This article is part of the series on: Military of ancient Rome (portal) 753 BC – AD 476
Structural history
Roman army (unit types and ranks, legions, auxiliaries, generals)
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Campaign history
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Military engineering (castra, siege engines, arches, roads)
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The Latin word castra,^[1] with its singular castrum, was used by the ancient Romans to mean buildings or plots of land reserved to or constructed for use as a military defensive position. The word appears in both Oscan and Umbrian (dialects of Italic) as well as in Latin.^[2] It may have descended from Indo-European to Italic. In classical Latin the word castra always means "great legionary encampment", both "marching", "temporary" ones and the "fortified permanent" ones, while the diminutive form castellum was used for the smaller forts, which were usually, but not always, occupied by the auxiliary units and used as logistic bases for the legions, as explained by Vegetius.^[3] A generic term is praesidium ("guard post or garrison"). The terms stratopedon ("army camp") and phrourion ("fort") were used by Greek language authors, in order to designate the Roman castra and the Roman castellum respectively. In English, the terms "Roman fortress", "Roman fort" and "Roman camp" are commonly used for the castra. However the scholars' convention always requires the use of the word "camp", "marching camp" and "fortress" as a translation of castra and the use of the word "fort" as a translation of castellum and this type of convention is usually followed and found in all the scholarly works.^[4]

Etymology[link]

According to Julius Pokorny, Indogermanisches Etymologisches Woerterbuch, page 586 under kes- (palatal k), Oscan castrous (genitive case) and Umbrian castruo, kastruvuf (nominative case) have the same original meaning as castrum, which was an estate, or a tract of land. Being the term used to designate a private estate, in Latin the word castrum was probably then the term for an estate or a tract of land enclosed by a fence or a wooden or stone wall of some kind, as seems to be used in a few passages in Cornelius Nepos' works.^[5]

The American Heritage Dictionary, following Julius Pokorny, lists *kes-, "cut", as the root. One castrum was a reservation of land "cut off" for military use. It could be an entire base, such as castrum Moguntiacum, or it could be a single fortified building. From the latter use came the English word castle (castellum, a diminutive of castrum).

In Latin the term Castrum is much more frequently used as proper name of geographical locations: e.g. Castrum Album, Castrum Inui, Castrum Novum, Castrum Truentinum, Castrum Vergium.

Castra in the plural refers to a collection of structures. Considering that the earliest structures were tents, which were cut out of hide or cloth, one castrum may well be a tent, with the plural meaning tents.^[6] All but the most permanent bases housed the men in barracks of tents placed in quadrangles and separated by numbered streets. The term castra then means Marching Camp, Temporary Camp, Permanent Camp, Fortified Camp and Fortress, always designating a great legionary encampment.

The Plural was also used as Geographical place proper name, as Castra Cornelia, and from the plural come the English place-name suffixes such as -caster and -chester; e.g., Winchester, Lancaster.

The commonest Latin syntagmata for the term castra are:

• castra stativa: permanent camp/fortress
• castra aestiva: summer camp/fortress
• castra hiberna: winter camp/fortress
• castra navalia or castra nautica: navy camp/fortress

Castrorum Filius was one of names used by the emperor Caligula and then also by other emperors.

"Castro", also derived from "Castrum", is a common Spanish family name, as well as a name-place in Spain and Spanish-speaking countries, Italy and the Balkan, either by itself or in various compounds such as Argyrocastro (see Castro).

Types of castra[link]

Basic ideal plan of a Roman castrum. (1) Principia; (2) Via Praetoria; (3) Via Principalis; (4) Porta Principalis Dextra; (5) Porta Praetoria (main gate); (6) Porta Principalis Sinistra; (7)Porta Decumana (back gate).

The best known type of castra is the camp, a military town designed to house and protect the soldiers and their equipment and supplies when they were not fighting or marching. Regulations required a major unit in the field to retire to a properly constructed camp every day. "...as soon as they have marched into an enemy's land, they do not begin to fight till they have walled their camp about; nor is the fence they raise rashly made, or uneven; nor do they all abide ill it, nor do those that are in it take their places at random; but if it happens that the ground is uneven, it is first leveled: their camp is also four-square by measure, and carpenters are ready, in great numbers, with their tools, to erect their buildings for them."^[7] To this end a marching column ported the equipment needed to build and stock the camp in a baggage train of wagons and on the backs of the soldiers.

Camps were the responsibility of engineering units to which specialists of many types belonged, officered by architecti, "chief engineers", who requisitioned manual labor from the soldiers at large as required. They could throw up a camp under enemy attack in as little as a few hours. Judging from the names, they probably used a repertory of camp plans, selecting the one appropriate to the length of time a legion would spend in it: tertia castra, quarta castra, etc., "a camp of three days", "four days", etc.^[8]

More permanent camps were castra stativa, "standing camps". The least permanent of these were castra aestiva or aestivalia, "summer camps", in which the soldiers were housed sub pellibus or sub tentoriis, "under tents".^[9] Summer was the campaign season. For the winter the soldiers retired to castra hiberna containing barracks and other buildings of more solid materials, with timber construction gradually being replaced by stone.^[10]

The camp allowed the Romans to keep a rested and supplied army in the field. Neither the Celtic nor Germanic armies had this capability: they found it necessary to disperse after only a few days; meanwhile, their open camps invited attack when they were least prepared.

Plan of the fort[link]

Reconstructed gateway of a Castra Stativa. Note the battlements, the Roman arches, the turres.

Reconstruction of the specula or vigilarium (Germanic burgus), "watchtower", a type of castrum, of Fectio. An ancient watchtower would have been surrounded by wall and ditch.^[11]

Sources and origins[link]

Even from the most ancient times Roman camps were constructed according to a certain ideal pattern, formally described in two main sources, the De Metatione Castrorum or De Munitionibus Castrorum by either Hyginus Gromaticus or Pseudo-Hyginus and the works of Polybius.^[12] Vegetius has a small section on entrenched camps as well. The terminology varies some but the basic plan is the same.^[13] To readers of the Rig Veda the pattern is strikingly familiar, as it is essentially the same as that described as being used by the Aryans invading Iron Age India to lay out a village^{[citation needed]}.^{[dubious – discuss]} That is not to say non-Indo-European peoples did not use it either. The hypothesis of an Etruscan origin is a viable alternative.^[14]

Layout[link]

The reconstructed porta praetoria of the castle Pfünz, Germany, near the Raetian Limes.

The ideal enforced a linear plan for a camp or fort: a square for camps to contain one legion or smaller unit, a rectangle for two legions, each legion being placed back-to-back with headquarters next to each other. Laying it out was a geometric exercise conducted by experienced officers called metatores, who used graduated measuring rods called decempedae ("10-footers") and gromatici who used a groma, a sighting device consisting of a vertical staff with horizontal cross pieces and vertical plumb-lines. Ideally the process started in the centre of the planned camp at the site of the headquarters tent or building (principia). Streets and other features were marked with coloured pennants or rods.

Wall and ditch[link]

Castra at Masada. Note the classical "playing-card" layout.

The Castra's special structure also defended from attacks.

The base (munimentum, "fortification") was placed entirely within the vallum ("wall"), which could be constructed under the protection of the legion in battle formation if necessary. The vallum was quadrangular aligned on the cardinal points of the compass. The construction crews dug a trench (fossa), throwing the excavated material inward, to be formed into the rampart (agger). On top of this a palisade of stakes (sudes or valli) was erected. The soldiers had to carry these stakes on the march.^[15] Over the course of time, the palisade might be replaced by a fine brick or stone wall, and the ditch serve also as a moat. A legion-sized camp always placed towers at intervals along the wall with positions between for the division artillery.

Interval[link]

Around the inside periphery of the vallum was a clear space, the intervallum, which served to catch enemy missiles, as an access route to the vallum and as a storage space for cattle (capita) and booty (praeda). Legionaries were quartered in a peripheral zone inside the intervallum, which they could rapidly cross to take up position on the vallum. Inside of the legionary quarters was a peripheral road, the Via Sagularis, probably "service road", as the sagum, a kind of cloak, was the garment of slaves.

Streets, gates and central plaza[link]

Reconstructed east gate of a Castra Stativa, a more permanent base.

Every camp included "main street", which ran unimpeded through the camp in a north-south direction and was very wide. The names of streets in many cities formerly occupied by the Romans suggest that the street was called cardo or Cardus Maximus. This name applies more to cities than it does to ancient camps.^[16]

Typically "main street" was the via principalis. The central portion was used as a parade ground and headquarters area. The "headquarters" building was called the praetorium because it housed the praetor or base commander ("first officer"), and his staff. In the camp of a full legion he held the rank of consul or proconsul but officers of lesser ranks might command.

On one side of the praetorium was the quaestorium, the building of the supply officer, or quaestor ("seeker"). On the other side was the forum, a small duplicate of an urban forum, where public business could be conducted. Along the Via Principalis were the homes or tents of the several tribunes in front of the barracks of the units they commanded.

The Via Principalis went through the vallum in the Porta Principalis Dextra ("right principal gate") and Porta Principalis Sinistra ("left, etc."), which were gates fortified with turres ("towers"). Which was on the north and which on the south depends on whether the praetorium faced east or west, which remains unknown.

The central region of the Via Principalis with the buildings for the command staff was called the Principia (plural of principium). It was actually a square, as across this at right angles to the Via Principalis was the Via Praetoria, so called because the praetorium interrupted it. The Via Principalis and the Via Praetoria offered another division of the camp into four quarters.

Porta Praetoria at Porolissum, Dacia (modern Romania)

Across the central plaza (principia) to the east or west was the main gate, the Porta Praetoria. Marching through it and down "headquarters street" a unit ended up in formation in front of the headquarters. The standards of the legion were located on display there, very much like the flag of modern camps.

On the other side of the praetorium the Via Praetoria continued to the wall, where it went through the Porta Decumana. In theory this was the back gate. Supplies were supposed to come in through it and so it was also called, descriptively, the Porta Quaestoria. The term Decumena, "of the 10th", came from the arranging of manipuli or turmae from the first to the 10th, such that the 10th was near the intervallum on that side. The Via Praetoria on that side might take the name Via Decumena or the entire Via Praetoria be replaced with Decumanus Maximus.^[17]

Canteen[link]

In peaceful times the camp set up a marketplace with the natives in the area. They were allowed into the camp as far as the units numbered 5 (half-way to the praetorium). There another street crossed the camp at right angles to the Via Decumana, called the Via Quintana, "5th street". If the camp needed more gates, one or two of the Porta Quintana were built, presumably named dextra and sinistra. If the gates were not built, the Porta Decumana also became the Porta Quintana. At "5th street" a public market was allowed.^{[citation needed]}

Major buildings[link]

Not much remains of these horrea (granaries) at Arbeia, but the longitudinal supports for the floor can be seen.

The Via Quintana and the Via Principalis divided the camp into three districts: the Latera Praetorii, the Praetentura and the Retentura. In the latera ("sides") were the Arae (sacrificial altars), the Auguratorium (for auspices), the Tribunal, where courts martial and arbitrations were conducted (it had a raised platform), the guardhouse, the quarters of various kinds of staff and the storehouses for grain (horreae) or meat (carnarea). Sometimes the horreae were located near the barracks and the meat was stored on the hoof. Analysis of sewage from latrines indicates the legionary diet was mainly grain. Also located in the Latera was the Armamentarium, a long shed containing any heavy weapons and artillery not on the wall.

Roman artillery piece (Onager)

The Praetentura ("stretching to the front") contained the Scamnum Legatorum, the quarters of officers who were below general but higher than company commanders (Legati).^[18] Near the Principia were the Valetudinarium (hospital), Veterinarium (for horses), Fabrica ("workshop", metals and wood), and further to the front the quarters of special forces. These included Classici ("marines", as most European camps were on rivers and contained a river naval command), Equites ("cavalry"), Exploratores ("scouts"), and Vexillarii (carriers of vexillae, the official pennants of the legion and its units). Troops who did not fit elsewhere also were there.

The part of the Retentura ("stretching to the rear") closest to the Principia contained the Quaestorium. By the late empire it had developed also into a safekeep for plunder and a prison for hostages and high-ranking enemy captives. Near the Quaestorium were the quarters of the headquarters guard (Statores), who amounted to two centuries (companies). If the Imperator was present they served as his bodyguard.

Barracks[link]

A sanitary channel at Potaissa, Dacia (modern Romania). It is placed cross-slope with a slight decline and then exits down-slope.

Further from the Qaestorium were the tents of the Nationes ("natives"), who were auxiliaries of foreign troops, and the legionaries themselves in double rows of tents or barracks (Strigae). One Striga was as long as required and 18 m wide. In it were two Hemistrigia of facing tents centered in its 9 m strip. Arms could be stacked before the tents and baggage carts kept there as well. Space on the other side of the tent was for passage.

In the northern places like Britain were it got cold in the winter they would make wood or stone barracks.The Romans would also put a fire place in the barracks. They had about 3 bunk beds in it. They had a small room beside it where they put their armour, it was as big as the tents. They would also make these barracks if the fort they had was going to stay there for good. ^[19]

A tent was 3 by 3.5 meters (0.6 m for the aisle), ten men per tent. Ideally a company took 10 tents, arranged in a line of 10 companies, with the 10th near the Porta Decumana. Of the c. 9.2 square meters of bunk space each man received 0.9, or about 0.6 by 1.5 m, which was only practical if they slept with heads to the aisle. The single tent with its men was called contubernium, also used for "squad". A squad during some periods was 8 men or fewer.

The Centurio, or company commander, had a double-sized tent for his quarters, which served also as official company area. Other than there, the men had to find other places to be. To avoid mutiny, it became extremely important for the officers to keep them busy.

A covered portico might protect the walkway along the tents. If barracks had been constructed, one company was housed in one barracks building, with the arms at one end and the common area at the other. The company area was used for cooking and recreation, such as gaming. The army provisioned the men and had their bread (panis militaris) baked in outdoor ovens, but the men were responsible for cooking and serving themselves. They could buy meals or supplementary foods at the canteen. The officers were allowed servants.

Sanitation[link]

For sanitary facilities, a camp had both public and private latrines. A public latrine consisted of a bank of seats situated over a channel of running water. One of the major considerations for selecting the site of a camp was the presence of running water, which the engineers diverted into the sanitary channels. Drinking water came from wells; however, the larger and more permanent bases featured the aquaductus, a structure running a stream captured from high ground (sometimes miles away) into the camp. The praetorium had its own latrine, and probably the quarters of the high-ranking officers. In or near the intervallum, where they could easily be accessed, were the latrines of the soldiers. A public bathhouse for the soldiers, also containing a latrine, was located near or on the Via Principalis.

Territory[link]

Reconstructed barracks of a Castra Hiberna, or "winter camp". Each doorway provides entry to a large room, the sleeping quarters of one contubernium, or "squad" of about 10 men.

The influence of a base extended far beyond its walls. The total land required for the maintenance of a permanent base was called its territoria. In it were located all the resources of nature and the terrain required by the base: pastures, woodlots, water sources, stone quarries, mines, exercise fields and attached villages. The central castra might also support various fortified adjuncts to the main base, which were not in themselves self-sustaining (as was the base). In this category were speculae, "watchtowers", castella, "small camps", and naval bases.

All the major bases near rivers featured some sort of fortified naval installation, one side of which was formed by the river or lake. The other sides were formed by a polygonal wall and ditch constructed in the usual way, with gates and watchtowers. The main internal features were the boat sheds and the docks. When not in use, the boats were drawn up into the sheds for maintenance and protection. Since the camp was placed to best advantage on a hill or slope near the river, the naval base was usually outside its walls. The classici and the optiones of the naval installation relied on the camp for its permanent defense. Naval personnel generally enjoyed better quarters and facilities. Many were civilians working for the military.

Modifications in practice[link]

This ideal was always modified to suit the terrain and the circumstances. Each camp discovered by archaeology has its own specific layout and architectural features, which makes sense from a military point of view.

If, for example, the camp was built on an outcrop, it followed the lines of the outcrop. The terrain for which it was best suited and for which it was probably designed in distant prehistoric times was the rolling plain. The camp was best placed on the summit and along the side of a low hill, with spring water running in rivulets through the camp (aquatio) and pastureland to provide grazing (pabulatio) for the animals. In case of attack, arrows, javelins and sling missiles could be fired down at an enemy tiring himself to come up. For defense troops could be formed in an acies, or "battle-line", outside the gates, where they could be easily resupplied and replenished, as well as being supported by archery from the palisade.

The streets, gates and buildings present depended on the requirements and resources of the camp. The gates might vary from two to six and not be centered on the sides. Not all the streets and buildings might be present.

Quadrangular camps in later times[link]

Many settlements in Europe originated as Roman military camps and still show traces of their original pattern (e.g. Castres in France, Barcelona in Spain).^[20] The pattern was also used by Spanish colonizers in America following strict rules by the Spanish monarchy for founding new cities in the New World.

Many of the towns of England still retain forms of the word castra in their names, usually as the suffixes "-caster" or "-chester" -- Lancaster, Tadcaster, Chester, Manchester and Ribchester, for example. Castle has the same derivation, from the diminutive castellum or "little fort".

Camp life[link]

Activities conducted in a castra can be divided into ordinary and "the duty" or "the watch". Ordinary activity was performed during regular working hours. The duty was associated with operating the installation as a military facility. For example, none of the soldiers were required to man the walls all the time, but round-the clock duty always required a portion of the soldiers to be on duty at any time.

Duty time was divided into vigilia, the eight watches into which the 24-hour day was divided so they stood guard for 3 hours that day.^[21] The Romans used signals on brass instruments to mark time. These were mainly the buccina or bucina, the cornu and the tuba. As they did not possess valves for regulating the pitch, the range of these instruments was somewhat limited. Nevertheless the musicians (Aenatores, "brassmen") managed to define enough signals for issuing commands. The instrument used to mark the passage of a watch was the buccina, from which the trumpet derives. It was sounded by a buccinator.

Ordinary life[link]

The pillars supported a raised floor to keep food dry and free from vermin in this granary at Housesteads (Vercovicium)

Ordinary camp life began with a buccina call at daybreak, the first watch of the day. The soldiers arose at this time and shortly after collected in the company area for breakfast and assembly. The centurions were up before them and off to the Principia where they and the Equites were required to assemble. The regimental commanders, the Tribunes, were already converging on the Praetorium. There the general staff was busily at work planning the day. At a staff meeting the Tribunes received the password and the orders of the day. They brought those back to the Centuriones, who returned to their company areas to instruct the men, already breakfasted.

For soldiers, the main item of the agenda was a vigorous training session lasting about a watch long. Recruits received two, one in the morning and one in the afternoon.^[22] Planning and supervision of training were under a general staff officer, who might manage training at several camps. According to Vegetius, the men might take a 32 km hike or a 6 to 8 kilometers jog under full pack, or swim a river. Marching drill was always in order.

Each soldier was taught the use of every weapon and also was taught to ride. Seamanship was taught at naval bases. Soldiers were generalists in the military and construction arts. They practiced archery, spear-throwing and above all swordmanship against posts (pali) fixed in the ground.^[22] Training was taken very seriously and was democratic. Ordinary soldiers would see all the officers training with them including the Praetor or the Emperor if he was in camp.

Swordmanship lessons and use of the shooting range probably took place on the campus, a "field" outside the castra, from which English camp derives. Its surface could be lightly paved. Winter curtailed outdoor training. The general might in that case have sheds constructed, which served as field houses for training. There is archaeological evidence in one case of an indoor equestrian ring.

Apart from the training, each soldier had a regular job on the base, of which there were a large variety from the various kinds of clerks to the craftsmen. Soldiers changed jobs frequently. The commander's policy was to have all the soldiers skilled in all the arts and crafts so that they could be as interchangeable as possible. Even then the goal was not entirely achievable. The gap was bridged by the specialists, the optiones or "chosen men", of which there were many different kinds. For example, a skilled artisan might be chosen to superintend a workshop.

An aureus of the late republic

The supply administration was run as a business using money as the medium of exchange.^[23] The aureus was the preferred coin of the late republic and early empire; in the late empire the solidus came into use. The larger bases, such as Moguntiacum, minted their own coins. As does any business, the base quaestorium required careful record keeping, performed mainly by the optiones. A chance cache of tablets from Vindolanda in Britain gives us a glimpse of some supply transactions. They record, among other things, the purchase of consumables and raw supplies, the storage and repair of clothing and other items, and the sale of items, including foodstuffs, to achieve an income. Vindolanda traded vigorously with the surrounding natives.^[24]

Another feature of the camp was the military hospital (valetudinarium, later hospitium). Augustus instituted the first permanent medical corps in the Roman army. Its physicians, the medici ordinarii,^[25] had to be qualified physicians. They were allowed medical students, practitioners and whatever orderlies they needed; i.e., the military hospitals were medical schools and places of residency as well.^[26]

Officers were allowed to marry and to reside with their families on base. The army could not^{[dubious – discuss]} extend the same privileges to the men, who were not allowed to marry.^[27] However, they often kept common law families off base in communities nearby. The communities might be native, as the tribesmen tended to build around a permanent base for purposes of trade, but also the base sponsored villages (vici) of dependents and businessmen. Dependents were not allowed to follow an army on the march into hostile territory.

An enlistment was for about 25 years. At the end of that time the veteran was given a diploma, or certificate of honorable discharge (honesta missio).^[28] Some of these have survived engraved on stone. Typically they certify that the veteran, his wife (one per veteran) and children or his sweetheart were now Roman citizens, which is a good indication that troops, which were used chiefly on the frontier, were from peoples elsewhere on the frontier who wished to earn Roman citizenship. However, under Antoninus Pius, citizenship was no longer granted to the children of rank-and-file veterans, the privilege becoming restricted only to officers.^[29]

Veterans often went into business in the communities near a base.^[30] They became permanent members of the community and would stay on after the troops were withdrawn, as in the notable case of St. Patrick's family.

Duties[link]

The remains of a granary at Housesteads (Vercovicium) on Hadrian's Wall.

Conducted in parallel with the ordinary activities was "the duty", the official chores required by the camp under strict military discipline. The Legate was ultimately responsible for them as he was for the entire camp, but he delegated the duty to a tribune chosen as officer of the day. The line Tribunes were commanders of Cohortes and were approximately the equivalent of colonels. The 6 tribunes were divided into units of two, with each unit being responsible for filling the position of officer of the day for two months. The two men of a unit decided among themselves who would take what day. They could alternate days or each take a month. One filled in for the other in case of illness. On his day, the tribune effectively commanded the camp and was even respected as such by the Legate.

The equivalent concept of the duties performed in modern camps is roughly the detail. The responsibilities (curae) of the many kinds of detail were distributed to the men by all the methods considered fair and democratic: lot, rotation and negotiation. Certain kinds of cura were assigned certain classes or types of troops; for example, wall sentries were chosen only from Velites. Soldiers could be temporarily or permanently exempted: the immunes. For example, a Triarius was immunis from the curae of the Hastati.

The duty year was divided into time slices, typically one or two months, which were apportioned to units, typically maniples or centuries. They were always allowed to negotiate who took the duty and when. The most common kind of cura were the posts of the sentinels, called the excubiae by day and the vigilae at night. Wall posts were praesidia, gate posts, custodiae, advance positions before the gates, stationes.

In addition were special guards and details. One post was typically filled by four men, one sentinel and the others at ease until a situation arose or it was their turn to be sentinel. Some of the details were:

• guarding, cleaning and maintaining the principia.
• guarding and maintaining the quarters of each tribune.
• tending the horses of each cavalry turma.
• guarding the praetorium.

^[31]

List of castra[link]

The street plan of various present-day cities still retains traces of a Roman camp, for example Marsala in Sicily, the ancient Lilybaeum, where the name of the main street - the Cassaro - perpetuates the name "castrum".

Due to an unbounded enthusiasm for local archaeology, the locations and layouts of Roman castra are rapidly becoming known. Both amateurs and professionals are involved in excavation and publication. Internet sites giving photographs and the texts of inscriptions are numerous.^[32]

See also[link]

Military of ancient Rome portal

• Fortification
• List of topics related to ancient Rome
• Military history of ancient Rome
• Roman legion

Notes[link]

References[link]

Primary Sources[link]

• Josephus.  The War of the Jews. Trans. William Whiston. Wikisource. 
• Population of Vindolanda (100 AD). "(the Tablets)" (shtml). Vindolanda Tablets Online: The Roman Army: Activities. Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents, Academic Computing Development Team at Oxford University. http://vindolanda.csad.ox.ac.uk/tablets/TVII-2-5.shtml. * pseudo-Hyginus. "De Munitionibus Castrorum". The Latin Library. Ad fontes Academy. http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/hyginus/hyginus6.shtml.  (Latin text.)
• Polybius. "The Histories (English translation) Book VI". The Loeb Classical Library, Volume III Section VI. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/6*.html.  Web publication on Bill Thayer's Polybius site.
• Roman government (160 AD). "(Military Diploma)". Military Diploma of Discharge and Roman Citizenship 160 AD. Metz, George W. http://www.legionxxiv.org/diploma160ad.htm.  Legion xxiv website.
• Unknown inscriber (3rd century AD). "(the Tombstone)". Tombstone of Anicius Ingenuus, Museum of Antiquities Website. Newcastle University. http://museums.ncl.ac.uk/archive/old_fotm/old_fotmo98/. 
• Vegetius. "Flavius Vegetius Renatus Epitoma Rei Militaris Book I". Armamentarium. http://museums.ncl.ac.uk/archive/arma/contents/text/technica/veg1.htm.  Selections, Latin and English juxtaposed by paragraph. Translator unknown.
• Vegetius Renatus, Flavius; Clarke, Lieutenant John (translator); unknown editor (2001). "The Military Institutions of the Romans (De Re Militari)". Digital Attic 2.0. Brevik, Mads. http://www.pvv.ntnu.no/~madsb/home/war/vegetius/.  Books I-III only. The unknown editor altered the translation "to conform to modern usage" and abbreviated the text. Access is by subtitle. Search only within subsection.

Secondary Sources[link]

• Campbell, Duncan B. (2009). Roman Auxiliary Forts 27 BC-AD 378. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84603-380-3. 
• Johnson, Anne (1983). Roman Forts of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD in Britain and the German Provinces,. London: Adam & Charles Black. ISBN 0-7136-2223-7. 
• Keppie, Lawrence (1994). The Making of the Roman Army from Republic to Empire. New York: Barnes and Noble Books. ISBN 1-56619-359-1. 
• Roby, Henry John (1872). A Grammar of the Latin Language from Plautus to Suetonius: Second Edition. London: Macmillan. pp. 453. http://books.google.com/?id=hRIAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA453&lpg=PA453&dq=vigilia+roman+military+watch. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Castra

Below are a number of links to sites reporting or summarizing current research or thinking. Many are reprints of articles made available to the public at no charge. The historical researcher will find their bibliographies of great interest.

General[link]

• "Fortress Study Group". Study Group devoted to the knowledge of Forts and Fortifications of all times and Greek and Roman ones: with a Journal Fort and a newsletter Casemate. Fortress Study Group. http://www.fsgfort.com/. 
• "Army Picture Index". Illustrated History of the Roman Empire. roman-empire.net. http://www.roman-empire.net/army/army-pictures.html. 
• Bell, Anders (2001). "Castra et urbs romana: An Examination of the Common Features of Roman Settlements in Italy and the Empire and a System to aid in the Discovery of their Origins.". CAC Undergraduate Essay Contest for 2000-2001. Classical Association of Canada. http://cac-scec.ca/concours_essais/01Bell.html. 
• Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles. "Castrum/Castra". A Latin Dictionary. The Perseus Digital Library. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3D%237013. 
• Ramsay, William (1875). "Castra". William Smith A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. John Murray, republished on Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius site. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Castra.html. 
• "The Roman Military in Britain". roman-britain.org. http://www.roman-britain.org/military/military_intro.htm.  Links to a Glossary.
• The Romans in Britain, Glossary of Military terms. Note that both Latin and Greek terms with the same meaning are included.

Forts and fortifications[link]

• "Antonine Wall Fort: Bearsden, New Kilpatrick, Strathclyde". roman-britain.org. http://www.roman-britain.org/places/bearsden.htm. 
• Hanson, W.S.; Friel, J.G.P. (1995). "Westerton: A Roman Watchtower on the Gask Frontier" (PDF). Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland (Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot.) 125: pages 499–519. http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_125/125_499_519.pdf. 
• "Iron-Age Hillfort, Roman Stores Depot Brandon Camp, Leintwardine Herefordshire". roman-britain.org. http://www.roman-britain.org/places/brandon_camp.htm. 
• Lendering, Jona. "Haltern". Livius articles on ancient history. livius.org. http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/haltern/haltern.html. 
• "Nidum: Roman Auxiliary Fort: Neath, West Glamorgan". roman-britain.org. http://www.roman-britain.org/places/nidum.htm. 
• "Pinnata Castra: Roman Legionary Fortress & Marching Camps: Inchtuthill, Tayside". roman-britain.org. http://www.roman-britain.org//places/pinnata-castra.htm. 
• "Roman Fortress". Time trail. Exeter City Council. http://www.exeter.gov.uk/timetrail/02_romanfortress/growth.asp. 
• Smith, William (1875). "Vallum". A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray. pp. 1183. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Vallum.html. . Article republished on Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius site, which has the advantage of linking to ancient texts cited by Smith.
• Tribus. "The Roman Camp in Bonn". Eduvinet Services. http://www.eduvinet.de/tribus/roemlag/sache/rl.htm. 
• "The Roman Camp Sostra". bulgariancastles.com. http://bulgariancastles.com/bulgariancastles/en/fortress-sostra-en. 

Camp life[link]

• Campbell, Duncan B. (2010). "Women in Roman forts: Residents, visitors or barred from entry?". Ancient Warfare IV (6): 48–53. 
• Miranda, Frank (2002). "Castra et Coloniae: The Role of the Roman Army in the Romanization and Urbanization of Spain" (pdf). Quaestio: The UCLA Undergraduate History Journal. Phi Alpha Theta: History Honors Society, UCLA Theta Upsilon Chapter, UCLA Department of History. http://www.history.ucla.edu/undergrad/pat/journal2002/miranda.pdf. 
• Scheidel, Walter (November 2005). "Marriage, Families and Survival in the Roman Imperial Army: Demographic Aspects" (pdf). Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics. Princeton University. http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/scheidel/110509.pdf. 
• Verboven, Koenraad (2007). "Good for Business. The Roman Army and the Emergence of a 'Business Class' in the Northwestern Provinces of the Roman Empire (1st century BCE - 3rd century CE)". In Lukas, De Blois; Elio, Lo Cascio. The Impact of the Roman Army (200 BC - AD 476). Economic, Social, Political, Religious and Cultural Aspects. Leiden & Boston: Brill. pp. 295–314. ISBN 90-04-16044-2. http://www.ancienthistory.ugent.be/history/en/Verboven_Good_for_business.pdf. 

Philippe Jaroussky
Philippe Jaroussky, 2011 Misteria Paschalia Festival, Kraków Philharmonic
Born	Philippe Jaroussky (1978-02-13) February 13, 1978 (age 34) Maisons-Laffitte, France
Occupation	opera singer
Years active	1999–present
Website
www.philippejaroussky.fr

Philippe Jaroussky (born 13 February 1978 in Maisons-Laffitte, France)^[1] is a French sopranist countertenor. He began his musical career with the violin, winning an award at the Versailles conservatory and then took up the piano before turning to singing. He is noted for a virtuosic coloratura technique and for compelling and enlivened interpretations of baroque cantatas and operas.

Jaroussky was inspired to sing by the Martinique-born countertenor Fabrice di Falco.^[2] He received his diploma from the Early Music Faculty of the Conservatoire de Paris. Since 1996, he has studied singing with Nicole Fallien.^[3] He has formed his own ensemble called Artaserse, and also often performs with the Ensemble Matheus under Jean-Christophe Spinosi and with L'Arpeggiata under Christina Pluhar.

Reception and awards[link]

According to La Terrasse, "this young singer with the tone of an angel and the virtuosity of the devil has come into the limelight in only a few years as the great new French vocal talent."^{[citation needed]} He received the 2007 best French lyrical artist award. Jaroussky was awarded "The Best Singer of the Year" at the Echo Classic Awards, 2008.

Discography[link]

• Alessandro Scarlatti: Sedecia, Re di Gerusalemme. Lesne, Pochon, Harvey, Padmore. Il Seminario Musicale, Gérard Lesne. Virgin Veritas (rec. November 1999, École Sainte-Geneviève, Versailles, France)
• Claudio Monteverdi: L'incoronazione di Poppea. Laurens, Oliver, Schofrin, Oro. Ensemble Elyma, Gabriel Garrido. K617 (rec. July/August 2000, Chiesa San Martino, Erice, Italy)
• Pierre Menault: Vêpres pour le Pére la Chaize. Greuillet, Janssens, Lombard, van Dyck. Ensemble La Fenice, Jean Tubéry. K617 (rec. April 2001, chiesa Saint-Lazare, Avallon, France)
• Giovanni Battista Bassani: La morte delusa. Galli, del Monaco, Piolino, Sarragosse. Ensemble La Fenice, Jean Tubéry. Opus 111 (rec. August 2001, Delft, Nederland)
• Antonio Vivaldi: Catone in Utica. Edwards, Laszczkowski, Cangemi, Faraon. La Grande Écurie, Jean-Claude Malgoire. Dynamic (rec. November 2001, Théâtre Municipal, Tourcoing, France)
• Antonio Vivaldi: La Verità in cimento. Rolfe-Johnson, Stutzmann, Laurens, Mingardo. Ensemble Matheus, Jean-Christophe Spinosi. Naïve – Opus 111 (rec. September 2002, Église de Daoulas, Bretagne, France)
• Solo recital: Benedetto Ferrari: Musiche varie. Ensemble Artaserse. Ambroisie (rec. October/December 2002, Chapelle Jésus-Enfant – Paroisse Ste. Clothilde, Paris, France)
• George Frideric Handel: Agrippina. Gens, Perruche, Smith, Grégoire, di Falco. La Grande Écurie, Jean-Claude Malgoire. Dynamic (rec. March 2003, Théâtre Municipal, Tourcoing, France)
• Solo recital: Un concert pour Mazarin. Ensemble La Fenice, Jean Tubéry. Virgin Classics, 2004 (rec. June 2003, Abbaye de Saint-Michel, Thiérache, France)
• Claudio Monteverdi: Selva morale e spirituale. Spiritualità e liturgia / I salmi vespertini / Vespro dei Martiri / L'eloquenza divina. Ensemble Elyma, Gabriel Garrido. Ambronay Edition (rec. 2003/2004, Festival d'Ambronay, France)
• Antonio Vivaldi: Orlando furioso. Larmore, Lemieux, Cangemi. Ensemble Matheus, Jean-Christophe Spinosi. Naïve – Opus 111 (rec. June 2004, Église de Daoulas, Bretagne, France)
• Claudio Monteverdi: L'Orfeo. van Rensburg, Gerstenhaber, Thébault, Gerstenhaber, Gillot, Kaïque. La Grande Écurie, Jean-Claude Malgoire. Dynamic (rec. October 2004, Théâtre Municipal, Tourcoing, France)
• Solo recital: Antonio Vivaldi: Virtuoso cantatas. Ensemble Artaserse. Virgin Veritas (rec. October 2004, Chapelle des sœurs auxiliaires, Versailles, France)
• Antonio Vivaldi: Griselda. Lemieux, Cangemi, Kermes, Ferrari, Davies. Ensemble Matheus, Jean-Christophe Spinosi. Naïve – Opus 111 (rec. November 2005, Salle Surcouf, Foyer du Marin, Brest, France)
• Solo recital: Beata Vergine, Motets à la Vierge entre Rome et Venise, Grandi, Legrenzi, Cavalli, Antonio Rigatti, Giovanni Paolo Caprioli, Frescobaldi, Sances, Ensemble Artaserse. Virgin Classics (rec. December 2005, Église Notre-Dame du Liban, Parigi, France)
• Solo recital: Vivaldi Heroes. Ensemble Matheus, Jean-Christophe Spinosi. Virgin Classics (rec. October 2006, Auditorium de l'Ecole Nationale de Musique, Brest, France)
• Solo recital: Carestini, the story of a castrato. Le Concert d'Astrée, Emmanuelle Haïm. Virgin Classics, 2007
• J. S. Bach: Magnificat – G. F. Handel: Dixit Dominus. Dessay, Deshayes, Spence, Naouri. Le Concert d'Astrée, Emmanuelle Haïm. Virgin Classics, 2007
• Antonio Vivaldi: Nisi Dominus and Stabat Mater. Philippe Jaroussky, Lemieux. Ensemble Matheus, Jean-Christophe Spinosi. Naïve (rec. July 2007, Salle Surcouf, Brest (France))
• Solo recital: Opium – Mélodies françaises. Philippe Jaroussky, Jerôme Ducros. Virgin Classics, 2009. – songs by Debussy, Hahn, Fauré, César Franck, Massenet, Ernest Chausson, André Caplet, Saint-Saëns, Paul Dukas, Guillaume Lekeu, Cécile Chaminade, Gabriel Dupont, Vincent d'Indy.
• Via Crucis. Claudio Monteverdi, Benedetto Ferrari, Heinrich Ignaz Franz von Biber, Giovanni Legrenzi, Luigi Rossi, Tarquinio Merula, L'Arpeggiata, dir. Christina Pluhar, Philippe Jaroussky, Nuria Rial, Enzo Gragnaniello, Barbara Furtuna. Jean-Philippe Guissani, Giovanni Antonio, Pandolfi Mealli, Roccu Mambrini, Toni Casalonga, Nando Acquaviva, Lorenzo Allegri, Virgin Classics, 2010.
• Solo recital: J. C. Bach Opera arias. Le Cercle de l'Harmonie, dir. Jérémie Rhorer Virgin. – awarded the Diapason d'Or de l'Année 2010 in France.
• Solo recital: Caldara in Vienna (Forgotten Castrato Arias) Philippe Jaroussky / Concerto Köln, Emmanuelle Haïm
• Vivaldi Ercole sul Termodonte Diana Damrau, Vivica Genaux, Romina Basso, Patrizia Ciofi, Joyce DiDonato, Rolando Villazón, Philippe Jaroussky, Topi Lehtipuu, dir. Fabio Biondi, Europa Galante, Virgin Classics. 2011

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Philippe Jaroussky

• Concerts Parisiens
• Philippe Jaroussky International Forum
• Performance of aria "Vedrò con mio diletto" (Vivaldi, "Il Giustino") on YouTube
• Philippe Jaroussky recordings on Virgin Classics
• Philippe Jaroussky videos on MaleSopranos.com
• New York Times Sunday Magazine profile
• Official website (French)

This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (November 2011)

Tillmann Uhrmacher
Background information
Birth name	Tillmann
Born	(1967-05-14)14 May 1967
Died	30 May 2011(2011-05-30) (aged 44)
Genres	Electronica, Progressive, Trance, Techno, Electronic dance music
Occupations	German DJ, Producer, DJ
Instruments	Turntable, Mixer
Years active	1994–2011
Labels	MaxiMal, RECORDINGS, VANDIT
Website	tillmannuhrmacher.com

Tillmann Rudolf Uhrmacher (14 May 1967 – 30 May 2011^[1]) was a German DJ, producer and radio host in the field of Electronic dance music .

Career[link]

Tillmann Uhrmacher's career reads similar to many other DJ biographies; he started his career as a light jockey in a well known little club, worked in a record shop and went on to become an internationally renowned DJ.

Musical recognition was first achieved by Uhrmacher as a founding member of the electronic group Mysterious Art, along with Michael Krautter, Mike Staab, Nicole Boeúf and Stephanie Trautmann. In 1988 the band's first single Das Omen immediately became a number one hit in Germany selling over 400,000 copies in the process. It spent a total of 29 weeks in the German charts and was the second most successful single of the year. This was followed by a second single Karma - Omen 2 that also reached the top 10. In 1990 the band supported Madonna's Blond Ambition World Tour.

In June 1990 Uhrmacher began his own radio show broadcast every Saturday evening on RPR1. Later this show was broadcasted on sunshine live. This ran from its inception in 1990 until 18 March 2011 and is the longest running electronic music show on German radio. In 1994 he entered into the Guinness Book of Records for an 80 hour non-stop broadcast. In addition, Tillmann Uhrmacher also produced a compilation series called Maximal in the mix. This last appeared in April 2009, after the tenth edition.

Uhrmacher published his first solo single Bassfly in 1999. In 2001 the single On the Run stormed the UK club charts and attained number 16 in the UK singles charts. A collaboration with Mauro Picotto under the pseudonym of Lava brought about two singles Autumn and Spring Time. Between 2000 and 2002, he presented the Tillmann Uhrmacher Show on Hitradio RPR1. He was chosen to be a judge for the German Dance Awards in Hamburg, and also became the stadium speaker of the 1. FC Kaiserslautern Bundesliga football outfit.

Tillmann Uhrmacher also appeared at both small and large festivals in the field of electronic music. Since 1999, he had appeared at least once every year on one of the main stages at Nature One and additional performances on smaller stages. In addition, he hosted the live coverage of the Nature One on Sunshine Live. An appearance had been planned for Nature One 2011.

Last Activities[link]

2010[link]

In 2010 Uhrmacher was still presenting his Saturday evening show on RPR1. In May, he took part in the ZDF Fernsehgarten show. With other VIPs, he held a flea market stand, telling nostalgic stories and presenting weird and wonderful objects. The show was also broadcast on radio RPR1.

2011[link]

Tillmann presented his last radio show in March, but had to put it on hiatus due to ill health.

Death[link]

On 8 June 2011 it was announced by Uhrmacher's family that he had been found dead in his apartment of as yet unknown causes. His obituary lists 30 May 2011 as his date of death.

Discography[link]

Singles[link]

with The Mysterious Art

• 1989: Das Omen (Teil 1)
• 1989: Carma – Omen II
• 1990: Requiem
• 1991: High On Mystic Mountain
• 1991: Lovin’ You / Awaken

with Mauro Picotto under the Lava pseudonym

• 2000: Autumn
• 2001: Spring Time (Let Yourself Go)

Solo[link]

• 1999: Bassfly
• 2000: Free
• 2001: On the Run
• 2001: Friends
• 2006: The Pride In Your Eyes (Om Nama Shiva)

Remixes (select)[link]

• Culture Beat – Got to Get It (1993)
• Culture Beat – Anything (1994)
• Masterboy – Is This the Love (1994)
• Culture Beat – Crying in the Rain (1996)
• Marky Mark – Hey DJ (1997)
• Taucher – Pictures of a Gallery (2001)
• CRW feat. Veronika – Like a Cat (2002)
• Ian Van Dahl – Try (2002)
• Mauro Picotto – Pulsar (2002)
• Tomcraft – Loneliness (2003)
• DJ Tatana – Elements of Culture (2004)
• Nature One Inc. – Live Your Passion (2006)
• Nature One Inc. – Das Dreizehnte Land (2007)
• Members of Mayday – New Euphoria (2007)

References[link]

• http://www.eurokdj.com/search/eurodb.php?name=Uhrmacher_Tillman
• http://www.mopo.de/news/promi---show/techno-pionier-tillmann-uhrmacher-ist-tot/-/5066870/8537830/-/index.html
• http://www.sunshine-live.de/news/aktuelle-news/pages/2011/06-juni/tillmann-uhrmacher/
• http://www.inthemix.com.au/news/intl/50286/RIP_Tillmann_Uhrmacher
• http://www.welt.de/kultur/musik/article13420155/Techno-Pionier-Tillmann-Uhrmacher-tot-aufgefunden.html
• http://www.chartstats.com/artistinfo.php?id=9814
• http://www.musicline.de/de/artist/UHRMACHER%2CTILLMANN
• http://www.musicline.de/de/artist/Mysterious+Art
• http://hitparade.ch/showinterpret.asp?interpret=The+Mysterious+Art
• http://austriancharts.at/showinterpret.asp?interpret=The+Mysterious+Art
• http://www.musicline.de/de/artist/The+Mysterious+Art

External links[link]

• Official website
• Tillmann Uhrmacher discography at Discogs
• Tillmann Uhrmacher on Myspace

Peter Ries (also known as Marc Cassandra, Gilbert or Steve Hall) is a German record producer, composer, arranger, and remixer. Ries started his career as a singer in 1980 under nickname Gilbert. Following collaborations Sandra and Sally Oldfield, he became widely known for his work with 'N Sync, Kylie Minogue, Love Inc., Eros Ramazzotti, the No Angels, Bro'Sis, Joana Zimmer, Thomas Anders, Xavier Naidoo, Kool & the Gang, Mr. President, Enigma and several DSDS candidates such as Juliette Schoppmann and Mike Leon Grosch.

Selected production discography[link]

Top ten singles[link]

External links[link]

• PeterRies.com
• Official MySpace

For the defunct avant-garde metal band from Kristiansand, Norway, see In the Woods...

In the Woods
Cover of In The Woods
Author(s)	Tana French
Country	Ireland
Language	English
Series	Dublin Murder Squad
Genre(s)	Mystery
Publisher	Viking Adult
Publication date	30 January 2007
Media type	Print (Hardcover)
Pages	496
ISBN	978-0-670-03860-2
OCLC Number	191864570
Dewey Decimal	823/.92 22
LC Classification	PR6106.R457 I52 2007
Followed by	The Likeness: A Novel

In the Woods is a 2007 mystery novel by Tana French about a pair of Irish detectives and their investigation of the murder of a twelve year old girl. The novel won several awards such as the 2008 Edgar Award for Best First Novel By An American Author,^[1] the 2008 Barry Award for Best First Novel,^[2] the 2008 Macavity Award for Best First Mystery Novel,^[3] and the 2008 Anthony Award for Best First Novel.^[4]

Plot[link]

Twenty years prior to the novel's events, twelve year-old Adam and his two best friends failed to come home after playing in the familiar woods bordering their Irish housing estate. A search is called by the families, and the police find Adam shivering, clawing the bark of a nearby tree, blood on his shoes and slash marks on his back. He is unable to tell them what happened or where his friends are. His amnesia holds to the present day, where he goes by his middle name, Rob, to avoid the attention of the media to his famous case. His friends were never found.

The plot of the novel circles around the murder of a twelve year old girl, Katy Devlin, whose case Rob and his partner Cassie Maddox are given to investigate. The body is found in the same woods where Rob’s friends disappeared, at an archeological dig site, and the coincidence is enough to make Rob nervous, though he insists to his partner that he is fine.

Cassie and Rob have been partners for a few years and get along famously, teasing one another and completing one another’s thoughts. There are many rumors at the station that they are romantically involved, though both of them scoff at the idea, despite the fact that they live almost like a married couple, spending a lot of time at Cassie’s cooking dinner for one another, drinking wine, and having Rob crash on Cassie’s couch across the room.

Katy’s murder takes the pair along many lines of investigation. Her death might be related to her father’s protests against the new highway meant to go straight through the dig site, or one of the students on the dig might have attacked her. She might have been abused by her father or someone else (her mother, twin sister, or older sister) in the family. She might have been previously poisoned over time. Or it might be related to the disappearance of Rob’s friends, as a hair clip that one of his friends was wearing that day appeared near the crime scene.

These possibilities are investigated, but the detectives come up frustratingly empty-handed at every turn. The case messes with Rob’s psyche as he tries to remember details about the two previous disappearances in case it would help. He tries spending the night in the woods, but freaks out and calls Cassie to pick him up. He’s afraid to sleep again, thinking that he’ll just have nightmares, so Cassie allows him into her bed. Things escalate from there and they end up having sex.

Rob feels immensely awkward after and can’t go back to their normal jokey-insult ways, but also feels that he can’t start a relationship with her. Their partnership deteriorates just as they start to uncover new leads in the case and they are unable to discuss the case and get along the way they used to.

Rob goes back to the dig site alone, where all the students are frantically digging before the site is shut down for the construction of the highway. He comes to a realization and calls in the forensics team again, who discover the location of the murder in a shed to which only three people have the key. After some heavy interrogation, one of the suspects confesses, though his motive is far from clear.

It becomes clearer when the suspect contends that he had been dating Katy’s older sister, Rosalind. When questioned by Cassie, she denies it and any involvement in Katy’s death, but also makes a comment that Cassie is obviously sleeping with Rob. Cassie takes it in stride, but after the interrogation, she has an idea of how to get a confession out of Rosalind: Go to her and admit sleeping with Rob and promise to keep her updated on the case if she promises not to tell.

Rosalind’s psychopathic tendencies get the better of her, and once she knows that she has Cassie in her debt, she brags about the whole thing and how she got the murderer to come up with the idea by telling him that all three girls were being sexually abused by their father, but that Katy liked it and was therefore their father’s favorite. Rosalind also told him that Katy told their father lies to make him beat them and would watch and laugh, that if Katy was gone, then they would be happy. She also admitted to Cassie that Katy was strong-willed and wouldn’t always do as Rosalind told her, so she had poisoned her to make her sick. After this confession, recorded on a wire, Cassie arrests her and takes her in, but because Rosalind was a few months from turning 18 (though she had told Rob previously that she was already 18), the confession is invalid. She is released with a smug smile.

The Police Captain has learned that Rob is actually Adam Ryan and confines him to desk work. He never goes back to Detective work. Cassie starts dating someone else and gets engaged. Rob is heartbroken and calls her, but it’s too late. He goes to the dig site to see the highway construction has begun, and thinks that he’ll never regain his lost memories of that night.

Reception[link]

Thomas Gaughan of Booklist gave In the Woods a starred review and hailed it as “…a superior novel about cops, murder, memory, relationships, and modern Ireland. The characters of Ryan and Maddox, as well as a handful of others, are vividly developed… Equally striking is the picture of contemporary Ireland, booming economically and fixated on the shabbiest aspects of American popular culture. An outstanding debut and a series to watch for procedural fans.” ^[5] Publishers Weekly praised author French, saying she “… expertly walks the line between police procedural and psychological thriller in her debut” and that “Ryan and Maddox are empathetic and flawed heroes, whose partnership and friendship elevate the narrative beyond a gory tale of murdered children and repressed childhood trauma.” ^[5] Kirkus Reviews said of the novel, “When not lengthily bogged down in angst, a readable, non-formulaic police procedural with a twist. It’s ultimately the confession of a damaged man.” ^[6]

Awards and nominations[link]

• Edgar Award for Best First Novel By An American Author, 2008^[1]
• Barry Award for Best First Novel, 2008^[2]
• Macavity Award for Best First Mystery Novel, 2008^[3]
• Anthony Award for Best First Novel, 2008^[4]

References[link]