Chalukya dynasty ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯ ರಾಜವಂಶ
Empire (Subordinate to Kadamba Dynasty until 543)
← 543–753 →   →
Extent of Badami Chalukya Empire, 636 CE, 740 CE
Capital	Badami
Language(s)	Kannada Sanskrit
Religion	Hinduism Jainism
Government	Monarchy
Maharaja
- 543–566	Pulakesi I
- 746–753	Kirtivarman II
History
- Earliest records	543
- Established	543
- Disestablished	753

Old Kannada inscription of Chalukya King Mangalesa dated 578 CE at Badami cave temple no.3

The Chalukya dynasty (Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು [tʃaːɭukjə]) was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakesi II. After the death of Pulakesi II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, the Western Chalukyas, in the late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century.

The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. For the first time, a South Indian kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". Kannada literature, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain and Veerashaiva traditions. The 11th century saw the birth of Telugu literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas.

Chalukya emblem of Aihole in Karnataka depicts Vishnu in Varaha form. A 6th century stone emblem.

Origins[link]

Natives of Karnataka[link]

Old Kannada inscription on victory pillar, Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal, 733–745 CE

Part of a series on the
History of Karnataka
Political history of medieval Karnataka
Origin of Karnataka's name
Kadambas and Gangas
Chalukya Empire
Rashtrakuta Empire
Western Chalukya Empire
Southern Kalachuri
Hoysala Empire
Vijayanagara Empire
Bahmani Sultanate
Bijapur Sultanate
Kingdom of Mysore
Unification of Karnataka
Societies    Economies
Architectures    Forts
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While opinions vary regarding the early origins of the Chalukyas, the consensus is that the founders of the empire at Badami were native to the modern Karnataka region.^{[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]} According to one theory, the Chalukya were descendants of the "Seleukia" tribe of Iraq and that their conflict with the Pallava of Kanchi was, but a continuation of the conflict between ancient Seleukia and "Parthians", the proposed ancestors of Pallavas. However, this theory has been rejected as it seeks to build lineages based simply on similar sounding clan names.^[11]

Another theory, that they were descendants of a 2nd century chieftain called Kandachaliki Remmanaka, a feudatory of the Andhra Ikshvaku (from an Ikshvaku inscription of 2nd century) was put forward. But this has failed to explain the difference in lineage. The Kandachaliki feudatory call themselves Vashisthiputras of the Hiranyakagotra. The Chalukyas, however, address themselves as Harithiputras of Manavyasagotra in their inscriptions, which is the same lineage as their early overlords, the Kadambas of Banavasi. This makes them descendants of the Kadambas. The Chalukyas took control of the territory formerly ruled by the Kadambas.^[12]

A later record of Eastern Chalukyas mentions the northern origin theory and claims one ruler of Ayodhya came south, defeated the Pallavas and married a Pallava princess. She had a child called Vijayaditya who is claimed to be the Pulakesi I's father. However, there are Badami Chalukya inscriptions that confirm Jayasimha was Pulakesi I's grandfather and Ranaranga, his father.^{[13][14][15][16]} It was a popular practice in the 11th century to link South Indian royal family lineage to a Northern kingdom. The Badami Chalukya records themselves are silent with regards to the Ayodhya origin.^[17][18]

While the northern origin theory has been dismissed by many historians, the epigraphist K V Ramesh has suggested that an earlier southern migration is a distinct possibility which needs examination.^[19] According to him, the complete absence of any inscriptional reference of their family connections to Ayodhya, and their subsequent Kannadiga identity may have been due to their earlier migration into present day Karnataka region where they achieved success as chieftains and kings. Hence, the place of origin of their ancestors may have been of no significance to the kings of the empire who may have considered themselves natives of the Kannada speaking region.^[20]The writing of 12th century Kashmiri poet Bilhana suggests the Chalukya family belonged to the Shudra caste while other sources claim they were Kshatriyas.^[21]

The Badami Chalukya inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit.^[22][23][24] Their inscriptions call them Karnatas and their names use indigenous Kannada titles such as Priyagallam and Noduttagelvom. The names of some Chalukya princes end with the pure Kannada term arasa (meaning "king" or "chief").^[25][26] The Rashtrakuta inscriptions call the Chalukyas of Badami Karnatabala ("Power of Karnata"). It has been proposed that the word "Chalukya" originated from Salki or Chalki which is a Kannada word for an agricultural implement.^[27][28]

Historians such as D R Bhandarkar and Hoernle hold the view that Chalukyas were one of the ruling clans of Gurjaras (or Gujjars), citing the name change of Lata province to Gurjaratra during the reign.Bhandarkar explains that If the chalukyas had not been Gurjars, it is inconceivable how that province could have named Gurjaratra (country ruled or protected by Gurjars) when it was up-till their advent known as Lata.However scholars such as D. P. Dikshit argues that Chalukyas ruled over that part of country formerly known as Lata and taken as Gurjaratra or Gujarat didn't imply the Chalukyas didn't make any change in the nomenclature because of their close association with the region.^[29]Dr.V. A. Smith and A. M. T. Jackson also endorsed the view that Chalukyas were branch of famous Gurjars(or Gujjars).^[30]

Historical sources[link]

Inscriptions are the main source of information about the Badami Chalukya history. Among them, the Badami cave inscriptions of Mangalesa (578), Kappe Arabhatta record of c. 700, Peddavaduguru inscription of Pulakesi II, the Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple inscription and Pattadakal Virupaksha Temple inscription of Vikramaditya II (all in Kannada language) provide more evidence of the Chalukya language.^[31][32] The Badami cliff inscription of Pulakesi I (543), the Mahakuta Pillar inscription of Mangalesa (595) and the Aihole inscription of Pulakesi II (634) are examples of important Sanskrit inscriptions written in old Kannada script.^[33][34][35] The reign of the Chalukyas saw the arrival of Kannada as the predominant language of inscriptions along with Sanskrit, in areas of the Indian peninsula outside what is known as Tamilaham (Tamil country).^[36] Several coins of the Badami Chalukyas with Kannada legends have been found. All this indicates that Kannada language flourished during this period.^[37]

Portrait of Hsüan-tsang

Travelogues of contemporary foreign travellers have provided useful information about the Chalukyan empire. The Chinese traveller Hsüan-tsang (Xuanzang) had visited the court of Pulakesi II. At the time of this visit, as mentioned in the Aihole record, Pulakesi II had divided his empire into three Maharashtrakas or great provinces comprising 99,000 villages each. This empire possibly covered present day Karnataka, Maharashtra and coastal Konkan.^[38][39] Hsüan-tsang, impressed with the governance of the empire observed that the benefits of king's efficient administration was felt far and wide. Later, Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors with Pulakesi II.^[40][41]

Legends[link]

Court poets of the Western Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani narrate:

"Once when Brahma, the creator, was engaged in the performance of the sandhya (twilight) rituals, Indra approaced and beseeched him to create a hero who could put to an end the increasing evil on earth. On being thus requested, Brahma looked steadily into the Chuluka-jala (the water of oblation in his palm) and out sprang thence a great warrior, the progenitor of the Chalukyas".^[42] The Chalukyas claimed to have been nursed by the Sapta Matrikas ("seven divine mothers") and were worshippers of many gods including Siva, Vishnu, Chamundi, Surya, Kubera, Parvati, Vinayaka and Kartikeya.

Some scholar connect the Chalukyas with the Solankis of Gujarat. According to a myth mentioned in latter manuscripts of Prithviraj Raso, Solankis were born out of fire-pit (Agnikund) at Mount Abu. However it has been reported that the story of Agnikula is mot mentioned at all in the original version of the Prithviraj Raso preserved in the Fort Library at Bikaner.^[43]

According to the Nilagunda inscription of King Vikramaditya VI (11th century or later), the Chalukyas originally hailed from Ayodhya where fifty-nine kings ruled, and later, sixteen more of this family ruled from South India where they had migrated. This is repeated by his court poet Bilhana, who claims that the first member of the family, "Chalukya", was so named as he was born in the "hollow of the hands" of God Brahma.^[44][45]

In these circumstances, says prof. R. Sathianathaier, it is best to take the Chalukyas as allied to the Gurjaras.^[30]

Periods in Chalukya history[link]

The Chalukyas ruled over the Deccan plateau in India for over 600 years. During this period, they ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties. These are the "Chalukyas of Badami" (also called "Early Chalukyas"), who ruled between the 6th and the 8th century, and the two sibling dynasties, the "Chalukyas of Kalyani" (also called Western Chalukyas or "Later Chalukyas") and the "Chalukyas of Vengi" (also called Eastern Chalukyas).

Chalukyas of Badami[link]

In the 6th century, with the decline of the Gupta dynasty and their immediate successors in northern India, major changes began to happen in the area south of the Vindyas – the Deccan and Tamilaham. The age of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in this region.^[46] The Chalukya dynasty was established by Pulakesi I in 543.^[47][48][49] Pulakesi I took Vatapi (modern Badami in Bagalkot district, Karnataka) under his control and made it his capital. Pulakesi I and his descendants are referred to as "Chalukyas of Badami". They ruled over an empire that comprised the entire state of Karnataka and most of Andhra Pradesh in the Deccan.

Pulakesi II, whose precoronation name was Ereya,^[50] commanded control over the entire Deccan and is perhaps the most well-known emperor of the Badami dynasty.^[51][52] He is considered one of the notable kings in Indian history.^[53][54][55] His queens were princess from the Alupa Dynasty of South Canara and the Western Ganga Dynasty of Talakad, clans with whom the Chalukyas maintained close family and marital relationships.^[56][57] Pulakesi II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom and halted the southward march of Harsha by defeating him on the banks of the river Narmada. He then defeated the Vishnukundins in the southeastern Deccan.^{[58][59][60][61]} Pallava Narasimhavarman however reversed this victory in 642 by attacking and occupying Badami temporarily. It is presumed Pulakesi II, "the great hero", died fighting.^[41][62]

The Badami Chalukya dynasty went in to a brief decline following the death of Pulakesi II due to internal feuds when Badami was occupied by the Pallavas for a period of thirteen years.^[63][64] It recovered during the reign of Vikramaditya I, who succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami and restoring order to the empire. Vikramaditya I took the title "Rajamalla" (lit "Sovereign of the Mallas" or Pallavas).^[65] The thirty-seven year rule of Vijayaditya was a prosperous one and is known for prolific temple building activity.^[66][67]

The empire was its peak again during the rule of the illustrious Vikramaditya II who is known not only for his repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam and his subsequent victories over Pallava Nandivarman II, but also for his benevolence towards the people and the monuments of Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital.^[66][68][69] He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple.^[68][70][71] He later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, the Cholas and the Cheras in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler.^[72] The last Chalukya king, Kirtivarman II, was overthrown by the Rashtrakuta King Dantidurga in 753.^[73] At their peak, the Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Kaveri in the south to the Narmada in the north.

Chalukyas of Kalyani[link]

The Chalukyas revived their fortunes in 973 after over 200 years of dormancy when much of the Deccan was under the Rashtrakutas. The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated. One theory, based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas, suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious Badami Chalukya dynasty of the 6th century^[74][75] while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the Early Chalukyas.^[76]

Tailapa II, a Rashtrakuta feudatory ruling from Tardavadi – 1000 (Bijapur district) overthrew Karka II, re-established the Chalukya rule in the western Deccan and recovered most of the Chalukya empire.^[77][78] The Western Chalukyas ruled for over 200 years and were in constant conflict with the Cholas, and with their cousins, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Vikramaditya VI is widely considered the most notable ruler of the dynasty.^[79][80] Starting from the very beginning of his reign, which lasted fifty years, he abolished the original Saka era and established the Vikrama Era. Most subsequent Chalukya inscriptions are dated in this new era.^[81][82] Vikramaditya VI was an ambitious and skilled military leader. Under his leadership the Western Chalukyas were able to end the Chola influence over Vengi (coastal Andhra) and become the dominant power in the Deccan.^[83][84] The Western Chalukya period was an important age in the development of Kannada literature and Sanskrit literature.^[85][86] They went into their final dissolution towards the end of the 12th century with the rise of the Hoysala Empire, the Pandyas, the Kakatiya and the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri.^[87]

Chalukyas of Vengi[link]

Pulakesi II conquered the eastern Deccan, corresponding to the coastal districts of modern Andhra Pradesh in 616, defeating the remnants of the Vishnukundina kingdom. He appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy in 621.^[88][89] Thus the Eastern Chalukyas were originally of Kannada stock.^[90] After the death of Pulakesi II, the Vengi Viceroyalty developed into an independent kingdom and included the region between Nellore and Vishakapatnam.^[89][91]

After the decline of the Badami Chalukya empire in the mid-8th century, territorial disputes flared up between the Rashtrakutas, the new rulers of the western deccan, and the Eastern Chalukyas. For much of the next two centuries, the Eastern Chalukyas had to accept subordination towards the Rashtrakutas.^[92] Apart from a rare military success, such as the one by Vijayaditya II, it was only during the rule of Bhima I (892) that these Chalukyas were able to celebrate a measure of independence. After the death of Bhima I, the Andhra region once again saw succession disputes and interference in Vengi affairs by the Rashtrakutas.^[92]

The fortunes of the Eastern Chalukyas took a turn around 1000. Danarnava, their king, was killed in battle in 973 by the Telugu Choda King Bhima who then imposed his rule over the region for twenty-seven years. During this time, Danarnava's two sons took refuge in the Chola kingdom. Choda Bhima 's invasion of Tondaimandalam, a Chola territory, and his subsequent death on the battlefield opened up a new era in Chola–Chalukya relations. Saktivarman I, the elder son of Danarnava was crowned as the ruler of Vengi in 1000, though under the control of king Rajaraja Chola I.^[93] This new relationship between the Cholas and the coastal Andhra kingdom was unacceptable to the Western Chalukyas, who had by then replaced the Rashtrakutas as the main power in the western Deccan. The Western Chalukyas sought to brook the growing Chola influence in the Vengi region but were unsuccessful.^[92][94]

Initially, the Eastern Chalukyas had encouraged Kannada language and literature, though, after a period of time, local factors took over and they gave importance to Telugu language.^[95][96] Telugu literature owes its growth to the Eastern Chalukyas.^[97]

Architecture[link]

Virupaksha temple in dravidian style at Pattadakal, built 740 CE

Mallikarjuna temple in dravidian style and Kashi Vishwanatha temple in nagara style at Pattadakal, built 740 CE

Dancing Shiva in cave no. 1 in Badami

Papanatha temple at Pattadakal – fusion of southern and northern Indian styles, 680 CE

The Badami Chalukya era was an important period in the development of South Indian architecture. Their style of architecture is called "Chalukyan architecture" or "Karnata Dravida architecture".^[98][99] Nearly a hundred monuments built by them, rock cut (cave) and structural, are found in the Malaprabha river basin in modern Bagalkot district of northern Karnataka.^[100] The building material they used was a reddish-golden Sandstone found locally. Though they ruled a vast empire, the Chalukyan workshops concentrated most of their temple building activity in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland – Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Mahakuta in modern Karnataka state.^[101]

Their temple building activity can be categorised into three phases. The early phase began in the last quarter of the 6th century and resulted in many cave temples, prominent among which are three elementary cave temples at Aihole (one Vedic, one Jain and one Buddhist which is incomplete), followed by four developed cave temples at Badami (of which cave 3, a Vaishnava temple, is dated accurately to 578 CE).^[102] These cave temples at Badami are similar, in that, each has a plain exterior but an exceptionally well finished interior consisting of a pillared verandah, a columned hall (mantapa) and a cella (shrine, cut deep into rock) which contains the deity of worship.^[103] In Badami, three caves temples are Vedic and one in Jain. The Vedic temples contain large well sculpted images of Harihara, Mahishasuramardhini, Varaha, Narasimha, Trivikrama, Vishnu seated on Anantha (the snake) and Nataraja (dancing Shiva).^[104]

The second phase of temple building was at Aihole (where some seventy structures exist and has been called "one of the cradles of Indian temple architecture"^[105]) and Badami. Though the exact dating of these temples has been debated, there is consensus that the beginnings of these constructions are from c. 600.^{[106][107][108]} These are the Lad Khan Temple (dated by some to c. 450 but more accurately to 620) with its interesting perforated stone windows and sculptures of river goddesses; the Meguti Jain Temple (634) which shows progress in structural design; the Durga Temple with its northern Indian style tower (8th century) and experiments to adapt a Buddhist Chaitya design to a brahminical one; the Huccimalli Gudi Temple with a new inclusion, a vestibule, connecting the sanctum to the hall.^[109] Other dravida style temples from this period are the Naganatha Temple at Nagaral; the Banantigudi Temple, the Mahakutesvara Temple and the Mallikarjuna Temple at Mahakuta; and the Lower Sivalaya Temple, the Malegitti Sivalaya Temple (upper) and the Jambulingesvara Temple at Badami.^[107]

The structural temples at Pattadakal, built in the 8th century and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, marks the culmination and mature phase of Badami Chalukyan architecture. The Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami are also from this period. There are ten temples at Pattadakal, six in southern dravida style and four in the northern nagara style. Well known among these are the Sangamesvara Temple (725), the Virupaksha Temple (740–745) and the Mallikarjuna Temple (740–745) in the southern style. The Papanatha temple (680) and Galaganatha Temple (740) are early attempts in the nagara – dravida fusion style.^[110] Inscriptional evidence suggests that the Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna Temples were commissioned by the two queens of King Vikramaditya II after his military success over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.^[107] Some well known names of Chalukyan architects are Revadi Ovajja, Narasobba and Anivarita Gunda.^[111]

The reign of Western Chalukyas was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture. Their architecture served as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century.^[112][113] The centre of their cultural and temple-building activity lay in the Tungabhadra region of modern Karnataka state, encompassing the present-day Dharwad district; it included areas of present-day Haveri and Gadag districts.^[114][115] Here, large medieval workshops built numerous monuments.^[116] These monuments, regional variants of pre-existing dravida temples, defined the Karnata dravida tradition.^[117]

The most notable of the many buildings dating from this period are the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi in the Koppal district,^[118] the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi in the Gadag district,^[119] the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti and the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali, both in the Davangere district.^[120] Other notable constructions are the Dodda Basappa Temple at Dambal (Gadag district),^[121] the Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri (Haveri district),^[122] and the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri (Dharwad district).^[123] The Eastern Chalukyas built some fine temples at Alampur, in modern eastern Andhra Pradesh.^[102][124]

Literature[link]

Poetry on stone at the Meguti temple (Aihole inscription) dated 634 CE, in Sanskrit language and old Kannada script

The Aihole inscription of Pulakesi II (634) written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language and Kannada script is considered as an excellent piece of poetry.^[33][125] A few verses of a poetess named Vijayanaka who describes herself as the "dark Sarasvati" have been preserved. It is possible that she may have been a queen of prince Chandraditya (a son of Pulakesi II).^[126] Famous writers in Sanskrit from the Western Chalukya period are Vijnaneshwara who achieved fame by writing Mitakshara, a book on Hindu law, and King Somesvara III, a noted scholar, who compiled an encyclopedia of all arts and sciences called Manasollasa.^[127]

From the period of the Badami Chalukyas, references are made to the existence of Kannada literature, though not much has survived.^[128] Inscriptions however refer to Kannada as the "natural language".^[129] The Kappe Arabhatta record of c. 700 in tripadi (three line) metre is the earliest available work in Kannada poetics.^[130][131] Karnateshwara Katha, which was quoted later by Jayakirti, is believed to be a eulogy of Pulakesi II and to have belonged to this period.^[131] Other probable Kannada writers, whose works are not extant now but titles of which are known from independent references^[132] are Syamakundacharya (650), who is said to have authored the Prabhrita, and Srivaradhadeva (also called Tumubuluracharya, 650 or earlier), the possible author of the Chudamani ("Crest Jewel"), a lengthy commentary on logic.^{[128][133][134][135]}

The rule of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas, however, is a major event in the history of Kannada and Telugu literatures respectively. By the 9th–10th centuries, Kannada language had already seen some of its most notable writers. The "three gems" of Kannada literature, Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna belonged to this period.^[136][137] In the 11th century, Telugu literature was born under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas with Nannaya Bhatta as its first writer.^[137][138]

Badami Chalukya country[link]

Army

Bhutanatha group of temples facing the Badami tank

The army was well organised and this was the reason for Pulakesi II's success beyond the Vindyas.^[139] It consisted of an infantry, a cavalry, an elephant corps and a powerful navy. The Chinese traveller Hiuen-Tsiang wrote that the Chalukyan army had hundreds of elephants which were intoxicated with liquor prior to battle.^[140][41] It was with their navy that they conquered Revatidvipa (Goa), and Puri on east coast of India. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use the term Karnatabala when referring to the powerful Chalukya armies.^[141]

Land governance The government, at higher levels, was closely modelled after the Magadhan and Satavahana administrative machinery.^[41] The empire was divided into Maharashtrakas (provinces), then into smaller Rashtrakas (Mandala), Vishaya (district), Bhoga (group of 10 villages) which is similar to the Dasagrama unit used by the Kadambas. At the lower levels of administration, the Kadamba style prevailed fully. The Sanjan plates of Vikramaditya I even mentions a land unit called Dasagrama.^[142] In addition to imperial provinces, there were autonomous regions ruled by feudatories such as the Alupas, the Gangas, the Banas and the Sendrakas.^[143] Local assemblies and guilds looked after local issues. Groups of mahajanas (learned brahmins) looked after agraharas (called ghatika or "place of higher learning") such as at Badami which was served by 2000 mahajans and Aihole which was served by 500 mahajanas. Taxes were levied and were called the herjunka – tax on loads, the kirukula – tax on retail goods in transit, the bilkode – sales tax, the pannaya – betel tax, siddaya – land tax and the vaddaravula – tax levied to support royalty.^[143]

Coinage

Jain Cave temple No. 4 at Badami, 6th century

The Badami Chalukyas minted coins that were of a different standard compared to the coins of the northern kingdoms.^[144] The coins had Nagari and Kannada legends.^[23] The coins of Mangalesa had the symbol of a temple on the obverse and a 'sceptre between lamps' or a temple on the reverse. Pulakesi II's coins had a caparisoned lion facing right on the obverse and a temple on the reverse. The coins weighed 4 grams and were called, in old-Kannada, hun (or honnu) and had fractions such as fana (or fanam) and the quarter fana (the modern day Kannada equivalent being hana – which literally means "money").^[145] A gold coin called gadyana is mentioned in a record at the Vijayeshwara Temple at Pattadakal, which later came to be known as varaha (their royal emblem).^[144]

Religion

Vaishnava Cave temple No. 3 at Badami, 578 CE

Both Shaivism and Vaishnavism flourished during the Badami Chalukya period, though it seems the former was more popular.^[146] Famous temples were built in places such as Pattadakal, Aihole and Mahakuta, and priests (archakas) were invited from northern India. Vedic sacrifices, religious vows (vrata) and the giving of gifts (dana) was important.^[147] The Badami kings were initially followers of Vedic Hindusim and dedicated temples to popular Hindu deities in Aihole. Sculptures of deities testify to the popularity of Hindu Gods such as Vishnu, Shiva, Kartikeya, Ganapathi, Shakti, Surya and Sapta Matrikas ("seven mothers"). The Badami kings also performed the Ashwamedha ("horse sacrifice").^[148] The worship of Lajja Gauri, a fertility goddess is known. Jainism too was a prominent religion during this period. Few of the chalukya kings were jains. The kings of the dynasty were however secular and actively encouraged Jainism. One of the Badami Cave temples is dedicated to the Jain faith. Jain temples were also erected in the Aihole complex, the temple at Maguti being one such example.^[149] Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesi II was a Jain. Queen Vinayavati consecrated a temple for the Trimurti ("Hindu trinity") at Badami. Sculptures of the Trimurti, Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva) and Ardhanarishwara (half Shiva, half woman) provide ample evidence of their tolerance.^[148] Buddhism was on a decline, having made its ingress into Southeast Asia. This is confirmed by the writings of Hiuen-Tsiang. Badami, Aihole, Kurtukoti and Puligere (modern Lakshmeshwar in the Gadag district) were primary places of learning.

Society

Vishnu image in Cave temple No. 3

The Hindu caste system was present and devadasis were recognised by the government. Some kings had concubines (ganikas) who were given much respect,^[150] and Sati was perhaps absent since widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in records. Devadasis were however present in temples. Sage Bharata's Natyashastra, the precursor to Bharatanatyam, the classical dance of South India, was popular and is seen in many sculptures and is mentioned in inscriptions.^[151] Some women from the royal family enjoyed political power in administration. Queen Vijayanka was a noted Sanskrit poetess,^[126] Kumkumadevi, the younger sister of Vijayaditya (and queen of Alupa King Chitravahana) made several grants and had a Jain basadi called Anesajjebasadi constructed at Puligere,^[152] and the queens of Vikramaditya II, Lokamahadevi and Trailokyamahadevi made grants and possibly consecrated the Lokesvara Temple (now called Virupaksha temple) and the Mallikarjuna temple respectively at Pattadakal.^[153]

In popular culture[link]

The Chalukya era may be seen as the beginning in the fusion of cultures of northern and southern India, making way for the transmission of ideas between the two regions. This is seen clearly in the field of architecture. The Chalukyas spawned the Vesara style of architecture which includes elements of the northern nagara and southern dravida styles. During this period, the expanding Sanskritic culture mingled with local Dravidian vernaculars which were already popular.^[46] Dravidian languages maintain these influences even today. This influence helped to enrich literature in these languages.^[154] The Hindu legal system owes much to the Sanskrit work Mitakshara by Vijnaneshwara in the court of Western Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI. Perhaps the greatest work in legal literature, Mitakshara is a commentary on Yajnavalkya and is a treatise on law based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of India. Englishman Henry Thomas Colebrooke later translated into English the section on inheritance, giving it currency in the British Indian court system.^[155] It was during the Western Chalukya rule that the Bhakti movement gained momentum in South India, in the form of Ramanujacharya and Basavanna, later spreading into northern India.

A celebration called Chalukya utsava, a three-day festival of music and dance, organised by the Government of Karnataka, is held every year at Pattadakal, Badami and Aihole.^[156] The event is a celebration of the achievements of the Chalukyas in the realm of art, craft, music and dance. The program, which starts at Pattadakal and ends in Aihole, is inaugurated by the Chief Minister of Karnataka. Singers, dancers, poets and other artists from all over the country take part in this event. In the 26 February 2006 celebration, 400 art troupes took part in the festivities. Colorful cut outs of the Varaha the Chalukya emblem, Satyasraya Pulakesi (Pulakesi II), famous sculptural masterpieces such as Durga, Mahishasuramardhini (Durga killing demon Mahishasura) were present everywhere. The program at Pattadakal is named Anivaritacharigund vedike after the famous architect of the Virupaksha temple, Gundan Anivaritachari. At Badami it is called Chalukya Vijayambika Vedike and at Aihole, Ravikirti Vedike after the famous poet and minister (Ravikirti) in the court of Pulakesi II. Immadi Pulakeshi, a Kannada movie of the 1960s starring Dr. Rajkumar celebrates the life and times of the great king.

See also[link]

• Eastern Chalukyas
• Western Chalukyas
• Chalukya Cholas
• Hoysala Empire
• Chola dynasty
• Kamboi
• Kamboja

Notes[link]

References[link]

Books

• Chopra, P.N.; Ravindran, T.K.; Subrahmanian, N (2003) [2003]. History of South India (Ancient, Medieval and Modern) Part 1. New Delhi: Chand Publications. ISBN 81-219-0153-7. 
• Cousens, Henry (1996) [1926]. The Chalukyan Architecture of Kanarese Districts. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India. OCLC 37526233. 
• Foekema, Gerard (1996). Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples. New Delhi: Abhinav. ISBN 81-7017-345-0. 
• Foekema, Gerard (2003) [2003]. Architecture decorated with architecture: Later medieval temples of Karnataka, 1000–1300 AD. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-215-1089-9. 
• Hardy, Adam (1995) [1995]. Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation-The Karnata Dravida Tradition 7th to 13th Centuries. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 81-7017-312-4. 
• Houben, Jan E.M. (1996) [1996]. Ideology and Status of Sanskrit: Contributions to the History of the Sanskrit language. Brill. ISBN 90-04-10613-8. 
• Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) [1980]. A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present. Bangalore: Jupiter books. LCCN 8095179. OCLC 7796041. 
• Karmarkar, A.P. (1947) [1947]. Cultural history of Karnataka: ancient and medieval. Dharwad: Karnataka Vidyavardhaka Sangha. OCLC 8221605. 
• Keay, John (2000) [2000]. India: A History. New York: Grove Publications. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0. 
• Michell, George (2002) [2002]. Pattadakal – Monumental Legacy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-566057-9. 
• Moraes, George M. (1990) [1931]. The Kadamba Kula, A History of Ancient and Medieval Karnataka. New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0595-0. 
• Mugali, R.S. (1975) [1975]. History of Kannada literature. Sahitya Akademi. OCLC 2492406. 
• Narasimhacharya, R (1988) [1988]. History of Kannada Literature. New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0303-6. 
• Ramesh, K.V. (1984). Chalukyas of Vatapi. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. ISBN 3987-10333. 
• Sastri, Nilakanta K.A. (2002) [1955]. A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-560686-8. 
• Sen, Sailendra Nath. Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age Publishers. ISBN 81-224-1198-3. 
• Thapar, Romila (2003) [2003]. The Penguin History of Early India. New Delhi: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-302989-4. 
• Vaidya, C.V. History of Mediaeval Hindu India (Being a History of India from 600 to 1200 A.D.). Poona: Oriental Book Supply Agency. OCLC 6814734. 
• Various (1988) [1988]. Encyclopaedia of Indian literature – vol 2. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-260-1194-7. 

Web

• "The Mahakuta Pillar and Its Temples, Carol Radcliffe Bolon, Artibus Asiae publishers, Vol. 41, No. 2/3 (1979), pp. 253–268". http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0004-3648%281979%2941%3A2%2F3%3C253%3ATMPAIT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0&size=LARGE. Retrieved 2006-11-10. 
• "APOnline – History of Andhra Pradesh-ancient period-Eastern Chalukyas by Tata Consultancy Services". http://www.aponline.gov.in/quick%20links/hist-cult/history_ancient.html#ChalukyasPart. Retrieved 2006-11-12. 
• "Architecture of Indian Subcontinent, Takeyo Kamiya, 20 September 1996, Published by Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India". http://www.indoarch.org/place.php?placelink=R%3D5%2BS%3D18%2BP%3D0%2BM%3D0. Retrieved 2006-11-12. 
• "Badami Chalukyans' magical transformation, an article by Azmathulla Shariff in Deccan Herald, Spectrum, 26 July 2005". Archived from the original on 2007-02-10. http://web.archive.org/web/20070210222449/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jul262005/spectrum1422512005725.asp. Retrieved 2006-11-12. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Chalukya Empire

• "Chalukyan Art by Dr. Jyotsna Kamat, Kamat's Potpourri, 4 November 2006". http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/chalukya/. Retrieved 2006-11-10. 
• "History of the Kannada Literature, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat, on Kamat's Potpourri, Timeless Theater-Karnataka-History of Kannada, 4 November 2006". http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/kar/literature/history1.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-12. 
• "Aihole Temples, Photographs by Michael D. Gunther, 2002". http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/aihole/aihplan.html. Retrieved 2006-11-10. 
• "Badami Cave Temples, Photographs by Michael D. Gunther, 2002". http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/badami/baplan.html. Retrieved 2006-11-10. 
• "Pattadakal Temples, Photographs by Michael D. Gunther, 2002". http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/pattadakal/pat0.html. Retrieved 2006-11-10. 
• Chalukyas of Kalyana (973–1198 CE) by Dr. Jyotsna Kamat
• "Mysore-List of rulers of Karnataka". http://www.hostkingdom.net/india.html#Mysore. Retrieved 2006-11-10. 
• "The Chalukyan magnificence". http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2201/stories/20050114000106500.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-10. 
• "Coins of Chalukyas". http://prabhu.50g.com/southind/chalukya/south_chalcat.html. Retrieved 2006-11-10. ^{[dead link]}
• "Coins of Alupas". Archived from the original on 2006-08-15. http://web.archive.org/web/20060815095514/http://prabhu.50g.com/southind/alupa/south_alupacat.html. Retrieved 2006-11-10. 
• "Chalukya Rulers". http://uqconnect.net/~zzhsoszy/ips/misc/chalukya.html. Retrieved 2011-07-11. 

Raja Raja Chola I (Tamil: ராஜ ராஜ சோழன்) born Arunmozhi Thevar^[1] (also called as Raja Kesari Varman Raja Raja Devar^[2] and respectfully as Peruvudaiyar), popularly known as Raja Raja the Great, is one of the greatest emperors of the Tamil Chola Empire of India who ruled between 985 and 1014 CE. He established the Chola empire by conquering the kingdoms of southern India expanding the Chola Empire as far as Sri Lanka in the south, and Kalinga (Orissa) in the northeast. He fought many battles with the Chalukyas in the north and the Pandyas in the south. By conquering Vengi, Rajaraja laid the foundations for the Later Chola dynasty. He invaded Sri Lanka and started a century-long Chola occupation of the island. He streamlined the administrative system with the division of the country into various districts and by standardising revenue collection through systematic land surveys. Being an ardent devotee of Lord Shiva, he built the magnificent Peruvudaiyar Temple (also known as the Brihadeeswarar Temple) in Thanjavur and through it enabled wealth distribution amongst his subjects. His successes enabled his son Rajendra Chola I to extend the empire even further.

Dates[link]

The key dates of Raja Raja are difficult to come by, scholar N Sethuraman, concludes that he was born in circa 947 ACE, was crowned on 18 July 985 and died in 1014 in the Tamil month of Maka.^[3]

Popular Prince[link]

Rajaraja Chola was born as the third child of Parantaka Sundara Chola and Vanavan Maha Devi of the Velir Malayaman dynasty. After a long apprenticeship of an heir apparent, he ascended the throne after the death of Madurandhagan Chola.^[4] During the lifetime of his father Sundara Chola, Arulmozhi had carved a name for himself by his exploits in the battles against the Sinhala and Pandyan armies. Sundara Chola’s eldest son and heir apparent Aditya II was assassinated under unclear circumstances.^[4] madurandhaghan, as the only child of Gandar Adityar, wanted the Chola throne as he felt it was his birthright. After the death of Aditya II, madurandhagan forced Sundara Chola to declare him as their apparent ahead of Arulmozhi.^[4] The Thiruvalangadu copper-plate inscriptions say:

"…Though his subjects…entreated Arulmozhi Varman, he…did not desire the kingdom for himself even inwardly ".

This was to say that Raja Raja was very much legally elected through the kind of democratic process followed by Cholas as seen in their Uttiramerur inscription. No other interpretation of the same is correct. Another example of such a process is selection to Pallava throne of Sri Nandi Varman II. In as much as it could very much be possible that the king rejected the offer in order to continue to devote time and energy to build the resources to realise the Cholan military objectives. The assertion seems to be very much true as we see right from the beginning how the king was involved in the Cholan expeditions and also the organised structure of their military. Madhurandhagan made a compromise with Sundara Chola that Madhurandhagan will be succeeded by Arulmozhi and not his own son. The Thiruvalangadu inscription again states:

"Having noticed by the marks (on his body) that Arulmozhi was the very Vishnu, the protector of the three worlds, descended on earth, [madhurandhagan] installed him in the position of yuvaraja (heir apparent) and himself bore the burden of ruling the earth…"

Military conquests[link]

Southern wars[link]

The southern kingdoms of Pandyas, Cheras and the Sinhalas were often allied against the Cholas.^[5] It was the case when Rajaraja came to the throne. Rajaraja's initial campaigns were against the combined Pandya and Chera armies. There is no evidence of any military campaign undertaken by Rajaraja until the eighth year of his reign. During this period he was engaged in organising and augmenting his army and in preparing for military expeditions.^[6]

Kandalur Salai[link]

The first military achievement of Rajaraja’s reign was the campaign in Kerala c. 994 CE. Rajaraja’s early inscriptions use the descriptive ‘Kandalur salai kalamarutta’ (காந்தளுர் சாலைக் களமறுத்த). In this campaign Rajaraja is said to have destroyed a fleet in the port of Kandalur, which appears to have been situated in the dominions of the Chera King Bhaskara Ravi Varman Thiruvadi (c. 978–1036 CE).^[6][7] Inscriptions found around Thanjavur show that frequent references are made to the conquest of the Chera king and the Pandyas in Malai-nadu (the west coast of South India). Kandalur-Salai, which later inscriptions claim to have belonged to the Chera king, was probably held by the Pandyas when it was conquered by Rajaraja. Some years' fighting apparently was necessary before the conquest could be completed and the conquered country could be sufficiently settled for its administration could be properly organised.^[8] In the war against the Pandyas, Rajaraja seized the Pandya king Amarabhujanga and the Chola general captured the port of Virinam. To commemorate these conquests Rajaraja assumed the title Mummudi-Chola, (the Chola king who wears three crowns – the Chera, Chola and Pandya) and according to tradition the title Raja Raja was conferred on him by serving members of Chidambaram temple of ancient who had also the duty of conducting the swearing in ceremony of chola and pallava princes.

Malai Nadu[link]

In a battle against the Cheras sometime before 1008 CE, Rajaraja captured Udagai in the western hill country. Kalingattuparani, a war poem written during the reign of Kulothunga Chola I hints at a slight on the Chola ambassador to the Chera court as the reason for this sacking of Udagai. Rajaraja's son Rajendra was the Chola general leading the army in this battle.^[6] A place named Udagai is mentioned in connection with the conquest of the Pandyas. The Kalingattu-Parani refers to the “storming of Udagai” in the verse, which alludes to the reign of Rajaraja. The Kulottunga-Cholan-ula also mentions the burning of Udagai. This was probably an important stronghold in the Pandya country, which the Chola king captured. The Tamil poem Vikkirama Cholan ula mentions the conquest of Malai Nadu and the killing of 18 princes in retaliation of the insult offered to an envoy.^[9]

Invasion of Lanka[link]

To eliminate the remaining actor in the triumvirate, Rajaraja invaded Sri Lanka in 993 CE. The copper-plate inscription mention that Rajaraja’s powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the kingdom of Lanka. Mahinda V was the king of Sinhalas. In 991 CE, Mahinda’s army mutinied with help from mercenaries from Kerala. Mahinda had to seek refuge in the southern region of Rohana. Rajaraja utilised this opportunity and invaded the island. Chola armies occupied the northern half of Lanka and named the dominion ‘Mummudi Chola Mandalam’. Anuradhapura, the 1400-year-old capital of Sinhala kings was destroyed. The destruction was so extensive the city was abandoned. Cholas made the city of Polonnaruwa as their capital and renamed it Jananathamangalam. The choice of this city demonstrates the desire of Rajaraja to conquer the entire island. Rajaraja also built a Temple for Siva in Pollonaruwa.^[9] RajaRajan's desire to bring the whole Lankan island under Cholan empire was never fulfilled and the southern part of the island (Ruhuna) remained independent. Later, king Vijayabahu I successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.^[10][11]

Northern Wars[link]

Rajaraja also expanded his conquests in the north and northwest. The regions of Gangapadi (Gangawadi), Nolambapadi (Nolambawadi), Tadigaipadi came into Chola possession during Rajaraja.

Mural found in the Brihadeesvara temple, Tamil Nadu, 11th century. The belief that this represents Rajaraja Chola (in the background) and his guru Karuvurar is contested.^[12]

Ganga Wars[link]

Before his 14th year c. 998–999 CE, Rajaraja conquered Gangapadi (Gangawadi) and Nurambapadi (Nolambawadi), which formed part of the present Karnataka State. This conquest was facilitated by the fact the Cholas never lost their hold of the Ganga country from the efforts of Sundara Chola. Nolambas who were the feudatories of Ganga could have turned against their overlords and aided the Cholas to conquer the Gangas, who were the chief bulwark against the Chola armies in the northwest.

The invasion of the Ganga country was a success and the entire Ganga country was under the Chola rule for the next century. The easy success against the Gangas was also due to the disappearance of Rashtrakutas c. 973 CE as they were conquered by the western Chalukyas. From this time, the Chalukyas became the main antagonists of Cholas in the northwest.

Western Chalukya Wars[link]

During the reign of Rajaraja Chola, there were continuous wars with the Western Chalukyas to assert supremacy and there are multiple epigraphic evidences that show that the Cholas were constantly fighting with the Chalukyas or against the vassals of the latter. It is unclear as to why Rajaraja mounted an invasion against Satyasraya. According to historian Eugen Hultzsch the circumstances that led to the war are not mentioned in any of Rajaraja's inscriptions. But we do know that the rulers of these two conquered provinces were originally feudatories of the Rashtrakutas.^[13] An inscription of Irivabedanga Satyasraya from Dharwar describes him as a vassal of the Western Chalukya Ahvamalla for he describes himself as a bee at the lotus feet of Ahavamalldeva in 1002 A.D. An inscription of Rajaraja asserts that he captured Rattapadi by force. Rajendra led the Chola armies against the Western Chalukyas and would turn Manyakheta, the Chalukyan capital into his own playground. Raja Raja I claims damages worth "seven and a half lakshas from Irattapadi which was evidently the site of war with Satyashraya resulting in victory for Raja Raja I and payment of damages by the Chalukya king. Chalukya kingdom Satyashraya would renege on his promise of agreeing to Chola suzerainty, but would be defeated by Rajendra Chola I when he became king. Irivabedanga Satyasraya partially acknowledges this Chola onslaught in his Hottur (Dharwad) inscription as he screams in pain. In his own words he calls himself the ornament of Chalukya race and the slayer of the Tamil. He identifies his opponent as Rajaraja Nittavinodha Rajendra Vidyadhara, the ornament of the Chola kula Nūrmadi Chola(one hundred times more powerful).^[14] In the same inscription, he accuses Rajendra of having arrived with a force of 900,000 and of having gone on rampage in Donuwara thereby blurring the moralities of war as laid out in the Dharmasastras.^[15] He says that his opponent destroyed the caste (jāti nāsa) of his people. Historians like James Heitzman, Wolfgang Schenkluhn conclude that this confrontation displayed the degree of animosity on a personal level between the rulers of the Chola and the Chalukya kingdoms, the feeling of otherness and their inability to identify with the other side that degenerated to a level of violence that overthrew the established social order(destruction of caste). They also draw a parallel between this relationship and the enmity between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi.^[16] There is also epigrahic evidence of earlier encounters between the Cholas and the Hoysalas who were vassals of the Western Chalukyas during the reign of Rajaraja Chola. An inscription from the roof of the Gopalakrishna temple at Kaleyur in the Tirumukudalu Narasipur taluk dated in Saka 929 being current, Parabhava, corresponding to 1006 A.D, records that Rajaraja's viceroy Aprameya displayed his valor by slaying the Hoysala minister Naganna and multiple other generals of the Hoysalas like Manjaga, Kalega(or Kali Ganga), Nagavarman, etc.^[17] There is also a similar inscription in the Channapatna taluk that shows Rajaraja crushing the Hoysalas.^[18] Rajaraja evidently attached much importance to his victory over Satyasraya, as he is said to have presented gold flowers to the Rajarajesvara temple on his return from the expedition. At the end of this war, the southern banks of the Tungabadhra river became the frontier between these two empires.

War against Vengi[link]

The cholas in pursuit of their objective of annihilating to ground evil kingdoms" and hence destroy the excessive wickedness of age of Kali had clashed with many kingdoms and one of which was Vengi. Parantaka Chola I who had made extensive conquests had in fact subdued the Deccan kingdom that flourished in this region in 913.C.E. Even in Inscriptions of Sundarachola we find a Chola regiment in Eastern Deccan preparing to invade Orissa. Thus there is no truth in the proposition of "Chola Throne" ties with "Vengi".

Some of Chola Inscriptions of Raja Raja note how during a war against Vengi, the king himself took initiative and killed a certain ruler called Bheema ruling that area because " he felled one of his commanders". Thus even if Cholas had reigned supreme in Eastern Deccan it was certainly a military vision and the small province of Vengi most probably served as a military base for Cholas who frequently sent in expeditions to Orissa and Western Deccan. We know about such base building activities down south in Pandyan country and also near Suchindram and Colombo in Lanka where the Cholas are known to have built naval bases and also " some temples for Lord Vishnu ".

Kalinga conquest[link]

The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga must have occurred subsequent to the conquest of Vengi.^[19] Rajendra Chola, as the commander of the Chola forces invaded and defeated the Andhra king Bhima.

Naval Conquests[link]

Detail of the main gopura (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple

One of the last conquests of Rajaraja was the naval conquest of the ‘old islands of the sea numbering 12,000’, the Maldives.^[20]

We have no further details regarding this expedition, however this is a sufficient indication of the abilities of the Chola Navy, which was utilised effectively under Rajendra I. Chola Navy also had played a major role in the invasion of Lanka.^[21]

The increasing realisation of the importance of a good Navy and the desire to neutralise the emerging Chera Naval power were probably the reasons for the Kandalur campaign in the early days of Rajaraja’s reign.^[22]

Nagapattinam on the Bay of Bengal was the main port of the Cholas and could have been the navy headquarters.Bay of Bengal called as Chola lake

Thanjavur Temple[link]

Rajaraja’s reign is commemorated by the Siva temple in Thanjavur, called Raajarajeswaram. The temple is now recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, forming part of the Great Living Chola Temples site.

The construction of the temple is said to have been completed on the 275th day of the 25th year of his reign.^[23] After its commemoration the temple and the capital had close business relations with the rest of the country and acted as a centre of both religious and economic activity. Year after year villages from all over the country had to supply men and material for the temple maintenance.^[24]

Administration[link]

Rajaraja Chola's statue at Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur.

From the 23rd to the 29th year of Rajaraja’s rule his dominions enjoyed peace and the king apparently devoted his energies to the task of internal administration. The building of the Rajarajesvara temple in Thanjavur and the various endowments and gifts to it must have occupied a prominent place in the king’s mind during these years.

Rajaraja carried out a revenue and settlement during the final years of his reign. Inscriptions found in the Thanjavur temple bear testimony to the accuracy of this operation. Land as small in extent as 1/52,428,800,000 of a ‘veli’ (a land measure) was measured and assessed to revenue. The revenue survey enabled for the confiscation of lands of the defaulting landlords.^[25]

Rajaraja also perfected the administrative organisation by creating a strong and centralised machinery and by appointing local government authorities. He installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while not curtailing their autonomy.

Military Organisation[link]

Rajaraja created a powerful standing army and a considerable navy which achieved even greater success under his son Rajendra. The prominence given to the army from the conquest of the Pandyas down to the last year of the king’s reign is significant, and shows the spirit with which he treated his soldiers. A number of regiments are mentioned in the Tanjore inscriptions and it is evident that Rajaraja gave his army its due share in the glory derived from his extensive conquests.

In most of the foregoing names the first portion appears to be the surnames or titles of the king himself or of his son. That these regiments should have been called after the king or his son is indicative of the attachment the Chola king bore towards his army.

It is possible that these royal names were pre-fixed to the designations of these regiments after they had distinguished themselves in some engagement or other. It is worthy of note that there are elephant troops, cavalry and foot soldiers among these regiments. To some of these regiments, the management of certain minor shrines of the temple was entrusted and they were expected to provide for the requirements of the shrine. Others among them took money from the temple on interest, which they agreed to pay in cash. We are not, however, told to what productive purpose they applied this money. At any rate all these transactions show that the king created in them an interest in the temple he built.

Officials and Feudatories[link]

Rajendra Chola was made co-regent during the last years of Rajaraja’s rule. He was also the Mahadandanayaka Panchavan Maharaya – supreme commander- of the northern and northwestern dominions. Uttarangudaiyan Kon Vidividangan alias Villavan Muvendavelan was one of the top officers (Perundaram) of Rajaraja. He figures in many of his inscriptions most notably when he and other top officers take a vow to light lamps and make other donations if they escaped from being disgraced during the military operations towards the end of Rajaraja's reign.

Paluvettaraiyars from the region of Thiruchirapalli were closely associated with the Cholas from the time of Parantaka I when he married a Paluvettaraiyar princess, were occupying a high position in the Chola administration. They were apparently enjoying full responsibility and administration of the region of Paluvur. One of the names of these feudal chieftains found in inscriptions were Adigal Paluvettaraiyar Kandan.He built a massive temple in Gangai konda cholapuram a mile stone of chola architecture. Madurantakan Gandaradityan who served in Rajaraja’s court as an important official in the department of temple affairs. He conducted enquiries into temple affairs in various parts of the country, punishing defaulters.

The other names of officials found in the inscriptions are the Bana prince Narasimhavarman, a general Senapathi Sri Krishnan Raman, the Samantha chief Vallavarayan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and Kuruvan Ulagalandan who organised the country-wide land surveys.

Standardised Inscriptions[link]

Example of a typical lithic inscription of the Chola period

Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements in every one of his inscriptions he handed down to posterity some of the important events of his life. As far as we know at present, Rajaraja was the first king of South India to introduce this innovation into his inscriptions. Before his time powerful kings of the Pallava, Pandya and Chola dynasties had reigned in the South, and some of them had made extensive conquests. But none of them seems to have considered leaving a record on stone of his military achievements.

The idea of Rajaraja to add a short account of his military achievements at the beginning of every one of his inscriptions was entirely his own. His action in this respect is all the more laudable because his successors evidently followed his example and have left us more or less complete records of their conquests. But for the historical introductions, which are often found at the beginning of the Tamil inscriptions of Chola, kings the lithic records of the Tamil country would be of very little value, and consequently even the little advance that has been made in elucidating the history of Southern India would be difficult.

An inscription by Rajaraja in Tamil, found in the Mulbagal district of Karnataka, shows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such a Meikeerthi, an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows:^[26]

ஸ்வஸ்திஸ்ரீ் திருமகள் போல பெருநிலச் செல்வியுந் தனக்கேயுரிமை பூண்டமை மனக்கொளக் காந்தளூர்ச் சாலைக் களமறூத்தருளி வேங்கை நாடும் கங்கைபாடியும் நுளம்பபாடியும் தடிகை பாடியும் குடமலை நாடும் கொல்லமும் கலிங்கமும் எண்டிசை புகழ்தர ஈழ மண்டலமும் இரட்டபாடி ஏழரை இலக்கமும் திண்டிறல் வென்றி தண்டால் கொண்டதன் பொழில் வளர் ஊழியுள் எல்லா யாண்டிலும் தொழுதகை விளங்கும் யாண்டே செழிஞரை தேசுகொள் ஸ்ரீ்கோவிராஜராஜகேசரி பந்மரான ஸ்ரீராஜராஜ தேவர்

The historical side of Rajaraja’s intellectual nature is further manifested in the order he issued to have all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple engraved on stone. Rajaraja not only was particular about recording his achievements, but also was equally diligent in preserving the records of his predecessors. For instance, an inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi near Thruchi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished.

Religious Policy[link]

An ardent follower of Saivism (one of the 4 major streams of Hinduism), Rajaraja was nevertheless tolerant towards other faiths and creeds. He also had several temples for Vishnu constructed. He also encouraged the construction of the Buddhist Chudamani Vihara at the request of the Srivijaya king Sri Maravijayatungavarman. Rajaraja dedicated the proceeds of the revenue from the village of Anaimangalam towards the upkeep of this Vihara.

[edit] Tirumurai Compilation

Raja Raja Chola embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts of Tevaram in his court.^[28] He sought the help of Nambi Andar Nambi, who was a priest in a temple.^[29] It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram.^[28][29] The brahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram.^[28][30] Rajaraja thus became to be known as Tirumurai Kanda Cholan meaning one who saved the Tirumurai.^[30] Thus far Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple.^[30] Nambi arranged the hymns of three saint poets Campantar, Appar and Sundarar as the first seven books, Manickavasagar's Tirukovayar and Tiruvacakam as the 8th book, the 28 hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book, the Tirumandiram of Tirumular as the 10th book, 40 hymns by 12 other poets as the 10th book, Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi - the sacred anthathi of the labours of the 63 nayanar saints and added his own hymns as the 11th book.^[31] The first seven books were later called as Tevaram, and the whole Saiva canon, to which was added, as the 12th book, Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135 CE) is wholly known as Tirumurai, the holy book. Thus Saiva literature which covers about 600 years of religious, philosophical and literary development.^[31]

Personal Life and Family[link]

Rajaraja was born Arulmozhi Thevar and was the third child of Parantaka Sundara Chola.

Rajaraja Chola's mother, Vaanavan Maadevi, was the daughter of Thirukkovilur king, Malayamaan Thirumudi Kaari.

His elder brother Aditya II was assassinated c. 969 CE. He had great respect for his elder sister Ālvār Sri Parāntakan Sri Kundavai Pirāttiyār or more popularly referred to as Kundavai Pirāttiyār. We also know of at least one daughter of Rajaraja called Rajaraja Kundavai Alvar who he named after his sister.^[32][33] Rajaraja had a number of wives. According to inscriptions, at least 15 names are mentioned as his wives - Ulagamaga Deviyari,Thidaipiran magal Chola Madeviyar,Abhimanavaliyar,Thirailokiya Madeviyar,Panchavan Madeviyar,Piruthivi Madeviyar,Elada Madeviyar,Meenavan Madeviyar,Nakkan Thillai Alzagiyar,Kaadan Thongiyar,Koothan Veeraniyar,Elangon Pichiyar.^[34] Also Elangon Pichiyar was the daughter of Vallavaraiyan Vandhiyathevan and Kundavai Nachiyar. The mother of Rajendra I, the only known son of Rajaraja, was Vaanathi (otherwise called as Thiripuvana Madeviyar), Princess of Kodumbaalur. Rajaraja must have had at least three daughters. One of the daughter was named after Rajaraja Cholan's sister -Kundavai who was married to the Chalukya Prince Vimaladithan. Another daughter was called as Mathevalzagal and was mentioned as the Naduvit Penn (meaning middle daughter) in one of the Thiruvilachuzhi inscriptions.^[34] The name of the third daughter is not known.

Rajaraja was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I. His natal star was Sadhayam. It was celebrated as Sadhaya-nal vizha, a 7 day festival culminating on his star birthday during the king and his son's reign.^[35] Rajaraja also bore the title Telungana Kula Kala.^[36][37][38] He was also known as Rajaraja Sivapada Sekhara (he who had the feet of Lord Shiva as his crown).^[39][40]

Historic novels featuring Rajaraja Chola-I[link]

1. Arulmozhi Varman, is the hero of Kalki Krishnamurthy’s historical novel Ponniyin Selvan. Its plot revolves around the mysteries surrounding the assassination of Aditya Karikalan and the subsequent accession of Uttama to the Chola throne. Kalki imagines Arulmozhi sacrificing his rightful claim to the throne by crowning Uttama during his own coronation.
2. Arulmozhi Varman, is the hero of Vembu Vikiraman’s historical novel Nandipurathu Nayagi. The plot of the story revolves around the ascension of Uttama Chola to the throne and Raja Raja's tour to the distant sea countries.
3. Rajaraja Cholan – Drama, written by Aru. Ramanathan, called as Kathal Ramanathan. (TKS Group made numerous Stage Shows on this Drama and later it was taken as Movie acted by Shivaji Ganesan). This drama as a book Published by Prema Pirasuram, Chennai. is made as a Study Material in South Indian Universities.
4. Balakumaran has also written the story Udaiyar based on the life of Rajaraja Chola. While Kalki's novel describes his life at his youth at the time of the death of Aditya Karikala, Bala Kumaran deals with Rajaraja Chola's life after he becomes the emperor.
5. In January 2007, Kaviri Mainthan – a novel set in the Chola period and a sequel to Ponniyin Selvan was written by Anusha Venkatesh, published by The Avenue Press.
6. Sujatha wrote a novel "Kandalur Vasantha Kumaran Kathai", which deal with the situations leading Raja raja to invade Kandhalur, a sea port.
7. Gokul Seshadri has written a novel "Rajakesari", which deals with the after effects of Kandhalur invasion, in Rajaraja Chola's life. Also there is an incomplete novel "Cherar Kottai" by the same author, which deals with the Kandhalur invasion by Rajaraja Chola.

His grave found at udayalur near Kumbakonam, just 1 km from Kumbakonam RTO office

Documetary Film[link]

“The Hidden Temples of India.” Mysteries of Asia. Produced by The Learning Channel. Narrated by Michael Bell. Freely available at http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/lost-temples-of-india

Notes[link]

32. Lost temples of India details the life of Raja Raja Chola. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SnANjdReAlY&playnext=1&list=PLF536E03081FC8AAA&index=5

References[link]

• Cort, John E. (1998). Open boundaries: Jain communities and culture in Indian history. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0=7914-3786-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=WWfnXbVWjKcC&pg=PA178&dq=tevaram&hl=en&sa=X&ei=sy3-TsnyCIy5twfq64TQDQ&ved=0CGAQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
• Cutler, Norman (1987). Songs of experience: the poetics of Tamil devotion. USA: Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication-Data. ISBN 0-253-35334-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=veSItWingx8C&pg=PA4&dq=tevaram&hl=en&sa=X&ei=gfX8Tq-SJo_1gAfEydSuAg&ved=0CEoQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=tevaram&f=false. 
• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (2000). A History of South India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/01956606868|01956606868]]. 
• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1984). The Cholas. Madras: University of Madras. 
• Keay, John (2000). India, a History. London: Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 0-00-638784-5. 
• Vasudevan, Geeta (2003). Royal Temple of Rajaraja: An Instrument of Imperial Chola Power. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 0-00-638784-5. 
• Kearney, Milo (2003). The Indian Ocean in World History. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31277-9. 
• Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, Mysore archaeological series By Benjamin Lewis Rice, Mysore (India : State). Archaeological Dept, Mysore Archaeological Survey, Mangalore, Basel Mission Press, 1905
• "Discovery Channel movie clip about Rajaraja". http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-5096103596865842301&q=rajaraja&total=39&start=0&num=10&so=0&type=search&plindex=0. 
• The political structure of early medieval South India By Kesavan Veluthat
• Śāṅkaram: recent researches on Indian culture : Professor Srinivasa Sankaranarayanan festchrift
• South Indian inscriptions: Volume 2, Parts 1–2 By E. Hultzsch, India. Archaeological Survey, India. Dept. of Archaeology
• Raasa Manickanar (2009). Cholar Varalaaru. Naam Tamilzar Publications. 
• Zvelebil, Kamil (1974). A History of Indian literature Vol.10 (Tamil Literature). Otto Harrasowitz. ISBN 3-447-01582-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC&pg=PA130&dq=five+epics+of+tamil+literature&hl=en&ei=nZLmTrmaIsmXtwf1kaWfAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=five%20epics%20of%20tamil%20literature&f=false.