Speak ye every man the truth to his neighbor. --Zech. viii. 16. [1913 Webster]
I long to know the truth here of at large. --Shak. [1913 Webster]
The truth depends on, or is only arrived at by, a legitimate deduction from all the facts which are truly material. --Coleridge. [1913 Webster]
3. A true thing; a verified fact; a true statement or proposition; an established principle, fixed law, or the like; as, the great truths of morals. [1913 Webster]
Even so our boasting . . . is found a truth. --2 Cor. vii. 14. [1913 Webster]
4. Righteousness; true religion. [1913 Webster]
Grace and truth came by Jesus Christ. --John i. 17. [1913 Webster]
Sanctify them through thy truth; thy word is truth. --John xvii. 17. [1913 Webster]
In truth, in reality; in fact.
Of a truth, in reality; certainly.
To do truth, to practice what God commands. [1913 Webster]
He that doeth truth cometh to the light. --John iii. 21. [1913 Webster] - truth n 1: a fact that has been verified; "at last he knew the truth"; "the truth is that he didn't want to do it" 2: conformity to reality or actuality; "they debated the truth of the proposition"; "the situation brought home to us the blunt truth of the military threat"; "he was famous for the truth of his portraits"; "he turned to religion in his search for eternal verities" [syn: truth, the true, verity, trueness] [ant: falseness, falsity] 3: a true statement; "he told the truth"; "he thought of answering with the truth but he knew they wouldn't believe it" [syn: truth, true statement] [ant: falsehood, falsity, untruth] 4: the quality of being near to the true value; "he was beginning to doubt the accuracy of his compass"; "the lawyer questioned the truth of my account" [syn: accuracy, truth] [ant: inaccuracy] 5: United States abolitionist and feminist who was freed from slavery and became a leading advocate of the abolition of slavery and for the rights of women (1797-1883) [syn: truth, Sojourner truth]
- truth, n. An ingenious compound of desirability and appearance. Discovery of truth is the sole purpose of philosophy, which is the most ancient occupation of the human mind and has a fair prospect of existing with increasing activity to the end of time.
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truth. The actual state of things. 2. In contracts, the parties are bound to toll the truth in their dealings, and a deviation from it will generally avoid the contract; Newl. on Contr. 352-3; 2 Burr. 1011; 3 Campb. 285; and even concealment, or suppressio veri, will be considered fraudulent in the contract of insurance. 1 Marsh. on Ins. 464; Peake's N. P. C. 115; 3 Campb. 154, 506. 3. In giving his testimony, a witness is required to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth; for the object in the examination of matters of fact, is to ascertain truth. 4. When a defendant is sued civilly for slander or a libel, he may justify by giving the truth in evidence; but when a criminal prosecution is instituted by the commonwealth for a libel, he cannot generally justify by giving the truth in evidence. 5. The constitutions of several of the United States have made special provisions in favor of giving the truth in evidence in prosecutions for libels, under particular circumstances. In the constitutions of Pennsylvania, Delaware, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, it is declared, that in publications for libels on men in respect to their public official conduct, the truth may be given in evidence, when the matter published was proper for public information. The constitution of New York declares, that in all prosecutions or indictments for libels, the truth may be given in evidence to the jury; and if it shall appear to the jury that the matter charged as libelous, is true, and was published with good motives and for justifiable ends, the party shall be acquitted. By constitutional provision in Mississippi and Missouri, and by legislative enactment in New Jersey, Arkansas, Tennessee, Act of 1805, c. 6: and Vermont, Rev. Stat. tit. 11, c. 25, s. 68; the right to give the truth in evidence has been more extended; it applies to all prosecutions or indictments for libels, without any qualifications annexed in restraint of the privilege. Cooke on Def. 61.
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Canada
Canada () is a country in North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean. It is the world's second largest country by total area. Canada's common border with the United States to the south and northwest is the longest in the world.
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Dallas, Texas
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Ottawa, Ontario
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Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C. (), formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States, founded on July 16, 1790. Article One of the United States Constitution provides for a federal district, distinct from the states, to serve as the permanent national capital. The City of Washington was originally a separate municipality within the federal territory until an act of Congress in 1871 established a single, unified municipal government for the whole District. It is for this reason that the city, while legally named the District of Columbia, is known as Washington, D.C. The city shares its name with the U.S. state of Washington, which is located on the country's Pacific coast.
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A. J. Ayer
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Adolph Stöhr
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Alan Ross Anderson
Alan Ross Anderson (1925 – 1973) was an American logician and professor of philosophy at Yale University and the University of Pittsburgh.
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Alan Turing
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Alexander Bain
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Alfred Tarski
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Alonzo Church
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Alvin Plantinga
Alvin Carl Plantinga (born 1932) is an American analytic philosopher, formerly the John A. O'Brien Professor of Philosophy at the University of Notre Dame. He is known for his work in philosophy of religion, epistemology, metaphysics, and Christian apologetics. Plantinga is a Christian and known for applying the methods of analytic philosophy to defend orthodox Christian beliefs. Notably, he has argued that some people can know that God exists as a basic belief, requiring no argument, similar to how people usually claim to know that other minds exist. He has also argued that there is no logical inconsistency between the existence of evil and the existence of an all-powerful, all-knowing, wholly good God.
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Anil Gupta
Anil Gupta (born 1974, UK) is a comedy writer and producer. He has produced many shows on radio and television including Goodness Gracious Me, the spoof chat show The Kumars at No. 42, The Office and Bromwell High. He wrote the Cinderella episode of the 2008 comedy drama series Fairy Tales.
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Arthur W. Burks
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Augustine of Hippo
: For other uses, see Augustine, Augustinus and Saint Augustine.
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Augustus De Morgan
Augustus De Morgan (27 June 1806 – 18 March 1871) was a British mathematician and logician. He formulated De Morgan's laws and introduced the term mathematical induction, making its idea rigorous. The crater De Morgan on the Moon is named after him.
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Averroes
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Baruch Spinoza
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Carl Hempel
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Chrysippus
Chrysippus of Soli (Ancient Greek: , ; c. 279–c. 206 BC) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was a native of Soli, Cilicia, but moved to Athens as a young man, where he became a pupil of Cleanthes in the Stoic school. When Cleanthes died, around 230 BC, Chrysippus became the third head of the school. A prolific writer, Chrysippus expanded the fundamental doctrines of Zeno of Citium, the founder of the school, which earned him the title of Second Founder of Stoicism.
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Crispin Wright
Crispin Wright (born 1942) is a British philosopher, who has written on neo-Fregean philosophy of mathematics, Wittgenstein's later philosophy, and on issues related to truth, realism, cognitivism, skepticism, knowledge, and objectivity.
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Dagobert D. Runes
Dagobert David Runes (January 6, 1902 – September 24, 1982) was a philosopher and author. Born in Zastavna, Bukovina, Austro-Hungary (now in Ukraine), he emigrated to the United States in 1926. He had received a doctorate in philosophy from the University of Vienna in 1924. In the U.S. he became editor of The Modern Thinker and later Current Digest. From 1931 to 1934 he was Director of the Institute for Advanced Education in New York City. In 1941 he founded the Philosophical Library, a spiritual organization and publisher. Runes was a colleague and friend of Albert Einstein.
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David Hilbert
David Hilbert (; January 23, 1862 –
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David Hume
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David Pears
David Pears (born 1921, died July 2009) was a British philosopher renowned for his work on Wittgenstein.
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Dorothy Emmet
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Duns Scotus
Blessed John (Johannes) Duns Scotus, O.F.M. (c. 1265 – 8 November 1308) was one of the more important theologians and philosophers of the High Middle Ages. He was nicknamed Doctor Subtilis for his penetrating and subtle manner of thought.
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Edmund Gettier
Edmund L. Gettier III (born 1927 in Baltimore, Maryland) is an American philosopher and Professor Emeritus at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst; he may owe his reputation to a single three-page paper published in 1963 called "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?"
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Erich Fromm
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Ernst Schröder
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Frank P. Ramsey
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François Lemoyne
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Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (; in English , ) (October 15, 1844 August 25, 1900) was a 19th-century German philosopher and classical philologist. He wrote critical texts on religion, morality, contemporary culture, philosophy and science, displaying a fondness for metaphor, irony and aphorism.
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G. E. Moore
:"G.E. Moore" redirects here. For the cofounder of Intel, see Gordon Moore.
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G.W.F. Hegel
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Georg Cantor
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Georg Hegel
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George Berkeley
George Berkeley ( ) (12 March 1685 14 January 1753), also known as Bishop Berkeley (Bishop of Cloyne), was an Irish philosopher whose primary achievement was the advancement of a theory he called "immaterialism" (later referred to as "subjective idealism" by others). This theory contends that individuals can only know directly sensations and ideas of objects, not abstractions such as "matter". The theory also contends that ideas are dependent upon being perceived by minds for their very existence, a belief that became immortalized in the dictum, "esse est percipi" ("to be is to be perceived"). He published his chief philosophical work A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge in 1710.
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George Boole
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George Boolos
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Gerhard Gentzen
Gerhard Karl Erich Gentzen (November 24, 1909, Greifswald, Germany – August 4, 1945, Prague, Czechoslovakia) was a German mathematician and logician. He had his major contributions in the foundation of mathematics, proof theory, especially on natural deduction and sequent calculus. He died in 1945 after the Second World War, because he was deprived of food after being arrested in Prague.
http://wn.com/Gerhard_Gentzen -
Gilbert Ryle
Gilbert Ryle (19 August 1900, Brighton – 6 October 1976, Oxford), was a British philosopher, and a representative of the generation of British ordinary language philosophers that shared Wittgenstein's approach to philosophical problems, and is principally known for his critique of Cartesian dualism, for which he coined the phrase "the ghost in the machine". Some of his ideas in the philosophy of mind have been referred to as "behaviourist" (not to be confused with the psychological behaviourism of B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson). Ryle's best known book is The Concept of Mind (1949), in which he writes that the "general trend of this book will undoubtedly, and harmlessly, be stigmatised as 'behaviourist'." Ryle, having engaged in detailed study of the key works of Bernard Bolzano, Franz Brentano, Alexius Meinong, Husserl, and Heidegger, himself suggested instead that the book "could be described as a sustained essay in phenomenology, if you are at home with that label."
http://wn.com/Gilbert_Ryle -
Giuseppe Peano
Giuseppe Peano (; 27 August 1858 – 20 April 1932) was an Italian mathematician, whose work was of exceptional philosophical value. The author of over 200 books and papers, he was a founder of mathematical logic and set theory, to which he contributed much notation. The standard axiomatization of the natural numbers is named in his honor. As part of this axiomatization effort, he made key contributions to the modern rigorous and systematic treatment of the method of mathematical induction. He spent most of his career teaching mathematics at the University of Turin.
http://wn.com/Giuseppe_Peano -
Gottlob Frege
http://wn.com/Gottlob_Frege -
Harold Joachim
:This page is not about the American art critic of the same name
http://wn.com/Harold_Joachim -
Hartry Field
Hartry H. Field (born 1946) is a philosopher, the Silver Professor of Philosophy at New York University. He previously taught at the University of Southern California and The Graduate Center of the City University of New York. He earned his Ph.D. in philosophy from Harvard University under the direction of Hilary Putnam.
http://wn.com/Hartry_Field -
Haskell Curry
http://wn.com/Haskell_Curry -
Hegel
http://wn.com/Hegel -
Henri Bergson
http://wn.com/Henri_Bergson -
Hilary Putnam
Hilary Whitehall Putnam (born July 31, 1926) is an American philosopher who has been a central figure in analytic philosophy since the 1960s, especially in philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, and philosophy of science. He is known for his willingness to apply an equal degree of scrutiny to his own philosophical positions as to those of others, subjecting each position to rigorous analysis until he exposes its flaws. As a result, he has acquired a reputation for frequently changing his own position. Putnam is currently Cogan University Professor Emeritus at Harvard University.
http://wn.com/Hilary_Putnam -
Immanuel Kant
http://wn.com/Immanuel_Kant -
Isaac Newton
http://wn.com/Isaac_Newton -
J. L. Austin
http://wn.com/J_L_Austin -
J.L. Austin
http://wn.com/JL_Austin -
James Mark Baldwin
http://wn.com/James_Mark_Baldwin -
Jean Baudrillard
http://wn.com/Jean_Baudrillard -
Jean-Paul Sartre
Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (, ; 21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was a French existentialist philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the leading figures in 20th century French philosophy, existentialism, and Marxism, and his work continues to influence fields such as Marxist philosophy, sociology, and literary studies. Sartre was also noted for his long relationship with the author and social theorist, Simone de Beauvoir. He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature but refused the honour.
http://wn.com/Jean-Paul_Sartre -
John Dewey
http://wn.com/John_Dewey -
John Locke
http://wn.com/John_Locke -
John Rajchman
John Rajchman (born June 25, 1946) is a philosopher working in the areas of art history, architecture, and continental philosophy.
http://wn.com/John_Rajchman -
John Rawls
http://wn.com/John_Rawls -
Jon Barwise
__NOTOC__
http://wn.com/Jon_Barwise -
Joseph Ratzinger
http://wn.com/Joseph_Ratzinger -
Jürgen Habermas
http://wn.com/Jürgen_Habermas -
Karl Popper
http://wn.com/Karl_Popper -
Kitaro Nishida
http://wn.com/Kitaro_Nishida -
Kurt Gödel
http://wn.com/Kurt_Gödel -
Laurence BonJour
Laurence BonJour (born 1943) is an American philosopher and Professor of Philosophy at the University of Washington.
http://wn.com/Laurence_BonJour -
Leibniz
http://wn.com/Leibniz -
Leopold Löwenheim
http://wn.com/Leopold_Löwenheim -
Ludwig Wittgenstein
http://wn.com/Ludwig_Wittgenstein -
Maimonides
http://wn.com/Maimonides -
Mark Poster
Mark Poster (born 6 July 1941) is a Professor Emeritus of History, Film and Media Studies, and the Critical Theory Emphasis at UC Irvine. He received his Ph.D. from New York University in 1968, and his research interests include European Intellectual and Cultural History, Critical Theory, and Media Studies.
http://wn.com/Mark_Poster -
Martin Heidegger
http://wn.com/Martin_Heidegger -
Marx
http://wn.com/Marx -
Mazdak
http://wn.com/Mazdak -
Michael Polanyi
http://wn.com/Michael_Polanyi -
Michel Foucault
http://wn.com/Michel_Foucault -
Nelson Goodman
Henry Nelson Goodman (7 August 1906, Somerville, Massachusetts – 25 November 1998, Needham, Massachusetts) was an American philosopher, known for his work on counterfactuals, mereology, the problem of induction, irrealism and aesthetics.
http://wn.com/Nelson_Goodman -
Ninian Smart
http://wn.com/Ninian_Smart -
Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky ( or ; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and political activist. He is an Institute Professor and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Chomsky is well known in the academic and scientific community as one of the fathers of modern linguistics, and a major figure of analytic philosophy. Since the 1960s, he has become known more widely as a political dissident and an anarchist, referring to himself as a libertarian socialist. Chomsky is the author of more than 100 books and has received worldwide attention for his views, despite being typically absent from the mainstream media.
http://wn.com/Noam_Chomsky -
Nuel Belnap
Nuel D. Belnap, Jr. (born 1930) is an American logician and philosopher who has made many important contributions to the philosophy of logic, temporal logic, and structural proof theory. He has taught at the University of Pittsburgh since 1961; before that he was at Yale University. His best known work is his collaboration with Alan Ross Anderson on relevance logic. He has also published books on the logic of questions and answers, with Thomas Steel, and the logic of agency, with Michael Perloff and Ming Xu. He has contributed to the foundations of two very distinct theories of truth: he was a co-author of "The Prosentential Theory of Truth" with Dorothy Grover and Joseph Camp, and of The Revision Theory of Truth with Anil Gupta. He is also co-author with Ming Xu and Michel Perloff of "Facing the Future".
http://wn.com/Nuel_Belnap -
Olin Levi Warner
Olin Levi Warner (April 9, 1844 - August 14, 1896), an American sculptor and artist, was noted for the striking bas relief portrait medallions and busts he created in the late 19th century.
http://wn.com/Olin_Levi_Warner -
Otto Neurath
Otto Neurath (Vienna, December 10, 1882 - Oxford, December 22, 1945) was an Austrian philosopher of science, sociologist, and political economist. Before he was forced to flee his native country for Great Britain in the wake of the Nazi occupation, Neurath was one of the leading figures of the Vienna Circle.
http://wn.com/Otto_Neurath -
P. F. Strawson
Sir Peter Frederick Strawson FBA (23 November 1919 – 13 February 2006) was an English philosopher. He was the Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical Philosophy at the University of Oxford (Magdalen College) from 1968 to 1987. Before that he was appointed as a college lecturer at University College, Oxford in 1947 and became a tutorial fellow the following year until 1968. On his retirement in 1987, he returned to the college and continued working there until shortly before his death.
http://wn.com/P_F_Strawson -
P.F. Strawson
http://wn.com/PF_Strawson -
Parmenides
Parmenides of Elea (Greek: ; fl. early 5th century BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher born in Elea, a Greek city on the southern coast of Italy. He was the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. The single known work of Parmenides is a poem which has survived only in fragmentary form. In this poem, Parmenides describes two views of reality. In The Way of Truth (a part of the poem), he explains how reality is one, change is impossible, and existence is timeless, uniform, and unchanging. In The Way of Opinion, he explains the world of appearances, which is false and deceitful. These thoughts strongly influenced Plato, and through him, the whole of Western philosophy.
http://wn.com/Parmenides -
Paul Bernays
http://wn.com/Paul_Bernays -
Paul Grice
Herbert Paul Grice (March 13, 1913, Birmingham, England – August 28, 1988, Berkeley, California), usually publishing under the name H. P. Grice, H. Paul Grice, or Paul Grice, was a British-educated philosopher of language, who spent the final two decades of his career in the United States.
http://wn.com/Paul_Grice -
Paul Horwich
Paul Horwich (born 1947) is a British analytic philosopher at New York University, whose work includes writings on causality, the philosophy of language (especially truth, and meaning) and Wittgenstein's later philosophy. Horwich earned his PhD from Cornell University; his thesis advisor was Richard Boyd (title of the doctoral thesis: The Metric and Topology of Time). He has previously taught at MIT, University College London, and CUNY Graduate Center.
http://wn.com/Paul_Horwich -
Peter Geach
Peter Thomas Geach (; born March 29, 1916) is a British philosopher. His areas of interest are the history of philosophy, philosophical logic, and the theory of identity.
http://wn.com/Peter_Geach -
Pilate
http://wn.com/Pilate -
Plato
:For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Plato -
Plotinus
http://wn.com/Plotinus -
R. G. Collingwood
http://wn.com/R_G_Collingwood -
Raymond Smullyan
Raymond Merrill Smullyan (born May 25, 1919) is an American mathematician, concert pianist, logician, Taoist philosopher, and magician.
http://wn.com/Raymond_Smullyan -
René Descartes
http://wn.com/René_Descartes -
Richard Feynman
http://wn.com/Richard_Feynman -
Richard Kirkham
Richard Ladd Kirkham (born 18 June 1955) is an American philosopher. Among his published works are Theories of Truth (MIT Press, 1992), "Does the Gettier Problem Rest on a Mistake?" Mind (1984. Vol.93, No.372), and "On Paradoxes and a Surprise Exam" Philosophia (1991). Kirkham graduated from Cornell College in 1977 and received his Ph.D. from the University of Notre Dame in 1983.
http://wn.com/Richard_Kirkham -
Richard Rorty
http://wn.com/Richard_Rorty -
Robert Audi
http://wn.com/Robert_Audi -
Robert Nozick
http://wn.com/Robert_Nozick -
Romanian philosophy
Romanian philosophy is a name covering either a) the philosophy done in Romania or by Romanians, or b) an ethnic philosophy, which expresses at a high level the fundamental features of the Romanian spirituality, or which elevates to a philosophical level the Weltanschauung of the Romanian people, as deposited in language and folklore, traditions, architecture and other linguistic and cultural artifacts.
http://wn.com/Romanian_philosophy -
Rudolf Carnap
Rudolf Carnap (May 18, 1891 – September 14, 1970) was an influential German-born philosopher who was active in Europe before 1935 and in the United States thereafter. He was a leading member of the Vienna Circle and a prominent advocate of logical positivism.
http://wn.com/Rudolf_Carnap -
Russian philosophy
http://wn.com/Russian_philosophy -
Saul Kripke
Saul Aaron Kripke (born November 13, 1940) is an American philosopher and logician. He is a professor emeritus at Princeton and teaches as a Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at CUNY Graduate Center. Since the 1960s Kripke has been a central figure in a number of fields related to mathematical logic, philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, metaphysics, epistemology, and set theory. Much of his work remains unpublished or exists only as tape-recordings and privately circulated manuscripts (see "Unpublished Manuscripts and Online Lectures" below). Kripke was the recipient of the 2001 Schock Prize in Logic and Philosophy. A recent poll conducted among philosophers ranked Kripke among the top ten most important philosophers of the past 200 years.
http://wn.com/Saul_Kripke -
Simon Blackburn
Simon Blackburn (born 1944) is a British academic philosopher known for his efforts to popularise philosophy. He attended Clifton College and went on to receive his bachelor's degree in philosophy in 1965 from Trinity College, Cambridge and his doctorate in 1970 from Churchill College, Cambridge. He is currently Professor of Philosophy at the University of Cambridge's Faculty of Philosophy and Research Professor of Philosophy at the University of North Carolina. He is also a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. He was previously a Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford and has also taught at the University of North Carolina as an Edna J. Koury Professor. He is the current president of the Aristotelian Society, serving the 2009-2010 term.
http://wn.com/Simon_Blackburn -
Socrates
http://wn.com/Socrates -
Spinoza
http://wn.com/Spinoza -
Stephen Cole Kleene
http://wn.com/Stephen_Cole_Kleene -
Susan Haack
Susan Haack (born 1945, England) is an English professor of philosophy and law at the University of Miami in the United States. She has written on logic, the philosophy of language, epistemology, and metaphysics. Her pragmatism follows that of Charles Sanders Peirce.
http://wn.com/Susan_Haack -
Søren Kierkegaard
http://wn.com/Søren_Kierkegaard -
Tarski
http://wn.com/Tarski -
Thoralf Skolem
http://wn.com/Thoralf_Skolem -
W. V. Quine
http://wn.com/W_V_Quine -
W.V. Quine
http://wn.com/WV_Quine -
William James
:This article is about the American psychologist and philosopher. For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation)
http://wn.com/William_James -
William Kneale
William Kneale (1905–1990) was an English logician best-known for his 1962 book The Development of Logic, a history of logic from its beginnings in Ancient Greece written with his wife Martha. Kneale was also known as a philosopher of science and the author of a book on Probability and Induction. He was a Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, and in 1960 succeeded to the White's Professorship of Moral Philosophy previously occupied by the linguistic philosopher J. L. Austin. He retired in 1966.
http://wn.com/William_Kneale -
William of Ockham
http://wn.com/William_of_Ockham
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Alexander - Truth
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:22
- Published: 27 Sep 2010
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
Alexander Ebert Truth (Song) Lyrics: Truth The truth is that I never shook my shadow Every day it's trying to trick me into doing battle Calling out "faker" only get me rattled Want to pull me back behind the fence with the [cattle] Building your [lenses] Digging your trenches Put me on the front line Leave me with a dumb mind With no defenses But your defenses If you can't stand to feel the pain then you are senseless [Since] this I've grown up some Different kind of fighter And when the darkness come let it inside you Your darkness is shining My darkness is shining Have faith in myself Truth I've seen a million numbered doors on the horizon Now which is the future you choosen before you gone dying. I'll tell you 'bout a secret I've been underminding Every little lie in this world come from dividing Say you're my lover, say you're my homie, Tilt my chin back slit my throat take a bath in my blood get to know me All out of my secrets All my enemies are turning into my teachers. Because, lights blinding, no way dividing what's yours or mine when everything's shining You darkness is shining my darkness is shining Have faith in ourselves Truth Yes I'm only loving, only trying to only love That's what I'm trying to do is only loving Yes I'm only lonely loving feeling only loving Till I'm feeling only loving Ya say it ain't loving ain't loving my loving But I'm only loving only loving only loving Only loving the truth.
http://wn.com/Alexander_Truth
Chiddy Bang - Truth
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:53
- Published: 20 Apr 2010
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
Music video by Chiddy Bang performing Truth. (P) 2010 The copyright in this audiovisual recording is owned by EMI Records Ltd
http://wn.com/Chiddy_Bang_Truth
Alexander - official TRUTH music video directed by Tao Ruspoli
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:02
- Published: 15 Jul 2011
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
Truth The truth is that I never shook my shadow Every day it's trying to trick me into doing battle Calling out "faker" only get me rattled Want to pull me back behind the fence with the cattle Building your lenses Digging your trenches Put me on the front line Leave me with a dumb mind With no defenses But your defenses If you can't stand to feel the pain then you are senseless Since this I've grown up some Different kind of fighter And when the darkness come let it inside you Your darkness is shining My darkness is shining Have faith in myself Truth I've seen a million numbered doors on the horizon Now which is the future you choosen before you gone dying. I'll tell you 'bout a secret I've been underminding Every little lie in this world come from dividing Say you're my lover, say you're my homie, Tilt my chin back slit my throat take a bath in my blood get to know me All out of my secrets All my enemies are turning into my teachers. Because, lights blinding, no way dividing what's yours or mine when everything's shining You darkness is shining my darkness is shining Have faith in ourselves Truth Yes I'm only loving, only trying to only love That's what I'm trying to do is only loving Yes I'm only lonely loving feeling only loving Till I'm feeling only loving Ya say it ain't loving ain't loving my loving But I'm only loving only loving only loving Only loving the truth. Purchase on iTunes itunes.apple.com Directed by Tao Ruspoli www.taoruspoli.com Video Written by Mark <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Alexander_official_TRUTH_music_video_directed_by_Tao_Ruspoli
Let it Shine's§Moment of Truth (final rap battle)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:17
- Published: 16 Jun 2012
- Updated: 09 Jul 2012
One of Disney channel's newest original movies Let It Shine.This is a lyric video for the final rap battle between Brandon Mychal Smith§Tyler James Williams. MOMENT OF TRUTH. The real thing folks. Don't hide annotations, yes I know I messed up some lyrics I went over the video and fixed it NO need to comment.I do not own this song.
http://wn.com/Let_it_Shine's§Moment_of_Truth_final_rap_battle
The Truth Behind The Energy Lie (Supression Of Technological Evolution, The Evidence) full movie
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 68:50
- Published: 11 Feb 2012
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
***please Share, help wake the world up*** theenergylie.weebly.com No Body Of Men Has The Right To Deny The Technological Evolution Of Mankind... The Energy Crisis is a lie, here is the evidence. If a civilization truly wishes to consider itself civilized, it must embrace all technological and scientific advances. The suppression of any technological advance, can not be tolerated if we wish to be a 'civil'ization. we must ask ourselves if we are working for the benefit of all mankind, or working for the benefit of a few businessman and politicians. The fact that we are unnecessarily poisoning our planet, our home, when their are numerous solutions, raises several questions as to why these technologies are being suppressed. The root of the problem is almost entirely one thing, greed. We as a society can no longer focus our entire efforts into what is profitable, because what is profitable is not always right, and what is right is not always profitable. contains a 7-part movie covering various inventors and suppressed inventions. such as, Nikola Tesla, Marco Rodin, Stan Meyers, John Hutchison, Water powered cars(HHO gas) water, dirt, and air batteries, "kelvins thunderstorm", Stirling engines, the "n-machine", and several others, well worth watching, even if you know a lot about "free energy" you may learn something you didn't know.
http://wn.com/The_Truth_Behind_The_Energy_Lie_Supression_Of_Technological_Evolution,_The_Evidence_full_movie
Fantasia - Truth Is
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:51
- Published: 03 Oct 2009
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
Music video by Fantasia performing Truth Is. (C) 2004 19 Recordings Limited
http://wn.com/Fantasia_Truth_Is
A Few Good Man "You Can't Handle the Truth"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:51
- Published: 22 Mar 2008
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
Colonel Nathan R. Jessep Addresses the Court on "Code Red"
http://wn.com/A_Few_Good_Man_You_Can't_Handle_the_Truth
The Truth by Handsome Boy Modeling School
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:37
- Published: 10 Feb 2007
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
A simply beautiful song. Beautiful voice, lyrics, and music. From Handsome Boy Modeling School's album, "So...How's Your Girl?". Music and album art...simple.
http://wn.com/The_Truth_by_Handsome_Boy_Modeling_School
Theory Of A Deadman - The Truth Is... (I Lied About Everything) (Lyrics)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:28
- Published: 08 Jul 2011
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
Song by Theory Of A Deadman from their album "The Truth Is...". You lie about you, and you lie about me You lie about your ex's and the STDs, You grew up rich in the Florida Keys You lie about everything You lie about a baby being on the way You lie to yourself if you think I'll stay It's just a big game I don't wanna play You lie about everything You think you'll get everything you want But you ain't gonna get it from me The truth is, It was all pretend All along I've been sleeping with your best friend The truth is, I really hate your face You were never all that hot in the first place Studdered in bed just like you're givin head You've gone and got me thinking I'd be better off dead The truth is You're fuckin useless The truth is I lied about everything You lie to your folks, say everythings fine What you don't know, rents 2 months behind Tell all your friends that we have a great time You lie about everything You lie when you said your tits are real They're about as fake as the way we feel You're so full of shit how can I deal You lie about everything I don't think we stand a chance Watch the things you can't take back The truth is, It was all pretend All along I've been sleeping with your best friend The truth is, I really hate your face You were never all that hot in the first place Studdered in bed just like you're givin head You've gone and got me thinking I'd be better off dead The truth is You're fuckin useless The truth is I lied about everything You lied about <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Theory_Of_A_Deadman_The_Truth_Is_I_Lied_About_Everything_Lyrics
Alexander Ebert, "Truth"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:22
- Published: 11 Mar 2011
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
From the album 'Alexander'. www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/Alexander_Ebert,_Truth
Limp Bizkit - The Truth
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:08
- Published: 05 Oct 2009
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
Music video by Limp Bizkit performing The Truth. (C) 2005 Interscope Records
http://wn.com/Limp_Bizkit_The_Truth
THE SHOCKING TRUTH OF THE PENDING EU COLLAPSE!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:53
- Published: 17 Dec 2011
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
When the hell do we the so called common people wake the hell up? Unlimited money supply is not enough for these people. They want all of our souls!!
http://wn.com/THE_SHOCKING_TRUTH_OF_THE_PENDING_EU_COLLAPSE!
Truth
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:33
- Published: 16 Aug 2009
- Updated: 07 Jul 2012
Download MP3: illbehonest.com Full Sermon HERE: tiny.cc The truth is, the way is truly narrow, and only few people will find eternal life. (Matthew 7:21, Luke 13:24) Preacher: Albert N. Martin I'll Be Honest, will you? illbehonest.com
http://wn.com/Truth
Modern Warfare 3 - Blame Truth MW3 Stats and Classes
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:37
- Published: 28 Jun 2012
- Updated: 09 Jul 2012
Give the video a Like rating; it helps me out. :) Thanks, ily. My Twitter: twitter.com My facebook: www.facebook.com
http://wn.com/Modern_Warfare_3_Blame_Truth_MW3_Stats_and_Classes
Truth Is - Levellers
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:29
- Published: 26 Mar 2012
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
Truth Is | Your Parade available to download now from: iTunes - itunes.apple.com 7digital - www.7digital.com Play.com - www.play.com Limited edition red 7" available from www.propermusic.com PRE-ORDER NEW ALBUM 'STATIC ON THE AIRWAVES' out 25.06.2012 PROPER -- SIGNED CD - www.propermusic.com PROPER -- SIGNED LP - www.propermusic.com PROPER -- SIGNED BOX SET - www.propermusic.com HMV cd only - hmv.com PLAY cd only - www.play.com AMAZON cd only- www.amazon.co.uk www.levellers.co.uk www.facebook.com/levellersofficial
http://wn.com/Truth_Is_Levellers
The Beautiful Truth
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 91:35
- Published: 17 Dec 2010
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
Raised on a wildlife reserve in Alaska, 15-year-old Garrett was interested in the dietary habits of the farm animals. After the tragic death of his mother, Garrett's father decided to home-school his son and assigned a book written by Dr. Max Gerson that proposed a direct link between diet and a cure for cancer. Fascinated, Garrett embarks in this documentary on a cross-country road trip to investigate The Gerson Therapy. He meets with scientists, doctors and cancer survivors who reveal how it is in the best interest of the multi-billion dollar medical industry to dismiss the notion of alternative and natural cures.
http://wn.com/The_Beautiful_Truth
Audiomachine - The Truth
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:25
- Published: 11 Nov 2011
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
Composer: Paul Dinletir wallpaper: wall.alphacoders.com All Music and images belong to their rightful owners. No copyright infringement intended.
http://wn.com/Audiomachine_The_Truth
Horizon - The Truth About Exercise (BBC, 2012)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 58:30
- Published: 29 Feb 2012
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
Like many, Michael Mosley want to get fitter and healthier but can't face hours on the treadmill or trips to the gym. Help may be at hand. He uncovers the surprising new research which suggests many of us could benefit from just three minutes of high intensity exercise a week. He discovers the hidden power of simple activities like walking and fidgeting, and finds out why some of us don't respond to exercise at all Using himself as a guinea pig, Michael uncovers the surprising new research about exercise, that has the power to make us all live longer and healthier lives.
http://wn.com/Horizon_The_Truth_About_Exercise_BBC,_2012
An Inconvenient Truth
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:20
- Published: 22 Mar 2012
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
I travel back in time and break some hard news to myself. Young Freddie played by Philip - you may remember him from this video: www.youtube.com Also I may have inadvertently invented Flamin' Hots, Terminator 2 style
http://wn.com/An_Inconvenient_Truth
Israel Palestinian Conflict: The Truth About the West Bank
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:17
- Published: 12 Jul 2011
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
Israel's Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs Danny Ayalon explains the historical facts relating to the Israeli Palestinian conflict. The video explains where the terms "West Bank", "occupied territories" and "67 Borders" originated and how they are incorrectly used and applied. Also follow on Twitter: twitter.com and facebook.com
http://wn.com/Israel_Palestinian_Conflict_The_Truth_About_the_West_Bank
The Truth (Vertigo)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:16
- Published: 01 Aug 2007
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
Dramatic video describing the way God views the human race. To purchase The Truth video to use in your church, visit WiredChurches.com. For questions regarding the video email info@wiredchurches.com
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The Silent Revolution of Truth HD UFO Film - UFOs and Messages from Outer Space
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 96:13
- Published: 26 Oct 2011
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
From UFOTV®, accept no imitations. Now presenting the most controversial UFO / ET case in history. The truth is exposed in this remarkable film about how one man's meetings with extraterrestrials lead him through dozens of countries, meeting many famous world leaders including Saddam Hussein and later revealing ancient prophecies that would eventually come true. In 1958 he predicted the Iraq Wars, Global Warming and even the AIDS epidemic. You will be captivated by how "Billy" Eduard Albert Meier became known in his early years as "The Phantom," (a real life combination of Indian Jones, Han Solo and Larwence of Arabia), who carried a 44 Magnum and apprehended serial killers and mass murderers. Meier's life story is an enigmatic journey that ultimately culminates with him becoming the messenger for an advanced race of ET beings know as the Plejaran. Their message is clear: earth is in trouble, the people have been asleep, and we must make drastic changes or there will be devastating consequences for all of mankind. In his later years Meier stumped hundreds of skeptics with his clear UFO photographs, film footage and sound recordings of Plejaran "Beam Ships," all taken and recorded in broad daylight. Exotic metal samples he received from the extraterrestrials according to scientists, remain to this day, irreproducible. So decide for yourself if it's all a hoax, and if so, then ask yourself, why has Meier been the target of 21 assassination attempts? Could it be that the <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/The_Silent_Revolution_of_Truth_HD_UFO_Film_UFOs_and_Messages_from_Outer_Space
Occupy Bilderberg 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:19
- Published: 17 May 2012
- Updated: 08 Jul 2012
Contribute a donation to Press for Truth by clicking the "support independent media" button located at this link: pressfortruth.tv The annual Bilderberg conference is taking place from May 31 to June 3 in Chantilly Virginia. Help send Dan and Steve of Press For Truth to provide coverage of this important meeting of some of the worlds most powerful and influential people. We can't do this without your help! Support Press For Truth by contributing to our "Chip In" pressfortruth.tv Join Press For Truth TV: pressfortruth.tv We receive no sponsorships or funding from anyone and rely on you the viewer to help us continue to do this work. With your help I can continue to make videos and documentary films for youtube that are raising awareness all over the world. Please support independent media by joining Press For Truth TV! As a Press For Truth TV subscriber you'll have full access to the site's features and content including Daily Video Blogs on current news from the PFT perspective and High Quality Downloads of all Press For Truth Films, Music and Special Reports! Subscribe to Press For Truth TV: pressfortruth.tv For more information visit: pressfortruth.tv I will continue to work tirelessly at exposing the global elite and their plans for a new world order. Thank you for your support. Dan Dicks - Founder of Press For Truth www.facebook.com www.youtube.com twitter.com Want a Press For Truth T-Shirt? pressfortruth.ca pressfortruth.ca
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photo: WN / Denise Yong
18 Jul 2012
Until recently Neanderthals, who disappeared between 30,000 and 24,000 years ago, were thought to be predominantly meat-eaters. However, evidence of dietary breadth is growing as more sophisticated...
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For other uses, see Truth (disambiguation).
Truth has a variety of meanings, primarily being in accord with fact or reality,[1] fidelity to an original or to a standard or ideal and, in common usage, constancy or sincerity in action or character.[1] The opposite of truth is falsehood, which, correspondingly, can also take on a logical, factual or ethical meaning.
Language and words are a means by which humans convey information to one another. As such, "truth" must have a beneficial use to be retained within language. Defining this potency and applicability can be looked upon as "criteria", and the method used to recognize a "truth" is termed a criterion of truth. Since there is no single accepted criterion, they can all be considered "theories".[clarification needed]
In religious context, truth is regarded as an aspect of God since the deity is reputed to have knowledge of all things (omniscience).[2] Thus God may hold the office of divine judgment, by which all people are ultimately judged.[3]
Various theories and views of truth continue to be debated among scholars and philosophers. There are differing claims on such questions as what constitutes truth: what things are truthbearers capable of being true or false; how to define and identify truth; the roles that revealed and acquired knowledge play; and whether truth is subjective or objective, relative or absolute.
Contents |
Nomenclature, orthography, and etymology[link]
The English word truth is from Old English tríewþ, tréowþ, trýwþ, Middle English trewþe, cognate to Old High German triuwida, Old Norse tryggð. Like troth, it is a -th nominalisation of the adjective true (Old English tréowe).
The English word true is from Old English (West Saxon) (ge)tríewe, tréowe, cognate to Old Saxon (gi)trûui, Old High German (ga)triuwu (Modern German treu "faithful"), Old Norse tryggr, Gothic triggws,[4] all from a Proto-Germanic *trewwj- "having good faith". Old Norse trú, "faith, word of honour; religious faith, belief"[5] (archaic English troth "loyalty, honesty, good faith", compare Ásatrú).
Thus, 'truth' involves both the quality of "faithfulness, fidelity, loyalty, sincerity, veracity",[6] and that of "agreement with fact or reality", in Anglo-Saxon expressed by sōþ (Modern English sooth).
All Germanic languages besides English have introduced a terminological distinction between truth "fidelity" and truth "factuality". To express "factuality", North Germanic opted for nouns derived from sanna "to assert, affirm", while continental West Germanic (German and Dutch) opted for continuations of wâra "faith, trust, pact" (cognate to Slavic věra "(religious) faith", but influenced by Latin verus). Romance languages use terms following the Latin veritas, while the Greek aletheia, Russian pravda and Serbian istina have separate etymological origins.
Major theories of truth[link]
The question of what is a proper basis for deciding how words, symbols, ideas and beliefs may properly be considered true, whether by a single person or an entire society, is dealt with by the five major substantive theories introduced below. Each theory presents perspectives that are widely shared by published scholars.[7][8][9] There also have more recently arisen "deflationary" or "minimalist" theories of truth based on the idea that the application of a term like true to a statement does not assert anything significant about it, for instance, anything about its nature, but that the label truth is a tool of discourse used to express agreement, to emphasize claims, or to form certain types of generalizations.[7][10][11]
Substantive theories[link]
Correspondence theory[link]
Main article: Correspondence theory of truth
Correspondence theories state that true beliefs and true statements correspond to the actual state of affairs.[12] This type of theory posits a relationship between thoughts or statements on one hand, and things or objects on the other. It is a traditional model which goes back at least to some of the classical Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.[13] This class of theories holds that the truth or the falsity of a representation is determined in principle solely by how it relates to "things", by whether it accurately describes those "things". An example of correspondence theory is the statement by the Thirteenth Century philosopher/theologian Thomas Aquinas: Veritas est adaequatio rei et intellectus ("Truth is the equation [or adequation] of things and intellect"), a statement which Aquinas attributed to the Ninth Century neoplatonist Isaac Israeli.[14][15] Aquinas also restated the theory as: “A judgment is said to be true when it conforms to the external reality”[16]
Correspondence theory practically operates on the assumption that truth is a matter of accurately copying what was much later called "objective reality" and then representing it in thoughts, words and other symbols.[17] Many modern theorists have stated that this ideal cannot be achieved independently of some analysis of additional factors.[7][18] For example, language plays a role in that all languages have words that are not easily translatable into another. The German word Zeitgeist is one such example: one who speaks or understands the language may "know" what it means, but any translation of the word apparently fails to accurately capture its full meaning (this is a problem with many abstract words, especially those derived in agglutinative languages). Thus, some words add an additional parameter to the construction of an accurate truth predicate. Among the philosophers who grappled with this problem is Alfred Tarski, whose semantic theory is summarized further below in this article.[19]
Proponents of several of the theories below have gone further to assert that there are yet other issues necessary to the analysis, such as interpersonal power struggles, community interactions, personal biases and other factors involved in deciding what is seen as truth.
Coherence theory[link]
Main article: Coherence theory of truth
For coherence theories in general, truth requires a proper fit of elements within a whole system. Very often, though, coherence is taken to imply something more than simple logical consistency; often there is a demand that the propositions in a coherent system lend mutual inferential support to each other. So, for example, the completeness and comprehensiveness of the underlying set of concepts is a critical factor in judging the validity and usefulness of a coherent system.[20] A pervasive tenet of coherence theories is the idea that truth is primarily a property of whole systems of propositions, and can be ascribed to individual propositions only according to their coherence with the whole. Among the assortment of perspectives commonly regarded as coherence theory, theorists differ on the question of whether coherence entails many possible true systems of thought or only a single absolute system.
Some variants of coherence theory are claimed to characterize the essential and intrinsic properties of formal systems in logic and mathematics.[21] However, formal reasoners are content to contemplate axiomatically independent and sometimes mutually contradictory systems side by side, for example, the various alternative geometries. On the whole, coherence theories have been criticized as lacking justification in their application to other areas of truth, especially with respect to assertions about the natural world, empirical data in general, assertions about practical matters of psychology and society, especially when used without support from the other major theories of truth.[22]
Coherence theories distinguish the thought of rationalist philosophers, particularly of Spinoza, Leibniz, and G.W.F. Hegel, along with the British philosopher F.H. Bradley.[23] They have found a resurgence also among several proponents of logical positivism, notably Otto Neurath and Carl Hempel.
Constructivist theory[link]
Main article: Constructivist epistemology
Social constructivism holds that truth is constructed by social processes, is historically and culturally specific, and that it is in part shaped through the power struggles within a community. Constructivism views all of our knowledge as "constructed," because it does not reflect any external "transcendent" realities (as a pure correspondence theory might hold). Rather, perceptions of truth are viewed as contingent on convention, human perception, and social experience. It is believed by constructivists that representations of physical and biological reality, including race, sexuality, and gender are socially constructed.
Giambattista Vico was among the first to claim that history and culture were man-made. Vico's epistemological orientation gathers the most diverse rays and unfolds in one axiom – verum ipsum factum – "truth itself is constructed". Hegel and Marx were among the other early proponents of the premise that truth is, or can be, socially constructed. Marx, like many critical theorists who followed, did not reject the existence of objective truth but rather distinguished between true knowledge and knowledge that has been distorted through power or ideology. For Marx scientific and true knowledge is 'in accordance with the dialectical understanding of history' and ideological knowledge 'an epiphenomenal expression of the relation of material forces in a given economic arrangement'.[24]
Consensus theory[link]
Main article: Consensus theory of truth
Consensus theory holds that truth is whatever is agreed upon, or in some versions, might come to be agreed upon, by some specified group. Such a group might include all human beings, or a subset thereof consisting of more than one person.
Among the current advocates of consensus theory as a useful accounting of the concept of "truth" is the philosopher Jürgen Habermas.[25] Habermas maintains that truth is what would be agreed upon in an ideal speech situation.[26] Among the current strong critics of consensus theory is the philosopher Nicholas Rescher.[27]
Pragmatic theory[link]
Main article: Pragmatic theory of truth
The three most influential forms of the pragmatic theory of truth were introduced around the turn of the 20th century by Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey. Although there are wide differences in viewpoint among these and other proponents of pragmatic theory, they hold in common that truth is verified and confirmed by the results of putting one's concepts into practice.[28]
Peirce defines truth as follows: "Truth is that concordance of an abstract statement with the ideal limit towards which endless investigation would tend to bring scientific belief, which concordance the abstract statement may possess by virtue of the confession of its inaccuracy and one-sidedness, and this confession is an essential ingredient of truth."[29] This statement emphasizes Peirce's view that ideas of approximation, incompleteness, and partiality, what he describes elsewhere as fallibilism and "reference to the future", are essential to a proper conception of truth. Although Peirce uses words like concordance and correspondence to describe one aspect of the pragmatic sign relation, he is also quite explicit in saying that definitions of truth based on mere correspondence are no more than nominal definitions, which he accords a lower status than real definitions.
William James's version of pragmatic theory, while complex, is often summarized by his statement that "the 'true' is only the expedient in our way of thinking, just as the 'right' is only the expedient in our way of behaving."[30] By this, James meant that truth is a quality, the value of which is confirmed by its effectiveness when applying concepts to practice (thus, "pragmatic").
John Dewey, less broadly than James but more broadly than Peirce, held that inquiry, whether scientific, technical, sociological, philosophical or cultural, is self-corrective over time if openly submitted for testing by a community of inquirers in order to clarify, justify, refine and/or refute proposed truths.[31]
Though not widely publicized, a new variation of the pragmatic theory was defined and wielded successfully from the 20th century forward. Defined and named by William Ernest Hocking, this variation is known as "negative pragmatism". Essentially, what works may or may not be true, but what fails cannot be true because the truth always works.[32] Richard Feynman also ascribed to it: "We never are definitely right, we can only be sure we are wrong."[33] This approach incorporates many of the ideas from Peirce, James, and Dewey. For Peirce, the idea of "... endless investigation would tend to bring about scientific belief ..." fits negative pragmatism in that a negative pragmatist would never stop testing. As Feynman noted, an idea or theory "... could never be proved right, because tomorrow's experiment might succeed in proving wrong what you thought was right."[33] Similarly, James and Dewey's ideas also ascribe to repeated testing which is "self-corrective" over time.
Pragmatism and negative pragmatism are also closely aligned with the coherence theory of truth in that any testing should not be isolated but rather incorporate knowledge from all human endeavors and experience. The universe is a whole and integrated system, and testing should recognize and account for its diversity. As Feynman said, "... if it disagrees with experiment, it is wrong."[34]
Minimalist (deflationary) theories[link]
Main article: Deflationary theory of truth
Some philosophers reject the thesis that the concept or term truth refers to a real property of sentences or propositions. These philosophers are responding, in part, to the common use of truth predicates (e.g., that some particular thing "...is true") which was particularly prevalent in philosophical discourse on truth in the first half of the 20th century. From this point of view, to assert the proposition “'2 + 2 = 4' is true” is logically equivalent to asserting the proposition “2 + 2 = 4”, and the phrase “is true” is completely dispensable in this and every other context. These positions are broadly described
- as deflationary theories of truth, since they attempt to deflate the presumed importance of the words "true" or truth,
- as disquotational theories, to draw attention to the disappearance of the quotation marks in cases like the above example, or
- as minimalist theories of truth.[7][35]
Whichever term is used, deflationary theories can be said to hold in common that "[t]he predicate 'true' is an expressive convenience, not the name of a property requiring deep analysis."[7] Once we have identified the truth predicate's formal features and utility, deflationists argue, we have said all there is to be said about truth. Among the theoretical concerns of these views is to explain away those special cases where it does appear that the concept of truth has peculiar and interesting properties. (See, e.g., Semantic paradoxes, and below.)
In addition to highlighting such formal aspects of the predicate "is true", some deflationists point out that the concept enables us to express things that might otherwise require infinitely long sentences. For example, one cannot express confidence in Michael's accuracy by asserting the endless sentence:
- Michael says, 'snow is white' and snow is white, or he says 'roses are red' and roses are red or he says ... etc.
This assertion can also be succinctly expressed by saying: What Michael says is true.[36]
Performative theory of truth[link]
Attributed to P. F. Strawson is the performative theory of truth which holds that to say "'Snow is white' is true" is to perform the speech act of signaling one's agreement with the claim that snow is white (much like nodding one's head in agreement). The idea that some statements are more actions than communicative statements is not as odd as it may seem. Consider, for example, that when the bride says "I do" at the appropriate time in a wedding, she is performing the act of taking this man to be her lawful wedded husband. She is not describing herself as taking this man, but actually doing so (perhaps the most thorough analysis of such "illocutionary acts" is J. L. Austin, "How to Do Things With Words"[37]).
Strawson holds that a similar analysis is applicable to all speech acts, not just illocutionary ones: "To say a statement is true is not to make a statement about a statement, but rather to perform the act of agreeing with, accepting, or endorsing a statement. When one says 'It's true that it's raining,' one asserts no more than 'It's raining.' The function of [the statement] 'It's true that...' is to agree with, accept, or endorse the statement that 'it's raining.'"[38]
Redundancy and related theories[link]
Main article: Redundancy theory of truth
According to the redundancy theory of truth, asserting that a statement is true is completely equivalent to asserting the statement itself. For example, making the assertion that " 'Snow is white' is true" is equivalent to asserting "Snow is white". Redundancy theorists infer from this premise that truth is a redundant concept; that is, it is merely a word that is traditionally used in conversation or writing, generally for emphasis, but not a word that actually equates to anything in reality. This theory is commonly attributed to Frank P. Ramsey, who held that the use of words like fact and truth was nothing but a roundabout way of asserting a proposition, and that treating these words as separate problems in isolation from judgment was merely a "linguistic muddle".[7][39][40]
A variant of redundancy theory is the disquotational theory which uses a modified form of Tarski's schema: To say that '"P" is true' is to say that P. A version of this theory was defended by C. J. F. Williams in his book What is Truth?. Yet another version of deflationism is the prosentential theory of truth, first developed by Dorothy Grover, Joseph Camp, and Nuel Belnap as an elaboration of Ramsey's claims. They argue that sentences like "That's true", when said in response to "It's raining", are prosentences, expressions that merely repeat the content of other expressions. In the same way that it means the same as my dog in the sentence My dog was hungry, so I fed it, That's true is supposed to mean the same as It's raining — if you say the latter and I then say the former. These variations do not necessarily follow Ramsey in asserting that truth is not a property, but rather can be understood to say that, for instance, the assertion "P" may well involve a substantial truth, and the theorists in this case are minimalizing only the redundancy or prosentence involved in the statement such as "that's true."[7]
Deflationary principles do not apply to representations that are not analogous to sentences, and also do not apply to many other things that are commonly judged to be true or otherwise. Consider the analogy between the sentence "Snow is white" and the character named Snow White, both of which can be true in some sense. To a minimalist, saying "Snow is white is true" is the same as saying "Snow is white," but to say "Snow White is true" is not the same as saying "Snow White."
Pluralist theories[link]
Main article: Pluralist theories of truth
Several of the major theories of truth hold that there is a particular property the having of which makes a belief or proposition true. Pluralist theories of truth assert that there may be more than one property that makes propositions true: ethical propositions might be true by virtue of coherence. Propositions about the physical world might be true by corresponding to the objects and properties they are about.
Some of the pragmatic theories, such as those by Charles Peirce and William James, included aspects of correspondence, coherence and constructivist theories.[29][30] Crispin Wright argued in his 1992 book Truth and Objectivity that any predicate which satisfied certain platitudes about truth qualified as a truth predicate. In some discourses, Wright argued, the role of the truth predicate might be played by the notion of superassertibility.[41] Michael Lynch, in a 2009 book Truth as One and Many, argued that we should see truth as a functional property capable of being multiply manifested in distinct properties like correspondence or coherence.[42]
Most believed theories[link]
According to a survey of professional philosophers and others on their philosophical views which was carried out in November 2009 (taken by 3226 respondents, including 1803 philosophy faculty members and/or PhDs and 829 philosophy graduate students) 44.9% of respondents accept or lean towards correspondence theories, 20.7% accept or lean towards deflationary theories and 13.8% epistemic theories.[43]
Formal theories[link]
Truth in logic[link]
Logic is concerned with the patterns in reason that can help tell us if a proposition is true or not. However, logic does not deal with truth in the absolute sense, as for instance a metaphysician does. Logicians use formal languages to express the truths which they are concerned with, and as such there is only truth under some interpretation or truth within some logical system.
A logical truth (also called an analytic truth or a necessary truth) is a statement which is true in all possible worlds[44] or under all possible interpretations, as contrasted to a fact (also called a synthetic claim or a contingency) which is only true in this world as it has historically unfolded. A proposition such as “If p and q, then p.” is considered to be logical truth because it is true because of the meaning of the symbols and words in it and not because of any facts of any particular world. They are such that they could not be untrue.
Truth in mathematics[link]
Main articles: Model theory and Proof theory
There are two main approaches to truth in mathematics. They are the model theory of truth and the proof theory of truth[citation needed].
Historically, with the nineteenth century development of Boolean algebra mathematical models of logic began to treat "truth", also represented as "T" or "1", as an arbitrary constant. "Falsity" is also an arbitrary constant, which can be represented as "F" or "0". In propositional logic, these symbols can be manipulated according to a set of axioms and rules of inference, often given in the form of truth tables.
In addition, from at least the time of Hilbert's program at the turn of the twentieth century to the proof of Gödel's incompleteness theorems and the development of the Church-Turing thesis in the early part of that century, true statements in mathematics were generally assumed to be those statements which are provable in a formal axiomatic system.[citation needed]
The works of Kurt Gödel, Alan Turing, and others shook this assumption, with the development of statements that are true but cannot be proven within the system.[45] Two examples of the latter can be found in Hilbert's problems. Work on Hilbert's 10th problem led in the late twentieth century to the construction of specific Diophantine equations for which it is undecidable whether they have a solution,[46] or even if they do, whether they have a finite or infinite number of solutions. More fundamentally, Hilbert's first problem was on the continuum hypothesis.[47] Gödel and Paul Cohen showed that this hypothesis cannot be proved or disproved using the standard axioms of set theory.[48] In the view of some, then, it is equally reasonable to take either the continuum hypothesis or its negation as a new axiom.
Semantic theory of truth[link]
The semantic theory of truth has as its general case for a given language:
- 'P' is true if and only if P
where 'P' is a reference to the sentence (the sentence's name), and P is just the sentence itself.
Logician and philosopher Alfred Tarski developed the theory for formal languages (such as formal logic). Here he restricted it in this way: no language could contain its own truth predicate, that is, the expression is true could only apply to sentences in some other language. The latter he called an object language, the language being talked about. (It may, in turn, have a truth predicate that can be applied to sentences in still another language.) The reason for his restriction was that languages that contain their own truth predicate will contain paradoxical sentences like the Liar: This sentence is not true. See The Liar paradox. As a result Tarski held that the semantic theory could not be applied to any natural language, such as English, because they contain their own truth predicates. Donald Davidson used it as the foundation of his truth-conditional semantics and linked it to radical interpretation in a form of coherentism.
Bertrand Russell is credited with noticing the existence of such paradoxes even in the best symbolic formalizations of mathematics in his day, in particular the paradox that came to be named after him, Russell's paradox. Russell and Whitehead attempted to solve these problems in Principia Mathematica by putting statements into a hierarchy of types, wherein a statement cannot refer to itself, but only to statements lower in the hierarchy. This in turn led to new orders of difficulty regarding the precise natures of types and the structures of conceptually possible type systems that have yet to be resolved to this day.
Kripke's theory of truth[link]
Saul Kripke contends that a natural language can in fact contain its own truth predicate without giving rise to contradiction. He showed how to construct one as follows:
- Begin with a subset of sentences of a natural language that contains no occurrences of the expression "is true" (or "is false"). So The barn is big is included in the subset, but not " The barn is big is true", nor problematic sentences such as "This sentence is false".
- Define truth just for the sentences in that subset.
- Then extend the definition of truth to include sentences that predicate truth or falsity of one of the original subset of sentences. So "The barn is big is true" is now included, but not either "This sentence is false" nor "'The barn is big is true' is true".
- Next, define truth for all sentences that predicate truth or falsity of a member of the second set. Imagine this process repeated infinitely, so that truth is defined for The barn is big; then for "The barn is big is true"; then for "'The barn is big is true' is true", and so on.
Notice that truth never gets defined for sentences like This sentence is false, since it was not in the original subset and does not predicate truth of any sentence in the original or any subsequent set. In Kripke's terms, these are "ungrounded." Since these sentences are never assigned either truth or falsehood even if the process is carried out infinitely, Kripke's theory implies that some sentences are neither true nor false. This contradicts the Principle of bivalence: every sentence must be either true or false. Since this principle is a key premise in deriving the Liar paradox, the paradox is dissolved.[49]
Notable views[link]
Ancient history[link]
The ancient Greek origins of the words "true" and "truth" have some consistent definitions throughout great spans of history that were often associated with topics of logic, geometry, mathematics, deduction, induction, and natural philosophy.
Socrates', Plato's and Aristotle's ideas about truth are commonly seen as consistent with correspondence theory. In his Metaphysics, Aristotle stated: “To say of what is that it is not, or of what is not that it is, is false, while to say of what is that it is, and of what is not that it is not, is true”.[50] The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy proceeds to say of Aristotle:
Aristotle sounds much more like a genuine correspondence theorist in the Categories (12b11, 14b14), where he talks of “underlying things” that make statements true and implies that these “things” (pragmata) are logically structured situations or facts (viz., his sitting, his not sitting). Most influential is his claim in De Interpretatione (16a3) that thoughts are “likenessess” (homoiosis) of things. Although he nowhere defines truth in terms of a thought's likeness to a thing or fact, it is clear that such a definition would fit well into his overall philosophy of mind.[50]
Very similar statements can also be found in Plato (Cratylus 385b2, Sophist 263b).[50]
In Hinduism, Truth is defined as "unchangeable", "that which has no distortion", "that which is beyond distinctions of time, space, and person", "that which pervades the universe in all its constancy". Human body, therefore is not completely true as it changes with time, for example. There are many references, properties and explanations of truth by Hindu sages that explain varied facets of truth, such as "Satyam eva jayate"(Truth alone wins), "Satyam muktaye" (Truth liberates), Satya' is 'Parahit'artham' va'unmanaso yatha'rthatvam' satyam (Satya is the benevolent use of words and the mind for the welfare of others or in other words responsibilities is truth too), "When one is firmly established in speaking truth, the fruits of action become subservient to him ( patanjali yogasutras, sutra number 2.36 ), "The face of truth is covered by a golden bowl. Unveil it, O Pusan (Sun), so that I who have truth as my duty (satyadharma) may see it!" (Brhadaranyaka V 15 1-4 and the brief IIsa Upanisad 15-18), Truth is superior to silence(Manusmriti), etc. Combined with other words, satya acts as modifier, like "ultra" or "highest," or more literally "truest," connoting purity and excellence. For example, satyaloka is the "highest heaven' and Satya Yuga is the "golden age" or best of the four cyclical cosmic ages in Hinduism, and so on.
Medieval age[link]
Avicenna[link]
In early Islamic philosophy, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) defined truth in his Metaphysics of Healing, Book I, Chapter 8, as:
What corresponds in the mind to what is outside it.[51]
Avicenna elaborated on his definition of truth in his Metaphysics Book Eight, Chapter 6:
The truth of a thing is the property of the being of each thing which has been established in it.[52]
However, this definition is merely a translation of the Latin translation from the Middle Ages.[53] A modern translation of the original Arabic text states:
Truth is also said of the veridical belief in the existence [of something].[54]
Aquinas[link]
Reevaluating Avicenna, and also Augustine and Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas stated in his Disputed Questions on Truth:
A natural thing, being placed between two intellects, is called true insofar as it conforms to either. It is said to be true with respect to its conformity with the divine intellect insofar as it fulfills the end to which it was ordained by the divine intellect... With respect to its conformity with a human intellect, a thing is said to be true insofar as it is such as to cause a true estimate about itself.[55]
Thus, for Aquinas, the truth of the human intellect (logical truth) is based on the truth in things (ontological truth).[56] Following this, he wrote an elegant re-statement of Aristotle's view in his Summa I.16.1:
Veritas est adæquatio intellectus et rei.
(Truth is the conformity of the intellect to the things.)
Aquinas also said that real things participate in the act of being of the Creator God who is Subsistent Being, Intelligence, and Truth. Thus, these beings possess the light of intelligibility and are knowable. These things (beings; reality) are the foundation of the truth that is found in the human mind, when it acquires knowledge of things, first through the senses, then through the understanding and the judgement done by reason. For Aquinas, human intelligence ("intus", within and "legere", to read) has the capability to reach the essence and existence of things because it has a non-material, spiritual element, although some moral, educational, and other elements might interfere with its capability.
Modern age[link]
Kant[link]
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Immanuel Kant endorses a definition of truth along the lines of the correspondence theory of truth.[50] Kant writes in the Critique of Pure Reason: "The nominal definition of truth, namely that it is the agreement of cognition with its object, is here granted and presupposed".[57] However, Kant denies that this correspondence definition of truth provides us with a test or criterion to establish which judgements are true. Kant states in his logic lectures:
Truth, it is said, consists in the agreement of cognition with its object. In consequence of this mere nominal definition, my cognition, to count as true, is supposed to agree with its object. Now I can compare the object with my cognition, however, only by cognizing it. Hence my cognition is supposed to confirm itself, which is far short of being sufficient for truth. For since the object is outside me, the cognition in me, all I can ever pass judgement on is whether my cognition of the object agrees with my cognition of the object. The ancients called such a circle in explanation a diallelon. And actually the logicians were always reproached with this mistake by the sceptics, who observed that with this definition of truth it is just as when someone makes a statement before a court and in doing so appeals to a witness with whom no one is acquainted, but who wants to establish his credibility by maintaining that the one who called him as witness is an honest man. The accusation was grounded, too. Only the solution of the indicated problem is impossible without qualification and for every man.[58]
This passage makes use of his distinction between nominal and real definitions. A nominal definition explains the meaning of a linguistic expression. A real definition describes the essence of certain objects and enable us to determine whether any given item falls within the definition.[59] Kant holds that the definition of truth is merely nominal and, therefore, we cannot employ it to establish which judgements are true. According to Kant, the ancient skeptics criticized the logicians for holding that, by means of a merely nominal definition of truth, they can establish which judgements are true. They were trying to do something that is "impossible without qualification and for every man".[58]
Hegel[link]
Georg Hegel distanced his philosophy from psychology by presenting truth as being an external self–moving object instead of being related to inner, subjective thoughts. Hegel's truth is analogous to the mechanics of a material body in motion under the influence of its own inner force. "Truth is its own self–movement within itself."[60] Teleological truth moves itself in the three–step form of dialectical triplicity toward the final goal of perfect, final, absolute truth. For Hegel, the progression of philosophical truth is a resolution of past oppositions into increasingly more accurate approximations to absolute truth. Chalybäus used the terms "thesis", "antithesis", and "synthesis" to describe Hegel's dialectical triplicity. The "thesis" consists of an incomplete historical movement. To resolve the incompletion, an "antithesis" occurs which opposes the "thesis." In turn, the "synthesis" appears when the "thesis" and "antithesis" become reconciled and a higher level of truth is obtained. This "synthesis" thereby becomes a "thesis," which will again necessitate an "antithesis," requiring a new "synthesis" until a final state is reached as the result of reason's historical movement. History is the Absolute Spirit moving toward a goal. This historical progression will finally conclude itself when the Absolute Spirit understands its own infinite self at the very end of history. Absolute Spirit will then be the complete expression of an infinite God.
Schopenhauer[link]
For Arthur Schopenhauer,[61] a judgment is a combination or separation of two or more concepts. If a judgment is to be an expression of knowledge, it must have a sufficient reason or ground by which the judgment could be called true. Truth is the reference of a judgment to something different from itself which is its sufficient reason (ground). Judgments can have material, formal, transcendental, or metalogical truth. A judgment has material truth if its concepts are based on intuitive perceptions that are generated from sensations. If a judgment has its reason (ground) in another judgment, its truth is called logical or formal. If a judgment, of, for example, pure mathematics or pure science, is based on the forms (space, time, causality) of intuitive, empirical knowledge, then the judgment has transcendental truth.
Kierkegaard[link]
When Søren Kierkegaard, as his character Johannes Climacus, ends his writings: My thesis was, subjectivity, heartfelt is the truth, he does not advocate for subjectivism in its extreme form (the theory that something is true simply because one believes it to be so), but rather that the objective approach to matters of personal truth cannot shed any light upon that which is most essential to a person's life. Objective truths are concerned with the facts of a person's being, while subjective truths are concerned with a person's way of being. Kierkegaard agrees that objective truths for the study of subjects like mathematics, science, and history are relevant and necessary, but argues that objective truths do not shed any light on a person's inner relationship to existence. At best, these truths can only provide a severely narrowed perspective that has little to do with one's actual experience of life.[62]
While objective truths are final and static, subjective truths are continuing and dynamic. The truth of one's existence is a living, inward, and subjective experience that is always in the process of becoming. The values, morals, and spiritual approaches a person adopts, while not denying the existence of objective truths of those beliefs, can only become truly known when they have been inwardly appropriated through subjective experience. Thus, Kierkegaard criticizes all systematic philosophies which attempt to know life or the truth of existence via theories and objective knowledge about reality. As Kierkegaard claims, human truth is something that is continually occurring, and a human being cannot find truth separate from the subjective experience of one's own existing, defined by the values and fundamental essence that consist of one's way of life.[63]
Nietzsche[link]
Friedrich Nietzsche believed the search for truth or 'the will to truth' was a consequence of the will to power of philosophers. He thought that truth should be used as long as it promoted life and the will to power, and he thought untruth was better than truth if it had this life enhancement as a consequence. As he wrote in Beyond Good and Evil, "The falseness of a judgment is to us not necessarily an objection to a judgment... The question is to what extent it is life-advancing, life-preserving, species-preserving, perhaps even species-breeding..." (aphorism 4). He proposed the will to power as a truth only because according to him it was the most life affirming and sincere perspective one could have.
Robert Wicks discusses Nietzsche's basic view of truth as follows:
Some scholars regard Nietzsche's 1873 unpublished essay, "On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense" ("Über Wahrheit und Lüge im außermoralischen Sinn") as a keystone in his thought. In this essay, Nietzsche rejects the idea of universal constants, and claims that what we call "truth" is only "a mobile army of metaphors, metonyms, and anthropomorphisms." His view at this time is that arbitrariness completely prevails within human experience: concepts originate via the very artistic transference of nerve stimuli into images; "truth" is nothing more than the invention of fixed conventions for merely practical purposes, especially those of repose, security and consistence.[64]
Whitehead[link]
Alfred North Whitehead, a British mathematician who became an American philosopher, said: "There are no whole truths; all truths are half-truths. It is trying to treat them as whole truths that play the devil".
The logical progression or connection of this line of thought is to conclude that truth can lie, since half-truths are deceptive and may lead to a false conclusion.
Nishida[link]
According to Kitaro Nishida, "knowledge of things in the world begins with the differentiation of unitary consciousness into knower and known and ends with self and things becoming one again. Such unification takes form not only in knowing but in the valuing (of truth) that directs knowing, the willing that directs action, and the feeling or emotive reach that directs sensing."[65]
Fromm[link]
Erich Fromm finds that trying to discuss truth as "absolute truth" is sterile and that emphasis ought to be placed on "optimal truth". He considers truth as stemming from the survival imperative of grasping one's environment physically and intellectually, whereby young children instinctively seek truth so as to orient themselves in "a strange and powerful world". The accuracy of their perceived approximation of the truth will therefore have direct consequences on their ability to deal with their environment. Fromm can be understood to define truth as a functional approximation of reality. His vision of optimal truth is described partly in "Man from Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics" (1947), from which excerpts are included below.
- the dichotomy between 'absolute = perfect' and 'relative = imperfect' has been superseded in all fields of scientific thought, where "it is generally recognized that there is no absolute truth but nevertheless that there are objectively valid laws and principles".
- In that respect, "a scientifically or rationally valid statement means that the power of reason is applied to all the available data of observation without any of them being suppressed or falsified for the sake of a desired result". The history of science is "a history of inadequate and incomplete statements, and every new insight makes possible the recognition of the inadequacies of previous propositions and offers a springboard for creating a more adequate formulation."
- As a result "the history of thought is the history of an ever-increasing approximation to the truth. Scientific knowledge is not absolute but optimal; it contains the optimum of truth attainable in a given historical period." Fromm furthermore notes that "different cultures have emphasized various aspects of the truth" and that increasing interaction between cultures allows for these aspects to reconcile and integrate, increasing further the approximation to the truth.
Foucault[link]
Truth, says Michel Foucault, is problematic when any attempt is made to see truth as an "objective" quality. He prefers not to use the term truth itself but "Regimes of Truth". In his historical investigations he found truth to be something that was itself a part of, or embedded within, a given power structure. Thus Foucault's view shares much in common with the concepts of Nietzsche. Truth for Foucault is also something that shifts through various episteme throughout history.[66]
Baudrillard[link]
Jean Baudrillard considered truth to be largely simulated, that is pretending to have something, as opposed to dissimulation, pretending to not have something. He took his cue from iconoclasts who he claims knew that images of God demonstrated the fact that God did not exist.[67] Baudrillard wrote in "Precession of the Simulacra":
-
- The simulacrum is never that which conceals the truth—it is the truth which conceals that there is none. The simulacrum is true.
- —Ecclesiastes[68][69]
Some examples of simulacra that Baudrillard cited were: that prisons simulate the "truth" that society is free; scandals (e.g., Watergate) simulate that corruption is corrected; Disney simulates that the U.S. itself is an adult place. One must remember that though such examples seem extreme, such extremity is an important part of Baudrillard's theory. For a less extreme example, consider how movies usually end with the bad being punished, humiliated, or otherwise failing, thus affirming for viewers the concept that the good end happily and the bad unhappily, a narrative which implies that the status quo and institutionalised power structures are largely legitimate.[67]
Ratzinger[link]
Philosopher and theologian Joseph Ratzinger, before his election as Benedict XVI, commented upon the relationship of truth with tolerance,[70] conscience,[71] freedom,[72] and religion.[70] For him, "beyond all particular questions, the real problem lies in the question of truth."[70]
Ratzinger believes achievements in the natural sciences show that human reason can let us know reality and truth. He argues against "the modern self-limitation of reason" rooted in Immanuel Kant's philosophy. This limits our knowledge and leads to dangerous pathologies of religion and the human sciences including ethics .[70][73]
He says that this self-limitation "amputates" our capacity to answer basic questions such as our origin and purpose. He also thinks it dishonours reason and is against today's recognition of science, which is based on reason.[70][73]
In his book Truth and Tolerance, Ratzinger argued that truth and love are identical. And if well understood, according to him, this is "the surest guarantee of tolerance."[70]
In medicine and psychiatry[link]
There is controversy as to the truth value of a proposition made in bad faith self deception, such as when a hypochondriac has a complaint with no physical symptom.[74]
See also[link]
 |
Book: Epistemology |
| Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. | |
- Aletheia
- Asha
- Belief
- Confirmation holism
- Contextualism
- Contradiction
- Degrees of truth
- Disposition
- Eclecticism
- Imagination
- Independence
- Interpretation
- Invariance
- Lie
- Normative science
- Perspectivism
- Physical symbol system
- Public opinion
- Relativism
- Religious truth
- Satya
- Slingshot argument
- Statistical independence
- Tautology (logic)
- Tautology (rhetoric)
- Truth prevails
- Truthiness
- Truthlikeness
- Two truths doctrine
- Unity of the proposition
- Verisimilitude
- Veritas
- What is truth?
Major theorists[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ a b Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary, truth, 2005
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia "The Nature and Attributes of God" http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06612a.htm#IID
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, "Particular judgment" http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08550a.htm
- ^ see Holtzmann's law for the -ww- : -gg- alternation.
- ^ A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic, Geir T. Zoëga (1910), Northvegr.org
- ^ OED on true has "Steadfast in adherence to a commander or friend, to a principle or cause, to one's promises, faith, etc.; firm in allegiance; faithful, loyal, constant, trusty; Honest, honourable, upright, virtuous, trustworthy; free from deceit, sincere, truthful " besides "Conformity with fact; agreement with reality; accuracy, correctness, verity; Consistent with fact; agreeing with the reality; representing the thing as it is; Real, genuine; rightly answering to the description; properly so called; not counterfeit, spurious, or imaginary."
- ^ a b c d e f g Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Supp., "Truth", auth: Michael Williams, p572-573 (Macmillan, 1996)
- ^ Blackburn, Simon, and Simmons, Keith (eds., 1999), Truth, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Includes papers by James, Ramsey, Russell, Tarski, and more recent work.
- ^ Hale, Bob; Wright, Crispin, eds. (1999). A Companion to the Philosophy of Language. pp. 309–330. DOI:10.1111/b.9780631213260.1999.00015.x. edit
- ^ Horwich, Paul, Truth, (2nd edition, 1988),
- ^ Field, Hartry, Truth and the Absence of Fact (2001).
- ^ Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.2, "Correspondence Theory of Truth", auth: Arthur N. Prior, p223 (Macmillan, 1969) Prior uses Bertrand Russell's wording in defining correspondence theory. According to Prior, Russell was substantially responsible for helping to make correspondence theory widely known under this name.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.2, "Correspondence Theory of Truth", auth: Arthur N. Prior, pp. 223-224 (Macmillan, 1969)
- ^ Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.2, "Correspondence Theory of Truth", auth: Arthur N. Prior, p224, Macmillan, 1969.
- ^ "Correspondence Theory of Truth", in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- ^ "Correspondence Theory of Truth", in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (citing De Veritate Q.1, A.1&3; cf. Summa Theologiae Q.16).
- ^ See, e.g., Bradley, F.H., "On Truth and Copying", in Blackburn, et al. (eds., 1999),Truth, 31-45.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.2, "Correspondence Theory of Truth", auth: Arthur N. Prior, pp. 223 ff. Macmillan, 1969). See especially, section on "Moore's Correspondence Theory", 225-226, "Russell's Correspondence Theory", 226-227, "Remsey and Later Wittgenstein", 228-229, "Tarski's Semantic Theory", 230-231.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.2, "Correspondence Theory of Truth", auth: Arthur N. Prior, p. 223 ff. Macmillan, 1969). See the section on "Tarski's Semantic Theory", 230-231.
- ^ Immanuel Kant, for instance, assembled a controversial but quite coherent system in the early 19th century, whose validity and usefulness continues to be debated even today. Similarly, the systems of Leibniz and Spinoza are characteristic systems that are internally coherent but controversial in terms of their utility and validity.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.2, "Coherence Theory of Truth", auth: Alan R. White, p130-131 (Macmillan, 1969)
- ^ Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.2, "Coherence Theory of Truth", auth: Alan R. White, p131-133, see esp., section on "Epistemological assumptions" (Macmillan, 1969)
- ^ Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.2, "Coherence Theory of Truth", auth: Alan R. White, p130
- ^ May, Todd, 1993, Between Genealogy and Epistemology: Psychology, politics in the thought of Michel Foucault' with reference to Althusser and Balibar, 1970
- ^ See, e.g., Habermas, Jürgen, Knowledge and Human Interests (English translation, 1972).
- ^ See, e.g., Habermas, Jürgen, Knowledge and Human Interests (English translation, 1972), esp. PART III, pp 187 ff.
- ^ Rescher, Nicholas, Pluralism: Against the Demand for Consensus (1995).
- ^ Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.5, "Pragmatic Theory of Truth", 427 (Macmillan, 1969).
- ^ a b Peirce, C.S. (1901), "Truth and Falsity and Error" (in part), pp. 716–720 in James Mark Baldwin, ed., Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, v. 2. Peirce's section is entitled "Logical", beginning on p. 718, column 1, and ending on p. 720 with the initials "(C.S.P.)", see Google Books Eprint. Reprinted, Collected Papers v. 5, pp. 565–573.
- ^ a b James, William, The Meaning of Truth, A Sequel to 'Pragmatism', (1909).
- ^ Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.2, "Dewey, John", auth Richard J. Bernstein, p383 (Macmillan, 1969)
- ^ Sahakian, W.S. & Sahakian, M.L., Ideas of the Great Philosophers, NEW YORK: Barnes & Noble, 1966, LCCCN 66-23155
- ^ a b Feynman, The Character of Physical Law, NEW YORK: Random House, 1994, ISBN 0-679-60127-9.
- ^ Feynman, The Character of Physical Law, p. 150.
- ^ Blackburn, Simon, and Simmons, Keith (eds., 1999), Truth in the Introductory section of the book.
- ^ Kirkham, Theories of Truth, MIT Press, 1992.
- ^ J. L. Austin, "How to Do Things With Words". Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975
- ^ Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.6: Performative Theory of Truth, auth: Gertrude Ezorsky, p. 88 (Macmillan, 1969)
- ^ Ramsey, F.P. (1927), "Facts and Propositions", Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume 7, 153–170. Reprinted, pp. 34–51 in F.P. Ramsey, Philosophical Papers, David Hugh Mellor (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1990
- ^ Le Morvan, Pierre. (2004) "Ramsey on Truth and Truth on Ramsey", The British Journal for the History of Philosophy 12(4), pp. 705-718.
- ^ Truth and Objectivity, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992.
- ^ Truth as One and Many (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).
- ^ "Philpapers.org". Philpapers.org. http://philpapers.org/surveys/results.pl?affil=All+respondents&areas0=0&areas_max=1&grain=medium. Retrieved 2012-05-27.
- ^ Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
- ^ See, e.g., Chaitin, Gregory L., The Limits of Mathematics (1997) esp. 89 ff.
- ^ M. Davis. "Hilbert's Tenth Problem is Unsolvable." American Mathematical Monthly 80, pp. 233-269, 1973
- ^ Yandell, Benjamin H.. The Honors Class. Hilbert's Problems and Their Solvers (2002).
- ^ Chaitin, Gregory L., The Limits of Mathematics (1997) 1-28, 89 ff.
- ^ Kripke, Saul. "Outline of a Theory of Truth", Journal of Philosophy, 72 (1975), 690-716
- ^ a b c d David, Marion (2005). "Correspondence Theory of Truth" in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- ^ Osman Amin (2007), "Influence of Muslim Philosophy on the West", Monthly Renaissance 17 (11).
- ^ Jan A. Aertsen (1988), Nature and Creature: Thomas Aquinas's Way of Thought, p. 152. BRILL, ISBN 90-04-08451-7.
- ^ Simone van Riet (in Latin). Liber de philosophia prima, sive Scientia divina. p. 413.
- ^ Avicenna: The Metaphysics of The Healing. Michael E. Marmura. Brigham Young University Press. 2005. p. 284. ISBN 0-934893-77-2.
- ^ Disputed Questions on Truth, 1, 2, c, reply to Obj. 1. Trans. Mulligan, McGlynn, Schmidt, Truth, vol. I, pp. 10-12.
- ^ "Veritas supra ens fundatur" (Truth is founded on being). Disputed Questions on Truth, 10, 2, reply to Obj. 3.
- ^ Kant, Immanuel (1781/1787), Critique of Pure Reason. Translated and edited by Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), A58/B82.
- ^ a b Kant, Immanuel (1801), The Jäsche Logic, in Lectures on Logic. Translated and edited by J. Michael Young (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 557-558.
- ^ Alberto Vanzo, "Kant on the Nominal Definition of Truth", Kant-Studien, 101 (2010), pp. 147-166.
- ^ "Die Wahrheit ist die Bewegung ihrer an ihr selbst." The Phenomenology of Spirit, Preface, ¶ 48
- ^ On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, §§ 29–33
- ^ Kierkegaard, Søren. Concluding Unscientific Postscript. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1992
- ^ Watts, Michael. Kierkegaard, Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2003
- ^ Robert Wicks, Friedrich Nietzsche - Early Writings: 1872-1876, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
- ^ John Maraldo, Nishida Kitarô - Self-Awareness, in: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2005 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
- ^ Foucault, M. "The Order of Things", London: Vintage Books, 1970 (1966)
- ^ a b Jean Baudrillard. Simulacra and Simulation. Michigan: Michigan University Press, 1994.
- ^ Baudrillard, Jean. "Simulacra and Simulations", in Selected Writings, ed. Mark Poster, Stanford University Press, 1988) 166 ff
- ^ Baudrillard's attribution of this quote to Ecclesiastes is deliberately fictional. "Baudrillard attributes this quote to Ecclesiastes. However, the quote is a fabrication (see Jean Baudrillard. Cool Memories III, 1991-95. London: Verso, 1997). Editor’s note: In Fragments: Conversations With François L’Yvonnet. New York: Routledge, 2004:11, Baudrillard acknowledges this 'Borges-like' fabrication." Cited in footnote #4 in Smith, Richard G., "Lights, Camera, Action: Baudrillard and the Performance of Representations", International Journal of Baudrillard Studies, Volume 2, Number 1 (January 2005)
- ^ a b c d e f Ratzinger, Truth and Tolerance: Christian Belief And World Religions, Ignatius Press, 2004
- ^ Ratzinger, Truth and Conscience, 10th Workshop for Bishops, Dallas, 1991
- ^ Ratzinger, Truth and Freedom, Communio: International Catholic Review, Spring 1996
- ^ a b Benedict XVI, Address at the University of Regensburg 2006
- ^ “Absent a lesion or a physiological disturbance to account readily for the complaint, the complaint was likely to be regarded as male fide", Post-Modern Reflections on the Ethics of Naming, The Ethics of Diagnosis Philosophy and Medicine, 1992, Volume 40, Section V, 275-300, George Khushf, springerlink.com
References[link]
- Aristotle, "The Categories", Harold P. Cooke (trans.), pp. 1–109 in Aristotle, Volume 1, Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, UK, 1938.
- Aristotle, "On Interpretation", Harold P. Cooke (trans.), pp. 111–179 in Aristotle, Volume 1, Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, UK, 1938.
- Aristotle, "Prior Analytics", Hugh Tredennick (trans.), pp. 181–531 in Aristotle, Volume 1, Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, UK, 1938.
- Aristotle, "On the Soul" (De Anima), W. S. Hett (trans.), pp. 1–203 in Aristotle, Volume 8, Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, UK, 1936.
- Audi, Robert (ed., 1999), The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1995. 2nd edition, 1999. Cited as CDP.
- Baldwin, James Mark (ed., 1901–1905), Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 3 volumes in 4, Macmillan, New York, NY.
- Baylis, Charles A. (1962), "Truth", pp. 321–322 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.
- Benjamin, A. Cornelius (1962), "Coherence Theory of Truth", p. 58 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.
- Blackburn, Simon, and Simmons, Keith (eds., 1999), Truth, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Includes papers by James, Ramsey, Russell, Tarski, and more recent work.
- Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1987), Truth and Beauty. Aesthetics and Motivations in Science, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
- Chang, C.C., and Keisler, H.J., Model Theory, North-Holland, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1973.
- Chomsky, Noam (1995), The Minimalist Program, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
- Church, Alonzo (1962a), "Name Relation, or Meaning Relation", p. 204 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.
- Church, Alonzo (1962b), "Truth, Semantical", p. 322 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.
- Clifford, W.K. (1877), "The Ethics of Belief and Other Essays". (Prometheus Books, 1999), infidels.org
- Dewey, John (1900–1901), Lectures on Ethics 1900–1901, Donald F. Koch (ed.), Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, IL.
- Dewey, John (1932), Theory of the Moral Life, Part 2 of John Dewey and James H. Tufts, Ethics, Henry Holt and Company, New York, NY, 1908. 2nd edition, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1932. Reprinted, Arnold Isenberg (ed.), Victor Kestenbaum (pref.), Irvingtion Publishers, New York, NY, 1980.
- Dewey, John (1938), Logic: The Theory of Inquiry (1938),Holt and Company, New York, NY. Reprinted, John Dewey, The Later Works, 1925–1953, Volume 12: 1938, Jo Ann Boydston (ed.), Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, IL, 1986.
- Field, Hartry (2001), Truth and the Absence of Fact, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
- Foucault, Michel (1997), Essential Works of Foucault, 1954–1984, Volume 1, Ethics: Subjectivity and Truth, Paul Rabinow (ed.), Robert Hurley et al. (trans.), The New Press, New York, NY.
- Garfield, Jay L., and Kiteley, Murray (1991), Meaning and Truth: The Essential Readings in Modern Semantics, Paragon House, New York, NY.
- Gupta, Anil (2001), "Truth", in Lou Goble (ed.), The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, UK.
- Haack, Susan (1993), Evidence and Inquiry: Towards Reconstruction in Epistemology, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, UK.
- Habermas, Jürgen (1976), "What Is Universal Pragmatics?", 1st published, "Was heißt Universalpragmatik?", Sprachpragmatik und Philosophie, Karl-Otto Apel (ed.), Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt am Main. Reprinted, pp. 1–68 in Jürgen Habermas, Communication and the Evolution of Society, Thomas McCarthy (trans.), Beacon Press, Boston, MA, 1979.
- Habermas, Jürgen (1990), Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action, Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen (trans.), Thomas McCarthy (intro.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
- Habermas, Jürgen (2003), Truth and Justification, Barbara Fultner (trans.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
- Hegel, Georg, (1977), Phenomenology of Spirit, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, ISBN 0-19-824597-1.
- Horwich, Paul, (1988), Truth, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
- James, William (1904), A World of Pure Experience.
- James, William (1907), Pragmatism, A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking, Popular Lectures on Philosophy, Longmans, Green, and Company, New York, NY.
- James, William (1909), The Meaning of Truth, A Sequel to 'Pragmatism', Longmans, Green, and Company, New York, NY.
- James, William (1912), Essays in Radical Empiricism. Cf. Chapt. 3, "The Thing and its Relations", pp. 92–122.
- Kant, Immanuel (1800), Introduction to Logic. Reprinted, Thomas Kingsmill Abbott (trans.), Dennis Sweet (intro.), Barnes and Noble, New York, NY, 2005.
- Kirkham, Richard L. (1992), Theories of Truth, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
- Kneale, W., and Kneale, M. (1962), The Development of Logic, Oxford University Press, London, UK, 1962. Reprinted with corrections, 1975.
- Kreitler, Hans, and Kreitler, Shulamith (1972), Psychology of the Arts, Duke University Press, Durham, NC.
- Le Morvan, Pierre (2004), "Ramsey on Truth and Truth on Ramsey", British Journal for the History of Philosophy, 12 (4) 2004, 705–718, PDF.
- Peirce, C.S., Bibliography.
- Peirce, C.S., Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, vols. 1–6, Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss (eds.), vols. 7–8, Arthur W. Burks (ed.), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1931–1935, 1958. Cited as CP vol.para.
- Peirce, C.S. (1877), "The Fixation of Belief", Popular Science Monthly 12 (1877), 1–15. Reprinted (CP 5.358–387), (CE 3, 242–257), (EP 1, 109–123). Eprint.
- Peirce, C.S. (1901), "Truth and Falsity and Error" (in part), pp. 718–720 in J.M. Baldwin (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, vol. 2. Reprinted, CP 5.565–573.
- Polanyi, Michael (1966), The Tacit Dimension, Doubleday and Company, Garden City, NY.
- Quine, W.V. (1956), "Quantifiers and Propositional Attitudes", Journal of Philosophy 53 (1956). Reprinted, pp. 185–196 in Quine (1976), Ways of Paradox.
- Quine, W.V. (1976), The Ways of Paradox, and Other Essays, 1st edition, 1966. Revised and enlarged edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1976.
- Quine, W.V. (1980 a), From a Logical Point of View, Logico-Philosophical Essays, 2nd edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
- Quine, W.V. (1980 b), "Reference and Modality", pp. 139–159 in Quine (1980 a), From a Logical Point of View.
- Rajchman, John, and West, Cornel (ed., 1985), Post-Analytic Philosophy, Columbia University Press, New York, NY.
- Ramsey, F.P. (1927), "Facts and Propositions", Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume 7, 153–170. Reprinted, pp. 34–51 in F.P. Ramsey, Philosophical Papers, David Hugh Mellor (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1990.
- Ramsey, F.P. (1990), Philosophical Papers, David Hugh Mellor (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
- Rawls, John (2000), Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy, Barbara Herman (ed.), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
- Rorty, R. (1979), Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
- Russell, Bertrand (1912), The Problems of Philosophy, 1st published 1912. Reprinted, Galaxy Book, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 1959. Reprinted, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1988.
- Russell, Bertrand (1918), "The Philosophy of Logical Atomism", The Monist, 1918. Reprinted, pp. 177–281 in Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901–1950, Robert Charles Marsh (ed.), Unwin Hyman, London, UK, 1956. Reprinted, pp. 35–155 in The Philosophy of Logical Atomism, David Pears (ed.), Open Court, La Salle, IL, 1985.
- Russell, Bertrand (1956), Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901–1950, Robert Charles Marsh (ed.), Unwin Hyman, London, UK, 1956. Reprinted, Routledge, London, UK, 1992.
- Russell, Bertrand (1985), The Philosophy of Logical Atomism, David Pears (ed.), Open Court, La Salle, IL.
- Schopenhauer, Arthur, (1974), On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, Open Court, La Salle, IL, ISBN 0-87548-187-6.
- Smart, Ninian (1969), The Religious Experience of Mankind, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, NY.
- Tarski, A., Logic, Semantics, Metamathematics: Papers from 1923 to 1938, J.H. Woodger (trans.), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1956. 2nd edition, John Corcoran (ed.), Hackett Publishing, Indianapolis, IN, 1983.
- Wallace, Anthony F.C. (1966), Religion: An Anthropological View, Random House, New York, NY.
- Reference works
- Audi, Robert (ed., 1999), The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1995. 2nd edition, 1999. Cited as CDP.
- Blackburn, Simon (1996), The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1994. Paperback edition with new Chronology, 1996. Cited as ODP.
- Runes, Dagobert D. (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962.
- Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged (1950), W.A. Neilson, T.A. Knott, P.W. Carhart (eds.), G. & C. Merriam Company, Springfield, MA. Cited as MWU.
- Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary (1983), Frederick C. Mish (ed.), Merriam–Webster Inc., Springfield, MA. Cited as MWC.
External links[link]
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Truth |
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Look up truth in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Truth |
- An Introduction to Truth by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
- Heidegger on Truth (Aletheia) as Unconcealment
- History of Truth: The Greek "Aletheia"
- History of Truth: The Latin "Veritas"
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http://wn.com/Truth
Related pages:
http://ru.wn.com/Истина
http://es.wn.com/Verdad
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth
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This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (June 2010) |
| Tao Ruspoli | |
|---|---|
 Tao Ruspoli's self portrait |
|
| Born | (1975-11-07) 7 November 1975 (age 36) Bangkok, Thailand |
| Residence | Venice, Los Angeles, California |
| Nationality | Italy and United States |
| Occupation | filmmaker, musician, photographer |
| Spouse | Olivia Wilde (m. 2003–d. 2011) «start: (2003)–end+1: (2012)»"Marriage: Olivia Wilde to Tao Ruspoli" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/Tao_Ruspoli) |
| Parents | Alessandro Ruspoli, 9th Prince of Cerveteri (father) Debra Berger (mother) |
Tao Ruspoli (born 7 November 1975) is an Italian American filmmaker and musician.
Contents |
Background[link]
Ruspoli is the second son of occasional actor and aristocrat Prince Alessandro Ruspoli, 9th Prince of Cerveteri and Austrian-American actress Debra Berger. He is the older brother of Bartolomeo dei Principi Ruspoli (born 6 October 1978 in Rome), second husband of oil heiress Aileen Getty. His half-siblings include Francesco, 10th Prince of Cerveteri; Melusina Ruspoli, and Theodoro Ruspoli.
Tao was born in Bangkok, Thailand and raised in Rome and Los Angeles. He graduated from the University of California, Berkeley with a Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy.
He married actress Olivia Wilde on 7 June 2003 in Washington, Virginia.[1] On February 8, 2011, they announced that they were separating.[2] Wilde filed for divorce in Los Angeles County Superior Court on March 3, 2011, citing "irreconcilable differences."[3] The divorce was finalized on September 29, 2011. Wilde did not seek spousal support, and the pair reached a private agreement on property division.[4]
He currently lives and works in Venice, Los Angeles, as a photographer and filmmaker.
Career[link]
His feature narrative debut, Fix, was one of 10 feature films to screen in competition at the 2008 Slamdance Film Festival and soon afterward at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival where Ruspoli was awarded the Heineken Red Star Award for "most innovative and progressive filmmaker." Fix also won the Festival Award for Best Film at the 2008 Brooklyn Film Festival, Vail Film Festival and the 2008 Twin Rivers Media Festival, as well as other prizes at several international festivals.
His most well-known documentary is Just Say Know, a personal discussion of his family's drug addiction. His other films include Flamenco: A Personal Journey, a feature length documentary about the flamenco way of life as it is lived by Gypsies in the south of Spain. He has directed a number of other short documentaries, including El Cable (also about Flamenco), and This Film Needs No Title: A Portrait of Raymond Smullyan (a portrait of the renowned logician, mathematician and concert pianist Raymond Smullyan).
Tao founded LAFCO in 2000. The Los Angeles Filmmakers Cooperative, is a bohemian collective of filmmakers and musicians who work out of a converted school bus. Through LAFCO, Tao has produced several films.
His producing credits include the feature film Camjackers, which he also acted in and co-edited. Camjackers won the best editing award at the 44th Ann Arbor Film Festival.
Tao is an accomplished flamenco guitar player.
Filmography[link]
- Jack (1996) Production Assistant
- Bulworth (1998) Art department Assistant
- Tango, no me dejes nunca (1998) Camera Apprentice (as Teo Rispoli)
- Just Say Know (2002) Director, Cinematographer and Film editor
- This Film Needs No Title: A Portrait of Raymond Smullyan (2004) Director, Cinematographer and Film editor
- El Cable (2004) Director, Cinematographer, Editor and Film producer
- Flamenco: A Personal Journey (2005) Director, Cinematographer and Film producer
- Camjackers (2006) Whack Filmmaker #1 and also Film editor and Executive Producer
- Fix (2008) Milo and also Writer, Cinematographer and Film director
- Behind the Wheel (2008) Film director
- Being in the World (2009) Film director
Recordings[link]
- Flamenco, Mapleshade Records, 2005
References[link]
- "Prince Dado Ruspoli". Telegraph Media Group. 2005-01-15. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1481199/Prince-Dado-Ruspoli.html. Retrieved 2008-01-14.
- ^ Rizzo, Monica. Olivia Wilde - She's Wild About Hugh Laurie, Classic Cars and Her Husband—a Real-Life Prince!, People, November 12, 2007. Accessed February 23, 2008.
- ^ Jordan, Julie (February 8, 2011). "Olivia Wilde Separates from Husband Tao Ruspoli". People. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20464338,00.html. Retrieved February 8, 2011.
- ^ Gopalan, Nisha (March 11, 2011). "Olivia Wilde Divorces Tao Ruspoli: People.com". People. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20473222,00.html. Retrieved April 13, 2011.
- ^ Fleeman, Mike (October 3, 2011). "Olivia Wilde Divorce Finalized". People. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20533939,00.html. Retrieved October 4, 2011.
External links[link]
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Ruspoli, Tao |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Italian American filmmaker and musician |
| Date of birth | 7 November 1975 |
| Place of birth | Bangkok, Thailand |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Tao_Ruspoli
Related pages:
http://ru.wn.com/Тао Располи
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao_Ruspoli
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Alex Ebert | |
|---|---|
| Alex Ebert performing with Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros at the Belly Up Tavern in Solana Beach, California on November 3, 2009. Alex Ebert performing with Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros at the Belly Up Tavern in Solana Beach, California on November 3, 2009. |
|
| Background information | |
| Birth name | Alexander Michael Tahquitz Ebert |
| Also known as | Edward Sharpe |
| Born | May 12th, 1978 Los Angeles, California, United States |
| Genres | Alternative rock, Indie rock, New wave, Alternative country, Indie folk, Neo-psychedelia |
| Occupations | Singer-Songwriter |
| Instruments | Vocals |
| Years active | 1997 - Present |
| Labels | Virgin Records, Rough Trade Records, Vagrant Records, Community Music, Echo Park Records, Werewolf Heart |
| Associated acts | Ima Robot, Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros |
Alex Ebert is an American singer-songwriter. He is best known for being the lead singer and songwriter for the American bands Ima Robot and Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros.
Contents |
Early life[link]
Ebert was born in Los Angeles in 1978, the son of Michael Ebert, a psychotherapist. His mother is an actress.[1] His father would often take the family on long car trips through the desert. On one such trip, his mother shot footage of his father chanting in the desert, cradling Alex's baby sister Gabi, which would one day become a part of the video for the Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros song "Desert Song".[2] His full birth name was "Alexander Michael Tahquitz Ebert". His father took one of his son's names, Tahquitz, from his favorite climbing rock. Alex later on discovered that the name means "demon" in a Native American language.[3] His father has been a lifelong ambassador of music and influenced young Alexander by playing him such things as Patsy Cline, Willie Nelson, and Johnny Cash. He also cites 60's R&B, Pavarotti, and Beethoven as influences, as well as his elementary school teacher, a woman from South Africa named Ruth. As a teenager he had a difficult and tumultuous relationship with his father. He enjoyed listening to hip-hop as a teenager, and originally intended to be a rapper.[4]
Career[link]
Ima Robot[link]
Further information: Ima Robot
After Ebert's band The Lucky 13's broke up, Ima Robot was formed in 1997 and it became successful in the early 2000s, signing with Virgin Records. Their first full-length album released on September 6, 2003, was self-titled Ima Robot, and featured the singles "Dynomite" and "Song #1". On September 12, 2006, Ima Robot released their second album Monument to the Masses which featured the singles "Creeps Me Out" and "Lovers in Captivity". In April 2007, the band won their independence from Virgin Records and continued to work unsigned under the management of Alexis Rivera of Echo Park Records. The song "Gangster" premiered on the band's MySpace on April 15, 2008, with its lyrics posted in a blog entry by the band. In 2010 the band announced the upcoming release of their new album, Another Man's Treasure, and released the song "Ruthless" on the Internet. They are now being represented by the Werewolf Heart label.[5] Ebert was quoted as saying that 'most of the songs were recorded between two and four years ago but that he looks forward to making music with Tim Anderson and Filip Nikolic again'.[6]
Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros[link]
Further information: Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros
After years of the Los Angeles party lifestyle and subsequent drug addiction, Ebert wanted to make a change. He broke up with his then-girlfriend, moved out of his house, and did a couple of stints in rehab.[citation needed] He spent a year sleeping on a blow-up mattress in a tiny apartment, disconnected from the world. This time alone left him to contemplate Edward Sharpe, his alter ego. "I don't want to put too much weight on it, because in some ways it's just a name that I came up with. But I guess if I look deeper, I do feel like I had lost my identity in general. I really didn't know what was going on or who I was anymore. Adopting another name helped me open up an avenue to get back."[7] Ebert developed Sharpe into a messianic figure, saying "He was sent down to Earth to kinda heal and save mankind, but he kept getting distracted by girls and falling in love."
One such girl was the singer Jade Castrinos, whom he saw sitting on an outdoor bench and immediately knew he needed to have a relationship with her. Their resultant affair formed the seeds of what would become Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros.[2] They started writing music together, and became a part of the art and music collective The Masses, which was partially started by some seed money from the late Heath Ledger.[8] While their relationship did not last, the group took off in a big way, and their group soon swelled to more than 10 members, some of whom had been Alex's friends since he was young. By the summer of 2009, they were touring the country. Their first album, Up from Below, was released in July 2009. Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros appeared on The Late Show with David Letterman on May 10, 2012 promoting their latest album entitled "Here" due for release on May 29th, 2012.
Solo career[link]
In 2011, Alex released his first solo album, Alexander. He appeared on Conan on September 12, 2011 to promote his solo album.
Movie songs[link]
Alexander's song "Bad Bad Love" was the opening song for the 2011 remake of Fright Night, starring Colin Farell and Anton Yelchin
Discography[link]
With Ima Robot
- Ima Robot (2003)
- Monument to the Masses (2006)
- Another Man's Treasure (2010)
With Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros
- Here Comes EP (2009)
- Up from Below (2009)
- Here (2012)
Solo
- Alexander (2011)
References[link]
- ^ "Ima Robot Forums - Powered by XMB 1.9.11". Imarobot.net. http://www.imarobot.net/forum/viewthread.php?tid=485. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
- ^ a b "The Watch Newspapers - Dynamic Charismatic and Determined to Set the Soul Free". Telluridewatch.com. 2009-11-24. http://www.telluridewatch.com/pages/full_story/push?article-Dynamic-+Charismatic+and+Determined+to+Set+the+Soul+Free%20&id=4777397-Dynamic-+Charismatic+and+Determined+to+Set+the+Soul+Free. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
- ^ http://www.telluridenews.com/articles/2010/06/18/arts_and_entertainment/doc4c1abd4ebf0a7057137404.txt
- ^ Advertise on MotherJones.com (2010-01-04). "Music Monday: 15 Minutes With Alex Ebert (aka Edward Sharpe)". Mother Jones. http://motherjones.com/riff/2010/01/music-monday-15-minutes-alex-ebert-ima-robot-edward-sharpe-and-magnetic-zeroes. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
- ^ "Ruthless - From the upcoming album Another Man's Treasure". Ima Robot. http://imarobot.com/. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
- ^ kevin (2010-06-24). "Video: Ima Robot, ‘Ruthless’ —". Buzzbands.la. http://buzzbands.la/2010/06/24/video-ima-robot-ruthless/. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
- ^ McDonald, Scott (2009-11-06). "Edward Sharpe, aka Alex Ebert, finds himself with The Magnetic Zeros". Sdnn.com. http://www.sdnn.com/sandiego/2009-11-06/concerts-music-clubs/edward-sharpe-aka-alex-ebert-finds-himself-with-the-magnetic-zeros#ixzz0rss1BuRA. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
- ^ Randall Roberts (2008-07-10). "Heath Ledger's Final Days Among the Masses - Page 1 - Film+TV - Los Angeles". LA Weekly. http://www.laweekly.com/2008-07-10/film-tv/port-in-the-storm/. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
External links[link]
- Edward Sharpe and the Magnetic Zeros official website
- Ima Robot official website
- Alexander Ebert official website
|
||||||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Ebert, Alex |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 1978 |
| Place of birth | Los Angeles, California, United States |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Alex_Ebert
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Ebert
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
3:29
Truth Is - Levellers
Levellers
Truth Is - Levellers
Truth Is | Your Parade available to download now from: iTunes - itunes.apple.com 7digital - www.7digital.com Play.com - www.play.com Limited edition red 7" available from www.propermusic.com PRE-ORDER NEW ALBUM 'STATIC ON THE AIRWAVES' out 25.06.2012 PROPER -- SIGNED CD - www.propermusic.com PROPER -- SIGNED LP - www.propermusic.com PROPER -- SIGNED BOX SET - www.propermusic.com HMV cd only - hmv.com PLAY cd only - www.play.com AMAZON cd only- www.amazon.co.uk www.levellers.co.uk www.facebook.com/levellersofficial
91:35
The Beautiful Truth
NewVideoDigital
The Beautiful Truth
Raised on a wildlife reserve in Alaska, 15-year-old Garrett was interested in the dietary habits of the farm animals. After the tragic death of his mother, Garrett's father decided to home-school his son and assigned a book written by Dr. Max Gerson that proposed a direct link between diet and a cure for cancer. Fascinated, Garrett embarks in this documentary on a cross-country road trip to investigate The Gerson Therapy. He meets with scientists, doctors and cancer survivors who reveal how it is in the best interest of the multi-billion dollar medical industry to dismiss the notion of alternative and natural cures.
58:30
Horizon - The Truth About Exercise (BBC, 2012)
MrMustardization
Horizon - The Truth About Exercise (BBC, 2012)
Like many, Michael Mosley want to get fitter and healthier but can't face hours on the treadmill or trips to the gym. Help may be at hand. He uncovers the surprising new research which suggests many of us could benefit from just three minutes of high intensity exercise a week. He discovers the hidden power of simple activities like walking and fidgeting, and finds out why some of us don't respond to exercise at all Using himself as a guinea pig, Michael uncovers the surprising new research about exercise, that has the power to make us all live longer and healthier lives.
6:17
Israel Palestinian Conflict: The Truth About the West Bank
DannyAyalon
Israel Palestinian Conflict: The Truth About the West Bank
Israel's Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs Danny Ayalon explains the historical facts relating to the Israeli Palestinian conflict. The video explains where the terms "West Bank", "occupied territories" and "67 Borders" originated and how they are incorrectly used and applied. Also follow on Twitter: twitter.com and facebook.com
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