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Caelian Hill
The Caelian Hill (Latin Mons Caelius, Italian Celio) is one of the famous Seven Hills of Rome. Under reign of Tullus Hostilius, the entire population of Alba Longa was forcibly resettled on the Caelian Hill. According to a tradition recounted by Titus Livy, the hill received its name from Caelius Vibenna, either because he established a settlement there or because his friend Servius Tullius wished to honor him after his death.
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Cagliari
Cagliari (, ) is the capital of the island of Sardinia, a region of Italy. Cagliari's Sardinian name Casteddu literally means castle. It has about 160,000 inhabitants, or about 400,000 including the outlying townships (metropolitan area): Elmas, Assemini, Capoterra, Selargius, Sestu, Monserrato, Quartucciu, Quartu Sant'Elena.
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Circus Maximus
The Circus Maximus (Latin for great or large circus, in Italian Circo Massimo) is an ancient Roman chariot racing stadium and mass entertainment venue located in Rome. Situated in the valley between the Aventine and Palatine hills, it was the first and largest Chariot Racing Stadium in ancient Rome. The site is now a public park and retains little evidence of its former use. The Circus could hold over 1/4 of the city's population, over 250,000 people, allowing for this Circus to be a popular viewing place by the Romans. The Circus measured "621 m (2,037 ft) in length and 118 m (387 ft) in width."
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Colosseum
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.
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Constantinople
Constantinople (, , Turkish: Istanbul) was the imperial capital of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire, the Latin Empire and the Ottoman Empire. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.
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Counter-Reformation
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Italy
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Malta
Malta , officially the Republic of Malta (), is a southern European country and consists of an archipelago situated centrally in the Mediterranean, 93 km south of Sicily and 288 km east of Tunisia, with the Strait of Gibraltar 1,826 km to the west and Alexandria 1,510 km to the east.
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Ostrogothic Kingdom
The Ostrogothic Kingdom established by the Ostrogoths in Italy and neighbouring areas lasted from 493 to 553. In Italy the Ostrogoths replaced Odoacer, the de facto ruler of Italy who had deposed the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire in 476. The Gothic kingdom reached its zenith under the rule of its first king, Theodoric the Great. Most of the social institutions in the late Western Roman Empire were preserved during his rule.
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Papal States
The Papal State(s), State(s) of the Church, or Pontifical States (, also Stato della Chiesa, Stati della Chiesa, Stati Pontifici, and Stato Ecclesiastico; , also Dicio Pontificia) were among the major historical states of Italy from roughly the 6th century until the Italian peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia (after which the Papal States, in less territorially extensive form, continued to exist until 1870).
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Populonia
Populonia (Latin: Populonium, Etruscan: Pupluna or Fufluna) is a frazione of the comune of Piombino (Tuscany, central Italy). It is especially noteworthy for its Etruscan remains, including one of the main necropolis in Italy, discovered by Isidoro Falchi. It is located at the north end of the peninsula of Monte Massoncello, north of Piombino.
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Rome
Rome (; , ; ) is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . In 2006 the population of the metropolitan area was estimated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development to have a population of 3.7 million.
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Seville
Seville ( ; see also ) is the artistic, cultural, and financial capital of southern Spain. It is the capital of the autonomous community of Andalusia and of the province of Seville. It is situated on the plain of the River Guadalquivir, with an average elevation of above sea level. The inhabitants of the city are known as sevillanos (feminine form: sevillanas) or hispalenses, following the Roman name of the city, Hispalis. The population of the city of Seville was 703,206 as of 2009 (INE), ranking as the fourth largest city of Spain. The population of the metropolitan area (urban area plus satellite towns) was 1,493,416 as of 2009 (INE estimate).
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Spain
Spain ( ; , ), officially the Kingdom of Spain (), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
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Vatican Library
The Vatican Library () is the library of the Holy See, currently located in Vatican City. It is one of the oldest libraries in the world and contains one of the most significant collections of historical texts. Formally established in 1475, though in fact much older, it has 75,000 codices from throughout history. From July 2007, the library had been temporarily closed to the public for rebuilding, and reopened in September 2010.
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Whitby Abbey
Whitby Abbey is a ruined Benedictine abbey overlooking the North Sea on the East Cliff above Whitby in North Yorkshire, England. It was disestablished during the Dissolution of the Monasteries under the auspices of Henry VIII. It is a Grade I Listed building in the care of English Heritage.
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Żejtun
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Adrian I
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Alan Hovhaness
Alan Hovhaness () (March 8, 1911 – June 21, 2000) was an American composer of Armenian and Scottish ancestry.
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Albertus Magnus
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Alfonso Muzzarelli
Alfonso Muzzarelli (b. 22 August 1749, at Ferrara; d. 25 May 1813, at Paris) was an Italian Jesuit theologian and scholar.
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Ambrose
:St. Ambrose redirects here. For the university, see Saint Ambrose University. For other uses, see Ambrose (disambiguation)
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Angles
The Angles is a modern English word for a Germanic-speaking people who took their name from the ancestral cultural region of Angeln, a district located in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The Angles were one of the main groups that settled in Britain in the post-Roman period, founding several of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England, and their name is the root of the name "England".
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Anglo-Saxons
Anglo-Saxons is the term usually used to describe the invading Germanic tribes in the south and east of Great Britain from the early 5th century AD, and their creation of the English nation, to the Norman conquest of 1066. The Benedictine monk, Bede, writing three centuries later, identified them as the descendants of three Germanic tribes:
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Anthony of Padua
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Antipope Felix II
Antipope Felix II was installed as Pope in 355 after the Emperor Constantius II banished the reigning Pope, Liberius, for refusing to subscribe the sentence of condemnation against Saint Athanasius. In May 357 the Roman laity, which had remained faithful to Liberius, demanded that Constantius, who was on a visit to Rome, should recall Liberius. The Emperor planned to have Felix and Liberius rule jointly, but when Liberius returned Felix was forced to retire to Porto, near Rome, where, after making an unsuccessful attempt to establish himself again in Rome, he died on 22 November 365.
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Antipope Novatian
Novatian (circa 200 – 258) was a scholar and antipope who held the title between 251 and 258.
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Augustine of Hippo
: For other uses, see Augustine, Augustinus and Saint Augustine.
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Bede
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Benedict I
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Benedict of Nursia
:"Saint Benedict" redirects here. This article is about the founder of Western monasticism; for other saints named Benedict, see Benedict.
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Bernard Lonergan
Fr. Bernard J.F. Lonergan, CC, SJ (17 December 1904 – 26 November 1984) was a Canadian Jesuit Priest. He was a philosopher-theologian in the Thomist tradition and an economist from Buckingham, Quebec. He taught at Loyola College (Montreal) (now Concordia University), Regis College (now federated within the University of Toronto), the Pontifical Gregorian University and Boston College. He is the author of Insight: A Study of Human Understanding (1957) and Method in Theology (1972), which established what he called the Generalized Empirical Method (GEM). The University of Toronto Press is in process of publishing his work in a projected 25-volume collection edited by staff at the Lonergan Research Institute at Regis College.
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Bernard of Clairvaux
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Blaise Pascal
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Bonaventure
Bonaventure (; 1221 – 15 July 1274), born John of Fidanza (), was an Italian medieval scholastic theologian and philosopher, the seventh Minister General of the Order of Friars Minor. He was a Cardinal Bishop of Albano. He was canonized on 14 April 1482 by Pope Sixtus IV and declared a Doctor of the Church in the year 1588 by Pope Sixtus V. He is known as the "Seraphic Doctor" (). Many writings believed in the Middle Ages to be his are now collected under the name Pseudo-Bonaventura.
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Bridget of Sweden
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Carlo Saraceni
Carlo Saraceni (Venice 1579-Venice, 16 June 1620) was an Italian early-Baroque painter, whose reputation as a "first-class painter of the second rank" was improved with the publication of a modern monograph in 1968.
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Catherine of Siena
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Charlemagne
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Constantine I
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Cyprian
:This page is about Cyprian, bishop of Carthage. For other Cyprians, see Cyprian (disambiguation).
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Cyril of Alexandria
Cyril of Alexandria (c. 376 - 444) was the Pope of Alexandria from 412 to 444. He came to power when the city was at its height of influence and power within the Roman Empire. Cyril wrote extensively and was a leading protagonist in the Christological controversies of the later 4th and 5th centuries. He was a central figure in the First Council of Ephesus in 431, which led to the deposition of Nestorius as Patriarch of Constantinople.
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Cyril of Jerusalem
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Dante Alighieri
Dante Alighieri (May/June c.1265September 14, 1321), commonly known as Dante, was an Italian poet of the Middle Ages. He was born in Florence; he died and is buried in Ravenna.
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Deira
Deira (Old English: Derenrice (Scandinavian: Deren Riket; Germanic Deren Reich) or Dere) was a kingdom in Northern England during the 6th century AD. It
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Duns Scotus
Blessed John (Johannes) Duns Scotus, O.F.M. (c. 1265 – 8 November 1308) was one of the more important theologians and philosophers of the High Middle Ages. He was nicknamed Doctor Subtilis for his penetrating and subtle manner of thought.
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Elizabeth Elstob
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Emperor Maurice
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Ephrem the Syrian
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Eriugena
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Eurasian Avars
The European Avars, or Ancient Avars, were a highly organized nomadic confederacy of mixed origins. They were ruled by a khagan, who was surrounded by a tight-knit retinue of nomad warriors, an organization characteristic of Turkic groups. Although the name Avar first appeared in the mid fifth century, the Avars of Europe enter the historical scene in the mid sixth century A.D., when they established a pax spanning considerable areas of Central and Eastern Europe. Avar rule persisted over much of the Pannonian Plain up to the early 9th century. Their ultimate fate is believed to have been assimilation by the invading Magyars (Hungarians).
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Ezekiel
:This article is about the main speaker in the biblical Book of Ezekiel. For a summary and analysis of the book itself, see Book of Ezekiel.
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Francis de Sales
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Francis of Assisi
Saint Francis of Assisi (Giovanni Francesco di Bernardone; 1181/1182October 3, 1226) was a Catholic deacon and preacher. He also was the founder of the Order of Friars Minor, more commonly known as the Franciscans.
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Francis Xavier
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Francisco Suárez
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Franks
The Franks ( or gens Francorum) were a West Germanic tribal confederation first attested in the third century as living north and east of the Lower Rhine River. From the third to fifth centuries some Franks raided Roman territory while other Franks joined the Roman troops in Gaul. Only the Salian Franks formed a kingdom on Roman-held soil that was acknowledged by the Romans after 357. In the climate of the collapse of imperial authority in the West, the Frankish tribes were united under the Merovingians and conquered all of Gaul except Septimania in the 6th century. The Salian political elite would be one of the most active forces in spreading Christianity over western Europe.
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Gabriel Roschini
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Gaetano Sanseverino
Gaetano Sanseverino (1811 - November 16, 1865) was an Italian philosopher and theologian. He made a comparative study including the scholastics, particularly St. Thomas Aquinas, and of the connection between their doctrine and that of the church fathers.
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Goths
The Goths (Gothic: *Gutans) were a heterogeneous East Germanic tribe, who played an important role in the history of the Roman Empire after they appeared on its lower Danube frontier in the third century.
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Gregory of Nazianzus
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Gregory of Tours
Saint Gregory of Tours (November 30, c. 538 – November 17, 594) was a Gallo-Roman historian and Bishop of Tours, which made him a leading prelate of Gaul. He was born Georgius Florentius, later adding the name Gregorius in honour of his maternal great-grandfather. He wrote in an ungrammatical and barbarized style of late Latin; however, it has been argued that this was a deliberate ploy to ensure his works would reach a wide audience. He is the main contemporary source for Merovingian history. His most notable work was his Decem Libri Historiarum or Ten Books of Histories, better known as the Historia Francorum ("History of the Franks"), a title given to it by later chroniclers, but he is also known for his credulous accounts of the miracles of saints, especially four books of the miracles of Martin of Tours. St Martin's tomb was a major draw in the 6th century, and Gregory's writings had the practical aspect of promoting this highly organized devotion.
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Gustavo Gutiérrez
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Hilary of Poitiers
hi mitchel
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Hildegard of Bingen
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Ignatius of Antioch
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Ignatius of Loyola
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Irenaeus
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Isidore of Seville
Saint Isidore of Seville (Spanish: or , Latin: ) (c. 560 – 4 April 636) was Archbishop of Seville for more than three decades and is considered, as the historian Montalembert put it in an oft-quoted phrase, "le dernier savant du monde ancien" ("the last scholar of the ancient world"). Indeed, all the later medieval history-writing of Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) was based on his histories.
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Jean Daniélou
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Jeffrey Richards
Jeffrey Richards (born c.1945) is a British historian.
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Jerome
http://wn.com/Jerome -
Jesus
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Johann Eck
Dr. Johann Maier von Eck (November 13, 1486 – February 13, 1543) was a German theologian and defender of Catholicism during the Protestant Reformation. It was Eck who argued that the beliefs of Martin Luther and Jan Hus were similar.
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Johannes Tauler
Johannes Tauler (c. 1300 – 15 June 1361) was a German mystic theologian.
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John Calvin
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John Chrysostom
John Chrysostom (c. 349–407, ), Archbishop of Constantinople, was an important Early Church Father. He is known for his eloquence in preaching and public speaking, his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and political leaders, the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, and his ascetic sensibilities. After his death (or, according to some sources, during his life) he was given the Greek surname chrysostomos, meaning "golden mouthed", rendered in English as Chrysostom.
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John Fisher
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John Henry Newman
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John of Avila
: For the co-founder of the Carmelites, see Saint John of the Cross
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John of Damascus
:Chrysorrhoas redirects here. For the river, see Barada.
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John of the Cross
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John the Apostle
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John, deacon of Rome
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Joseph Görres
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Joseph Hergenröther
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Justin Martyr
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Justinian I
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Karl Rahner
Karl Rahner, SJ (March 5, 1904 — March 30, 1984) was a German Jesuit and theologian who, alongside Bernard Lonergan and Hans Urs von Balthasar, is considered one of the most influential Roman Catholic theologians of the 20th century.
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Lawrence of Brindisi
Saint Lawrence of Brindisi (July 22, 1559, Brindisi, Apulia – July 22, 1619), born Giulio Cesare Russo, was a Roman Catholic priest and a member of the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin.
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Lombards
The Lombards (Latin Langobardi, whence the alternative names Langobards and Longobards) were a Germanic people originally from Northern Europe who settled in the valley of the Danube and from there invaded Byzantine Italy in 568 under the leadership of Alboin. They established a Lombard Kingdom, later named Kingdom of Italy, which lasted until 774, when it was conquered by the Franks. Their influence on Italian political geography is apparent in the regional appellation Lombardy.
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Louis de Montfort
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Louis Thomassin
Louis Thomassin (28 August 1619 at Aix-en-Provence–24 December 1695 in Paris) was a French theologian and Oratorian.
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Norman Cantor
Norman F. Cantor (19 November 1929 – 18 September 2004) was a historian who specialized in the medieval period. Known for his accessible writing and engaging narrative style, Cantor's books were among the most widely-read treatments of medieval history in English. His textbook The Civilization of the Middle Ages, first published in 1964, remains one of the all-time bestsellers in the field.
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Norman F. Cantor
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Origen
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Ostrogothic Kingdom
The Ostrogothic Kingdom established by the Ostrogoths in Italy and neighbouring areas lasted from 493 to 553. In Italy the Ostrogoths replaced Odoacer, the de facto ruler of Italy who had deposed the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire in 476. The Gothic kingdom reached its zenith under the rule of its first king, Theodoric the Great. Most of the social institutions in the late Western Roman Empire were preserved during his rule.
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Ottorino Respighi
Ottorino Respighi (; July 9, 1879, Bologna - April 18, 1936) was an Italian composer, musicologist and conductor. He is best known for his orchestral Roman trilogy: Fontane di Roma - "Fountains of Rome"; Pini di Roma - "Pines of Rome"; and Feste Romane - "Roman Festivals". His musicological interest in 16th-, 17th- and 18th-century music led him to also compose pieces based on the music of this period.
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Paul the Apostle
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Paul the Deacon
Paul the Deacon (c. 720 – 13 April probably 799), also known as Paulus Diaconus, Warnefred, Barnefridus and Cassinensis, (i.e. "of Monte Cassino"), was a Benedictine monk and historian of the Lombards.
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Pelagius II
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Peter Abelard
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Peter Damian
Saint Peter Damian, O.S.B. (Petrus Damiani, also Pietro Damiani or Pier Damiani; c. 1007 – February 21/22, 1072) was a reforming monk in the circle of Pope Gregory VII and a cardinal. In 1823, he was declared a Doctor of the Church. Dante placed him in one of the highest circles of Paradiso as a great predecessor of Saint Francis of Assisi.
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Petrus Damiani
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Pope Adeodatus I
Pope Saint Adeodatus I or Deodatus I (which is Given by God in Latin, also called Deusdedit, which is God Has Given; both are now considered variants of the same name) (died November 8, 618) was pope from 615 to 618.
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Pope Adeodatus II
Adeodatus II or Deodatus II reigned as pope from April 11, 672 to June 17, 676. Little is known about him. Most records which remain indicate that Adeodatus was known for his generosity, especially when it came to the poor and to pilgrims.
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Pope Adrian I
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Pope Adrian II
Pope|
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Pope Adrian III
Pope Saint Adrian III (also known as Hadrian III) was Pope from May 17, 884 to September 885. He was born at Rome. He died in September 885, at San Cesario sul Panaro (Modena), on a journey to Worms, in modern Germany.
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Pope Adrian IV
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Pope Adrian V
Pope Adrian V (c. 1210/20 – August 18, 1276), born '''Ottobuono de' Fieschi''', was pope in 1276.
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Pope Adrian VI
Pope Adrian VI (2 March 1459 – 14 September 1523), born Adriaan Florenszoon Boeyens, served as Bishop of Rome from 9 January 1522 until his death some 18 months later. He was the last non-Italian Pope until John Paul II, 456 years later. He is, together with Marcellus II, one of two 'modern' popes to retain his baptismal name after election. He is buried in the Santa Maria dell'Anima church in Rome.
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Pope Agapetus I
Pope Saint Agapetus I (died April 22, 536) reigned as pope from 535 to 536.
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Pope Agapetus II
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Pope Agatho
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Pope Alexander I
Pope Saint Alexander I was Bishop of Rome from about 106 to 115. The Holy See's Annuario Pontificio (2008) identifies him as a Roman who reigned from 108 or 109 to 116 or 119. Some believe he suffered martyrdom under the Roman Emperor Trajan or Hadrian, but this is improbable.
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Pope Alexander II
Alexander II (died April 21, 1073), born Anselmo da Baggio, was Pope from 1061 to 1073.
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Pope Alexander III
Pope Alexander III (c. 1100/1105 – August 30, 1181), born Rolando (or Orlando) of Siena, was Pope from 1159 to 1181. He is noted in history for laying the foundation stone for the Notre Dame de Paris.
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Pope Alexander IV
Pope Alexander IV (1199 or ca. 1185 – May 25, 1261) was Pope from 1254 until his death.
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Pope Alexander VI
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Pope Alexander VII
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Pope Alexander VIII
Pope Alexander VIII (22 April 1610 – 1 February 1691), born Pietro Vito Ottoboni, was Pope from 1689 to 1691.
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Pope Anacletus
Pope Saint Anacletus (very rarely written as Anencletus), also called Pope Cletus, was the third Roman Pope (after St. Peter and St. Linus).
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Pope Anastasius I
Pope Saint Anastasius I, born in Rome the son of Maximus, was pope from November 27, 399 to 401.
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Pope Anastasius II
Pope Anastasius II was pope from November 24, 496 to November 19, 498.
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Pope Anastasius III
Anastasius III (died June 915) was Pope from April 911 to June 913, was a Roman by birth. A Roman nobleman, Lucian, is sometimes recognized as his father, although other sources assert that he was the illegitimate son of his predecessor Pope Sergius III (904–911).
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Pope Anastasius IV
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Pope Anicetus
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Pope Anterus
Pope Saint Anterus was pope from November 21, 235 to January 3, 236, and succeeded Pope Pontian, who had been deported from Rome along with the antipope Hippolytus to Sardinia.
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Pope Benedict I
Pope Benedict I was pope from June 2, 575 to July 30, 579.
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Pope Benedict II
Pope Saint Benedict II was pope from 684 to 685.
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Pope Benedict III
Benedict III was Pope from September 29, 855 to April 17, 858.
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Pope Benedict IV
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Pope Benedict IX
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Pope Benedict V
Benedict V (born in Rome; died July 4 966), Pope in 964, was elected by the Romans on the death of Pope John XII (955–964). However the Holy Roman Emperor Otto I (936–973) did not approve of the choice and had him deposed after only a month (according to contemporary sources, he validly consented and resigned), and the ex-Pope was carried off to Hamburg and was placed under the care of Adaldag, Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen. There he became a deacon, dying in 966. He was first buried in the cathedral in Hamburg. At a later date his remains were transferred to Rome.
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Pope Benedict VI
Benedict VI (died June 974) was pope from January 19, 973 to June 974.
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Pope Benedict VII
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Pope Benedict VIII
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Pope Benedict XI
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Pope Benedict XII
Pope Benedict XII (died April 24, 1342), born Jacques Fournier, was Pope from 1334 to 1342.
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Pope Benedict XIII
Pope Benedict XIII (2 February 1649 – 21 February 1730), born Pietro Francesco Orsini, later Vincenzo Maria Orsini, was pope from 1724 until his death. He succeeded Pope Innocent XIII (1721–1724).
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Pope Benedict XIV
Pope Benedict XIV (31 March 1675 – 3 May 1758), born Prospero Lorenzo Lambertini, was Pope from 17 August 1740 to 3 May 1758.
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Pope Benedict XV
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Pope Benedict XVI
Pope Benedict XVI (; ; ; born Joseph Alois Ratzinger on 16 April 1927) is the 265th and current Pope, by virtue of his office of Bishop of Rome, the head of the Catholic Church and Sovereign of the Vatican City State. He was elected on 19 April 2005 in a papal conclave, celebrated his Papal Inauguration Mass on 24 April 2005, and took possession of his cathedral, the Basilica of St. John Lateran, on 7 May 2005. A native of Bavaria, Pope Benedict XVI has both German and Vatican citizenship. He succeeded John Paul II.
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Pope Boniface I
Pope Saint Boniface I was pope from December 28, 418 to September 4, 422. He was a contemporary of Saint Augustine of Hippo, who dedicated to him some of his works.
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Pope Boniface II
Pope Boniface II was pope from 530 to 532.
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Pope Boniface III
:For the Boniface III count of Montferrat see Boniface of Montferrat
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Pope Boniface IV
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Pope Boniface IX
Pope Boniface IX (1356 – October 1, 1404), born Piero Tomacelli, was the second Roman Pope of the Western Schism from November 2, 1389 until October 1, 1404. During his time the antipope Clement VII (1378–94) continued to hold court as pope in Avignon under the protection of the French monarchy.
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Pope Boniface V
Boniface V (died October 25, 625) was pope from 619 to 625.
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Pope Boniface VI
Boniface VI, pope, a native of Rome, was elected in April 896 as a result of riots soon after the death of Pope Formosus. Prior to his reign, he had twice incurred a sentence of deprivation of orders, as a subdeacon and as a priest. After a pontificate of fifteen days, he is said by some to have died of the gout, by others to have been forcibly ejected to make way for Stephen VI, the candidate of the Spoletan party.
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Pope Boniface VIII
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Pope Caius
Pope Saint Caius or Gaius was Pope from December 17, 283 to April 22, 296. Christian tradition makes him a native of the Dalmatian city of Salona, today Solin near Split, the son of a man also named Caius, and a member of a noble family related to the Emperor Diocletian.
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Pope Callixtus I
Pope Saint Callixtus I or Callistus I was pope from about 217 to about 222, during the reigns of the Roman Emperors Elagabalus and Alexander Severus. He was martyred for his Christian faith and is a saint of the Roman Catholic Church.
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Pope Callixtus II
Blessed Pope Calixtus II (or Calistus II) (died December 13, 1124), born Guy de Vienne, the fourth son of William I, Count of Burgundy (1057–87), was elected Pope on February 1, 1119, after the death of Pope Gelasius II (1118–19). His pontificate was shaped by the Investiture Controversy, which he was able to settle through the Concordat of Worms (in 1122). Although his birth date is not known, his eldest brother was born in 1061, therefore we can assume that Guy himself was born between 1065 and 1068.
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Pope Callixtus III
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Pope Celestine I
Pope Saint Celestine I was pope from 422 until April 6, 432.
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Pope Celestine II
Pope Celestine II (died March 8, 1144), born Guido di Castello, was pope from 1143 to 1144.
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Pope Celestine III
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Pope Celestine IV
Pope Celestine IV (died November 10, 1241 in Rome), born Goffredo da Castiglione, was pope from October 25, 1241 to November 10, 1241.
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Pope Celestine V
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Pope Clement I
Pope Saint Clement I (fl. 96), also known as Saint Clement of Rome (in Latin, Clemens Romanus), is listed from an early date as a Bishop of Rome. He was the first Apostolic Father of the Church.
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Pope Clement II
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Pope Clement III
:See also, 11th century antipope Clement III.
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Pope Clement IV
Pope Clement IV (Saint-Gilles-du-Gard, November 23, ca. 1195 – November 29, 1268 in Viterbo), born Gui Faucoi called in later life le Gros (; ), was elected Pope February 5, 1265, in a conclave held at Perugia that took four months, while cardinals argued over whether to call in Charles of Anjou, the youngest brother of Louis IX of France (1226–70), to carry on the papal war against the last of the house of Hohenstaufen.
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Pope Clement IX
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Pope Clement V
Pope Clement V, born Raymond Bertrand de Got (also occasionally spelled de Gouth and de Goth) (c. 1264 – April 20, 1314) was Pope from 1305 to his death. He is memorable in history for suppressing the order of the Knights Templar and executing some of its members, and as the Pope who moved the Roman Curia to Avignon—although, as a matter of fact, he moved the Roman Curia to Carpentras—in 1309, after staying four years in Poitiers.
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Pope Clement VI
Pope Clement VI (1291 – December 6, 1352), born
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Pope Clement VII
:For the antipope (1378–1394) see antipope Clement VII.
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Pope Clement VIII
:Not to be confused with Antipope Clement VIII.
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Pope Clement X
Pope Clement X (13 July 1590 – 22 July 1676), born Emilio Bonaventura Altieri, was Pope from 29 April 1670 to 22 July 1676.
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Pope Clement XI
Pope Clement XI (23 July 1649 – 19 March 1721), born Giovanni Francesco Albani, was Pope from 1700 until his death in 1721.
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Pope Clement XII
::See Corsini for other uses of that name
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Pope Clement XIII
Pope Clement XIII (Venice, 7 March 1693 – 2 February 1769 in Rome), born Carlo della Torre di Rezzonico, was Pope from 16 July 1758 to 2 February 1769.
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Pope Clement XIV
Pope Clement XIV (31 October 1705 – 22 September 1774), born Giovanni Vincenzo Antonio Ganganelli, was Pope from 1769 to 1774. At the time of his election, he was the only Franciscan friar in the College of Cardinals.
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Pope Conon
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Pope Constantine
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Pope Cornelius
Pope Saint Cornelius was pope from his election on 6 or 13 March 251 to his martyrdom in June 253.
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Pope Damasus I
Pope Saint Damasus I ( ) was pope from 366 to 384.
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Pope Damasus II
Damasus II (died August 9, 1048), born Poppo, Pope from July 17, 1048 to August 9, 1048, was the second of the German pontiffs nominated by Emperor Henry III (1039–56). A native of Bavaria, he was the third German to become Pope and had one of the shortest papal reigns. His original name was Poppo, and he was bishop of Brixen when the Emperor raised him to the papacy.
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Pope Dionysius
Pope Saint Dionysius was pope from July 22, 259 to December 26, 268.
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Pope Donus
Pope Donus was pope from November 2, 676 to April 11, 678.
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Pope Eleuterus
:For other saints with this name, see Saint Eleutherius.
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Pope Eugene I
Pope Saint Eugene I or Eugenius I, was pope from 10 August 654, to 1 June 657.
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Pope Eugene II
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Pope Eugene III
Pope Blessed Eugene III (died July 8, 1153), born Bernardo da Pisa, was Pope from 1145 to 1153. He was the first Cistercian to become Pope.
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Pope Eugene IV
Pope Eugene IV (1383 – February 23, 1447), born Gabriele Condulmer, was Pope from March 3, 1431, to his death.
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Pope Eusebius
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Pope Eutychian
Pope Saint Eutychian or Eutychianus was pope from January 4, 275 to December 7, 283 (according to the Annuario Pontificio of 2003).
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Pope Evaristus
Pope Saint Evaristus is accounted the fifth pope, holding office from c. 99 to 107 AD or from 99 to 108. He was also known as Aristus.
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Pope Fabian
Pope Saint Fabian was Pope, or Bishop of Rome, from January 10, 236 to January 20, 250, succeeding Pope Anterus.
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Pope Felix I
Pope Saint Felix I was Pope from 5 January 269 to 30 December 274.
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Pope Felix III
Pope Saint Felix III was pope from March 13, 483 to 492.
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Pope Felix IV
Pope Saint Felix IV was pope from 526 to 530.
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Pope Formosus
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Pope Gelasius I
Pope Saint Gelasius I (died November 21, 496) was pope from 492 until his death in 496. He was the third and last bishop of Rome of African origin in the Catholic Church. Gelasius was a prolific writer whose style placed him on the cusp between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Gelasius had been closely employed by his predecessor, Felix III, especially in drafting papal documents. His reign was characterized by his call for strict orthodoxy, a more assertive push for papal authority, and increasing tension between the churches in the West and the East.
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Pope Gelasius II
Gelasius II (died January 29, 1119), born Giovanni Coniulo (John of Gaeta), was pope from January 24, 1118 to January 29, 1119.
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Pope Gregory I
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Pope Gregory II
Pope Saint Gregory II was pope from May 19, 715 to his death on February 11, 731, succeeding Pope Constantine. Having, it is said, bought off the Lombards for thirty pounds of gold, he used the tranquillity thus obtained for vigorous missionary efforts among the Germanic tribes, and for strengthening the papal authority in the churches of Britain and Ireland. By excommunicating the Byzantine emperor Leo III the Isaurian, he prepared the way for a long series of revolts and civil wars, which tended greatly to the establishment of the temporal power of the popes. He died in 731, and subsequently attained the honour of canonization. The day that Gregory is remembered in the "Martyrology" seems to be any one of February 11, February 13, and February 28.
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Pope Gregory III
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Pope Gregory IV
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Pope Gregory IX
Pope Gregory IX, born Ugolino di Conti, was pope from March 19, 1227 to August 22, 1241.
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Pope Gregory V
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Pope Gregory VI
Pope Gregory VI (died 1048), born John Gratian (Latin Johannes Gratianus), was Pope from 1 May 1045 until his abdication at the Council of Sutri on 20 December 1046.
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Pope Gregory VII
Pope St. Gregory VII (c. 1015/1028 – May 25, 1085), born Hildebrand of Sovana (), was Pope from April 22, 1073, until his death. One of the great reforming popes, he is perhaps best known for the part he played in the Investiture Controversy, his dispute with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor affirming the primacy of the papal authority and the new canon law governing the election of the pope by the college of cardinals. He was at the forefront of both evolutionary developments in the relationship between the Emperor and the papacy during the years before becoming pope. He was beatified by Gregory XIII in 1584, and canonized in 1728 by Benedict XIII as Pope St. Gregory VII. He twice excommunicated Henry IV, who in the end appointed the Antipope Clement III to oppose him in the political power struggles between church and Empire. Hailed as one of the greatest of the Roman pontiffs after his reforms proved successful, Gregory was during his own reign despised by many for his expansive use of papal powers. Joseph McCabe describes Gregory VII as a "rough and violent peasant, enlisting his brute strength in the service of the monastic ideal which he embraced."
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Pope Gregory VIII
:Not to be confused with the earlier Antipope Gregory VIII
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Pope Gregory X
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Pope Gregory XI
:See also Vicedomino de Vicedominis, a pope-elect who took the name Gregory XI.
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Pope Gregory XII
Pope Gregory XII (c. 1326 – 18 October 1417), born Angelo Correr or Corraro, Pope from 1406 to 1415, succeeded Pope Innocent VII (1404–06) on 30 November 1406.
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Pope Gregory XIII
Pope Gregory XIII (7 January 1502 – 10 April 1585), born Ugo Boncompagni, was Pope from 1572 to 1585.
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Pope Gregory XIV
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Pope Gregory XV
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Pope Gregory XVI
Pope Gregory XVI (18 September 1765 – 1 June 1846), born Bartolomeo Alberto Cappellari, named Mauro as a member of the religious order of the Camaldolese, was Pope of the Catholic Church from 1831 to 1846. Strongly conservative and traditionalist, he opposed democratic and modernising reforms in the Papal States and throughout Europe, seeing them as fronts for revolutionary leftism, and sought to strengthen the religious and political authority of the papacy (see Ultramontanism).
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Pope Hilarius
Pope Saint Hilarius (also Hilarus, Hilary) was Pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 461 to February 28, 468. He was canonized as a saint after his death.
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Pope Honorius I
Pope Honorius I (died October 12, 638) was pope from 625 to 638.
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Pope Honorius II
:See also, Antipope Honorius II, otherwise known as Peter Cadalus.
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Pope Honorius III
Pope Honorius III (1148 – March 18, 1227), born with the name Cencio Savelli, was Pope from 1216 to 1227.
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Pope Honorius IV
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Pope Hormisdas
Pope Saint Hormisdas (c. 450 – August 6, 523) was pope from July 20, 514 to 523.
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Pope Hyginus
Pope Saint Hyginus was bishop of Rome from about 136 or 138 to about 140 or 142. Tradition holds that during his papacy he determined the various prerogatives of the clergy and defined the grades of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. However, modern scholars tend to doubt this claim and view the governance of the church of Rome during this period as still more or less collective.
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Pope Innocent I
Pope Saint Innocent I was pope from 401 to March 12, 417.
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Pope Innocent II
Pope Innocent II (died September 24, 1143), born Gregorio Papareschi, was pope from 1130 to 1143, and was probably one of the clergy in personal attendance on the antipope Clement III (Guibert of Ravenna).
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Pope Innocent III
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Pope Innocent IV
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Pope Innocent IX
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Pope Innocent V
Pope Blessed Innocent V (c. 1225 – June 22, 1276), born Pierre de Tarentaise, was Pope from January 21 to June 22, 1276.
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Pope Innocent VI
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Pope Innocent VII
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Pope Innocent VIII
Pope Innocent VIII (1432 – July 25, 1492), born Giovanni Battista Cybo (or Cibo), was Pope from 1484 until his death.
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Pope Innocent X
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Pope Innocent XI
Blessed Pope Innocent XI (16 May 1611 – 12 August 1689), born Benedetto Odescalchi, was Pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 1676 to 1689.
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Pope Innocent XII
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Pope Innocent XIII
Pope Innocent XIII (13 May 1655 – 7 March 1724) was pope from 1721 until his death.
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Pope John I
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Pope John II
Pope John II (born Mercurius) was pope from 533 to 535.
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Pope John III
Pope John III was pope from 561 to July 13, 574.
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Pope John IV
Pope John IV (died October 12, 642) was elected Pope of the Catholic Church, after a four-month sede vacante, December 24, 640.
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Pope John IX
John IX was Pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 898 to 900.
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Pope John Paul I
Pope John Paul I (Latin: Ioannes Paulus PP. I, Italian: Giovanni Paolo I), born Albino Luciani, (17 October 1912 – 28 September 1978), reigned as Pope of the Catholic Church and as Sovereign of Vatican City from 26 August 1978 until his death 33 days later. His reign is among the shortest in papal history, resulting in the most recent Year of Three Popes. John Paul I was the first Pope born in the 20th century.
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Pope John Paul II
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Pope John V
Pope John V was pope from July 685 to August 2, 686. John V was the first pope of the Byzantine Papacy allowed to be consecrated by the Byzantine emperor without prior consent, and the first in a line of ten consecutive popes of eastern origin. His papacy was marked by reconciliation between the city of Rome and the empire.
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Pope John VI
Pope John VI was a Greek pope from Ephesus who reigned during the Byzantine Papacy from October 30, 701 to January 11, 705. His papacy was noted for military and political breakthroughs on the Italian peninsula. He succeeded to the papal chair two months after the death of Pope Sergius I, and his election occurred after a vacancy of less than seven weeks. He was succeeded by Pope John VII after a vacancy of less than two months. The body of the pope is buried in St. Peter's Basilica.
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Pope John VII
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Pope John VIII
John VIII was pope from December 13, 872 to December 16, 882. He is often considered one of the ablest pontiffs of the ninth century and the last bright spot on the papacy until Leo IX two centuries later.
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Pope John X
John X, Pope from March 914 to May 928, was deacon at Bologna when he attracted the attention of Theodora, the wife of Theophylact, Count of Tusculum, the most powerful noble in Rome, through whose influence he was elevated first to the see of Bologna and then to the archbishopric of Ravenna.
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Pope John XI
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Pope John XII
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Pope John XIII
John XIII of Crescenzi family (died September 6, 972) served as Pope from October 1, 965, until his death.
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Pope John XIV
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Pope John XIX
John XIX (born in Rome, died October 1032), born Romanus, was Pope from 1024 to 1032.
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Pope John XV
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Pope John XVII
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Pope John XVIII
John XVIII (died June or July 1009) was Pope or Antipope in Pisa from 1004 to 1009. He reigned simultaneously and in competition with two other Popes or Antipopes - Benedict XIII in Avignon and Gregory XII in Rome.
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Pope John XXI
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Pope John XXII
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Pope John XXIII
Blessed Pope John XXIII (; ), born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli (25 November 1881 – 3 June 1963), known as Blessed John XXIII since his beatification, was elected as the 261st Pope of the Catholic Church and Sovereign of Vatican City on 28 October 1958.
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Pope Julius I
Pope Saint Julius I, was pope from February 6, 337 to April 12, 352.
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Pope Julius II
Julius II (c. 5 December 1443 – 21 February 1513), nicknamed "The Fearsome Pope" (Il Papa Terribile) and "The Warrior Pope" (Il Papa Guerriero),, born Giuliano della Rovere, was Pope from 1503 to 1513. His papacy was marked by an active foreign policy, ambitious building projects, and patronage for the arts.
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Pope Julius III
Pope Julius III (10 September 1487 – 23 March 1555), born Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte, was Pope from 7 February 1550 to 1555.
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Pope Lando
Lando (also known as Landus) was elected pope in either July or August 913. He died about six months later, in either February or March 914.
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Pope Leo I
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Pope Leo II
Pope Saint Leo II was Pope from August 17, 682 to June 28, 683.
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Pope Leo III
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Pope Leo IV
Pope Saint Leo IV was pope from 10 April 847 to 17 July 855.
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Pope Leo IX
Saint Leo IX (June 21, 1002 – April 19, 1054), born Bruno of Eguisheim-Dagsburg, was Pope from February 12, 1049 to his death. He was a German aristocrat and as well as being Pope was a powerful secular ruler of central Italy. He is regarded as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church, with the feast day of April 19. Leo IX is widely considered the most historically significant German Pope of the Middle Ages.
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Pope Leo V
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Pope Leo VI
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Pope Leo VII
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Pope Leo VIII
Leo VIII (died March 1, 965), a Roman by birth, considered by the Church an Antipope from 963 to 964 and a true Pope from 964 to 965. He held the lay office of protoserinus when he was (allegedly invalidly) elected pope at the insistence of Emperor Otto I the Great (936–973), by the Roman synod which invalidly deposed Pope John XII (955–964), who was still alive, in December 963.
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Pope Leo X
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Pope Leo XI
Pope Leo XI (2 June 1535 – 27 April 1605), born '''Alessandro Ottaviano de' Medici''', was Pope from 1 April 1605 to 27 April of the same year.
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Pope Leo XII
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Pope Leo XIII
Pope Leo XIII (2 March 1810 - 20 July 1903), born Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi Pecci to an Italian comital family, was the 256th Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, reigning from 1878 to 1903 in succession to Pope Pius IX. Reigning until the age of 93, he was the oldest pope, and had the third longest pontificate, behind his immediate predecessor Pius IX and John Paul II.
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Pope Liberius
Pope Liberius, pope from May 17, 352 to September 24, 366, was consecrated according to the Catalogus Liberianus on May 22, as the successor of Pope Julius I. He is not mentioned as a saint in the Roman Martyrology. His first recorded act was, after a synod had been held at Rome, to write to Emperor Constantius II, then in quarters at Arles (353-354), asking that a council might be called at Aquileia with reference to the affairs of Athanasius of Alexandria; but his messenger Vincentius of Capua was compelled by the emperor at a conciliabulum held in Arles, to subscribe against his will a condemnation of the orthodox patriarch of Alexandria.
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Pope Linus
Pope Linus (d. ca. 76) was, according to several early sources, Bishop of the diocese of Rome after Saint Peter. This makes Linus the second Pope (or the first, if Peter is not considered to have been Pope). According to other early sources Pope Clement I was the Pope after Peter.
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Pope Lucius I
Pope Saint Lucius I was Pope from June 25, 253 to March 5, 254.
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Pope Lucius II
Pope Lucius II (died February 15, 1145), born Gherardo Caccianemici dal Orso, was pope from March 9, 1144, until his death Feb 15, 1145.
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Pope Lucius III
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Pope Marcellinus
Pope Saint Marcellinus, according to the Liberian Catalogue, became bishop of Rome on June 30, 296; his predecessor was Pope St Caius
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Pope Marcellus I
Pope Saint Marcellus I, pope from May 308 to 309, succeeded Marcellinus, after a considerable interval, most probably in May or June 308.
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Pope Marcellus II
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Pope Marinus I
Marinus I (or Martin II), Pope between December 16, 882 and May 15, 884. He succeeded John VIII in about the end of December 882.
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Pope Marinus II
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Pope Mark
Pope Saint Mark or Marcus was Pope from January 18, 336 to October 7, 336.
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Pope Martin I
Pope Saint Martin I, born near Todi, Umbria in the place now named after him (Pian di San Martino), was pope from 649 to 653, succeeding Theodore I in July 649. The only pope during the Byzantine Papacy whose election was not approved by an iussio from Constantinople, Martin I was abducted by Constans II and died in the Crimean peninsula.
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Pope Martin IV
Pope Martin IV, born Simon de Brion (between 1210 and 1220, Andrezel – March 28, 1285) held the papacy from February 21, 1281 until his death.
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Pope Martin V
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Pope Miltiades
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Pope Nicholas I
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Pope Nicholas II
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Pope Nicholas III
Pope Nicholas III (Rome, 1210/1220 – August 22, 1280), born Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, Pope from November 25, 1277 to his death in 1280, was a Roman nobleman who had served under eight Popes, been made cardinal-deacon of St. Nicola in carcere Tulliano by Pope Innocent IV (1243–54), protector of the Franciscans by Pope Alexander IV (1254–61), inquisitor-general by Pope Urban IV (1261–64), and succeeded Pope John XXI (1276–77), largely through family influence, after a six-month vacancy in the Holy See.
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Pope Nicholas IV
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Pope Nicholas V
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Pope Paschal I
Pope Saint Paschal I (baptismal name, Pascale Massimi) was pope from January 25, 817 to February 11, 824. A native of Rome and son of Bonosus, he was raised to the pontificate by the acclamation of the clergy, shortly after the death of Pope Stephen IV, and before the sanction of the emperor Louis the Pious had been obtained - a circumstance for which it was one of his first cares to apologize. His relations with the imperial house, however, never became cordial; and he was also unsuccessful in winning the sympathy of the Roman nobles.
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Pope Paschal II
Paschal II (died January 21, 1118), born Ranierius, was Pope from August 13, 1099, until his death. A monk of the Cluniac order, he was created cardinal priest of the Titulus S. Clementi by Pope Gregory VII (1073–85) about 1076, and was consecrated pope in succession to Pope Urban II (1088–99) on August 19, 1099.
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Pope Paul I
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Pope Paul II
Pope Paul II (February 23, 1417 – July 26, 1471), born Pietro Barbo, was Pope from 1464 until his death in 1471.
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Pope Paul III
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Pope Paul IV
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Pope Paul V
:''For Napoleon's brother-in-law see Camillo Filippo Ludovico Borghese.''
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Pope Paul VI
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Pope Pelagius I
Pope Pelagius I was pope from 556 to March 4, 561. He was the second pope of the Byzantine Papacy, like his predecessor a former apocrisiarius to Constantinople.
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Pope Pelagius II
Pope Pelagius II was pope from 579 to 590.
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Pope Pius I
Pope Saint Pius I was Bishop of Rome, according to the Annuario Pontificio, from 142 or 146 to 157 or 161, respectively. Others suggest that his pontificate was perhaps from 140 to 154.
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Pope Pius II
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Pope Pius III
Pope Pius III (May 29, 1439 – October 18, 1503), born Francesco Todeschini Piccolomini, was Pope from September 22 to October 18, 1503.
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Pope Pius IV
Pope Pius IV (31 March 1499 – 9 December 1565), born Giovanni Angelo Medici, was Pope from 1559 to 1565. He is notable for presiding over the culmination of the Council of Trent.
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Pope Pius IX
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Pope Pius V
Pope Pius V (17 January 1504 – 1 May 1572), born Antonio Ghislieri (from 1518 called Michele Ghislieri, O.P.), was Pope from 1566 to 1572 and is a saint of the Catholic Church. He is chiefly notable for his role in the Council of Trent, the Counter-Reformation, and the standardisation of the liturgy. Pius V declared Thomas Aquinas a Doctor of the Church and patronised prominent sacred music composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina.
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Pope Pius VI
Pope Pius VI (25 December, 1717 – 29 August, 1799), born Count Giovanni Angelo Braschi, Pope from 1775 to 1799, was born at Cesena.
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Pope Pius VII
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Pope Pius VIII
Pope Pius VIII (20 November 1761 – 30 November 1830), born Francesco Saverio Castiglioni was Pope in 1829 and 1830.
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Pope Pius X
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Pope Pius XI
Pope Pius XI (Latin: Pius PP. XI; ; 31 May 1857 – 10 February 1939), born Ambrogio Damiano Achille Ratti, was Pope from 6 February 1922, and sovereign of Vatican City from its creation as an independent state on 11 February 1929 until his death on 10 February 1939. He issued numerous encyclicals including Quadragesimo Anno highlighting capitalistic greed of international finance, social justice issues and Quas Primas establishing the feast of Christ the King. He took as his papal motto "Christ's peace in Christ's kingdom".
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Pope Pius XII
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Pope Pontian
Pope Pontian or Pontianus was pope from 21 July 230 to 29 September 235.
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Pope Romanus
Romanus was Pope from August to November 897.
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Pope Sabinian
Pope Sabinian (died February 22, 606) was pope from 604 to 606. He was born at Blera (Bieda) near Viterbo. Pope during the Byzantine Papacy, he was fourth former apocrisiarius to Constantinople elected pope.
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Pope Sergius I
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Pope Sergius II
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Pope Sergius III
Sergius III was a pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 29 January 0904 to 14 April 0911. Because Sergius III was possibly the only pope known to have ordered the murder of another pope and the only pope thought to have fathered an illegitimate son who later became pope (John XI), his pontificate has been described as "dismal and disgraceful."
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Pope Sergius IV
Sergius IV (born in Rome, died May 12, 1012), born Pietro Martino Buccaporci, was Pope from July 31, 1009, until his death. The date of his birth is unknown. His birth name is believed to have been Pietro Martino (Peter Martin) Buccaporci. This name essentially translated to "Peter Pig's Snout." Pietro adopted the name Sergius IV upon accession to the pontificate.
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Pope Severinus
Pope Severinus was pope in the year 640 who became caught up in a power struggle with the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius over the ongoing Monothelite controversy.
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Pope Silverius
Pope Saint Silverius was Pope from June 8, 536 until March 537.
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Pope Simplicius
Pope Saint Simplicius was pope from 468 to March 10, 483.
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Pope Siricius
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Pope Sisinnius
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Pope Sixtus I
Pope Saint Sixtus I was bishop of Rome from about 117 or 119 to 126 or 128 C.E., succeeding Pope Alexander I and succeeded by Pope Telesphorus. In the oldest documents, Xystus is the spelling used for the first three popes of that name.
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Pope Sixtus II
Pope Sixtus II or Pope Saint Sixtus II (a corruption of Greek , Xystus, "polished") was Pope from August 30, 257 to August 6, 258. He died as a martyr during the persecution by Emperor Valerian.
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Pope Sixtus III
Pope Saint Sixtus III was pope from July 31, 432 to August 18, 440.
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Pope Sixtus IV
Pope Sixtus IV (July 21, 1414 – August 12, 1484), born Francesco della Rovere, was Pope from 1471 to 1484. His main accomplishments as Pope included: Building the Sistine Chapel, where the team of artists he brought together and introduced the Early Renaissance to Rome with the first masterpiece of the city's new artistic age, establishing the Vatican archives and the Spanish Inquisition and annulling the decrees of the Council of Constance. He was famed for his nepotism and was personally involved in the infamous Pazzi Conspiracy.
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Pope Sixtus V
Pope Sixtus V (13 December 1520 – 27 August 1590), born Felice Peretti di Montalto, was Pope from 1585 to 1590.
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Pope Soter
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Pope Stephen I
Pope Saint Stephen I served as Bishop of Rome from 12 May 254 to 2 August 257.
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Pope Stephen II
:In sources prior to the 1960s, this Pope is sometimes called Stephen III and Pope-elect Stephen is sometimes called Stephen II. See Pope-elect Stephen for detailed explanations.
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Pope Stephen III
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Pope Stephen IV
Pope Stephen IV was Pope from June 816 to January 817.
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Pope Stephen IX
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Pope Stephen V
Pope Stephen V was pope from 885 to 891. He succeeded Pope Adrian III, and was in turn succeeded by Pope Formosus. In his dealings with Constantinople in the matter of Photius, as also in his relations with the young Slavonic church, he pursued the policy of Pope Nicholas I.
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Pope Stephen VI
Pope Stephen VI (died August 897) was Pope from May 22, 896 to August 897.
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Pope Stephen VII
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Pope Stephen VIII
Pope Stephen VIII, a native of Germany, was pope from about July 14, 939 until his death towards the end of October 942.
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Pope Sylvester I
Sylvester was pope from 31 January 314 to 31 December 335, succeeding Pope Miltiades.
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Pope Sylvester II
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Pope Sylvester III
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Pope Symmachus
Pope Saint Symmachus was pope from 498 to 514.
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Pope Telesphorus
Pope Saint Telesphorus was pope from 126 or 127 to 137 or 138, during the reigns of Roman Emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. He was Greek by birth.
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Pope Theodore I
Pope Theodore I (died May 14, 649), who was pope from November 24, 642 to May 14, 649, is considered a Greek, but was born in Palestine. He was made a cardinal deacon, (possibly around 640) and a full cardinal by Pope John IV.
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Pope Urban I
:"Saint Urban" redirects here. For other saints with this name, see Saint Urban (disambiguation).
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Pope Urban II
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Pope Urban III
Pope Urban III (died October 20, 1187), born Uberto Crivelli, was Pope from 1185 to 1187. He was made cardinal and archbishop of Milan by Pope Lucius III, whom he succeeded on November 25, 1185. He vigorously took up his predecessor's quarrels with the Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, including the standing dispute about the succession of territories of the countess Matilda of Tuscany. Even after his elevation to the Papacy, he continued to hold the archbishopric of Milan, and in this capacity refused to crown as King of Italy Frederick I's son Prince Henry, who had married Constantia, the heiress of the kingdom of Sicily. While Henry in the south cooperated with the rebel senate of Rome, Frederick I in the north blocked the passes of the Alps and cut off all communication between the Pope, then living in Verona, and his German adherents. Urban III now resolved on excommunicating Frederick I, but the Veronese protested against such a proceeding being resorted to within their walls. He accordingly withdrew to Ferrara, but died before he could give effect to his intentions. His successor was Gregory VIII.
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Pope Urban IV
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Pope Urban V
Pope Urban V (1310 – December 19, 1370), born Guillaume Grimoard, was Pope from 1362 to 1370.
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Pope Urban VI
Pope Urban VI (c. 1318 – October 15, 1389), born Bartolomeo Prignano, was Pope from 1378 to 1389.
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Pope Urban VII
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Pope Urban VIII
:'' Maffeo Barberini redirects here. For Pope Urban VIII's great-nephew, see Don Maffeo Barberini.''
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Pope Valentine
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Pope Victor I
Pope Saint Victor I was Pope from 189 to 199 (the Vatican cites 186 or 189 to 197 or 201).
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Pope Victor II
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Pope Victor III
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Pope Vigilius
:For the saint and bishop of Trent, see Vigilius of Trent.
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Pope Vitalian
Pope Saint Vitalianus was Pope of the Catholic Church from July 30, 657, until January 27, 672.
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Pope Zachary
Pope Saint Zachary (Greek Zacharias) was pope from 741 to 752. A Greek from Calabria, he was the last pope of the Byzantine Papacy. Most probably he was a deacon of the Roman Church and as such signed the decrees of the Roman council of 732 and was on intimate terms with Gregory III, whom he succeeded on December 10, 741.
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Pope Zephyrinus
Pope Saint Zephyrinus, born in Rome, was bishop of Rome from 199 to 217. His predecessor was bishop Victor I. Upon his death on December 20, 217, he was succeeded by his principal advisor, bishop Callixtus I.
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Pope Zosimus
Pope Saint Zosimus was pope from March 18, 417 to December 26, 418 (or December 27).
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Raimondo Spiazzi
Raimondo Spiazzi OP (18 anuary 1918 - 14 October 2004) was an Italian Catholic theologian, advisor to Pius XII, and Mariologist with over 2,500 publications.
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Robert Bellarmine
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Roscellinus
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Saint Andrew
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Saint Boniface
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Saint Dominic
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Saint Leander
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Saint Peter
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Saint Silvia
Saint Silvia (Sylvia) (c. 515 - c. 592) was the mother of St. Gregory the Great; she had another son but his name did not survive through the ages. She is also venerated as a saint by the Catholic Church. Two of her relatives, sisters-in-law Trasilla and Emiliana, are also venerated as saints, as well as her other sister-in-law Gordiana, and her husband Gordianus.
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Saint Stephen
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Teresa of Ávila
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Tertullian
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Theodoric the Great
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Thomas Cajetan
Thomas Cajetan (pronounced ''Ca-'je-tan''), also known as Gaetanus, commonly Tommaso de Vio (February 20, 1469 - August 9, 1534), was an Italian cardinal. He is perhaps best known among Protestants for his opposition to the teachings of Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation while he was the Pope's Legate in Wittenberg, and perhaps best known among Catholics for his extensive commentary on the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas.
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Thomas More
Sir Thomas More (; February 7, 1478July 6, 1535), also Saint Thomas More, was an English lawyer, social philosopher, author, statesman and noted Renaissance humanist. He was an important counsellor to Henry VIII of England and for three years toward the end of his life he was Lord Chancellor. He is also recognized as a saint within the Catholic Church and in the Anglican Communion. He was an opponent of the Protestant Reformation and of Martin Luther and William Tyndale.
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Thomas à Kempis
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Thérèse of Lisieux
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Totila
Totila (died July 1, 552) was king of the Ostrogoths from 541 until his death. He waged the Gothic War against the Byzantine Empire for the mastery of Italy. Most of the historical evidence for Totila consists of chronicles by the Byzantine historian Procopius, who accompanied the Byzantine general Belisarius during the Gothic War.
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Visigoths
The Visigoths () were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe; the Ostrogoths being the other. Together these tribes were among the barbarians who disturbed the late Roman Empire during the Migration Period. The romanized Visigoths first emerged as a distinct people during the 4th century, initially in the Balkans, where they participated in several wars with Rome. A Visigothic army under Alaric I eventually moved into Italy and famously sacked Rome in 410.
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William of Ockham
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Yves Congar
__NOTOC__
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Ælfric of Abingdon
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Pope Gregory the Great
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:59
- Published: 03 Sep 2009
- Updated: 17 May 2012
Reflection for 9/3/09 www.apostleshipofprayer.org
http://wn.com/Pope_Gregory_the_Great
Pope St. Gregory VII
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:54
- Published: 25 May 2010
- Updated: 28 May 2012
Reflection for 5/25/10 www.apostleshipofprayer.org
http://wn.com/Pope_St_Gregory_VII
Pope Gregory XVII Sermons 2000 & 2003
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:56
- Published: 25 Sep 2008
- Updated: 21 Mar 2012
Apostates, members & Leaders of the Palmarian Cult. Also members of the media & the general public. We will now reveal details of a sermon given by Clemente Dominguez Gomez, self crowned Pope Gregory XVII. This sermon was given in front of his congregation in his Basilica, just outside of the village of El Palmar De Troya, in Spain, on the 27th October 2000. We will summarize the points as the entire sermon is many pages. The full copy of which will be made available shortly. When speaking of himself, Clemente always uses the WE or us. Instead of I or me. This is a sign of his deteriorating mental state. Please bear in mind that Children of all ages were listening to this. Clemente chastises any liberal Palmarians who don't follow his orders to the letter, he tells them that Christ told him "He will vomit over those that are luke-warm" Clemente states that he now lives permanently inside the compound in Palmar de Troya and states " WE will not leave here voluntarily, they will have to overthrow us, they will have to take OUR life." He continually goes on to say THEY would have to kill him before he would leave his Basilica. He says the Basilica is his apocalyptic Ark - & he is its - Noah. He admits to drinking excessively & having sexual intercourse with Nuns. This he was forced to admit to counter-act any accusations the recently expelled ex-bishops who would tell members. Moving on to a Sermon given on the 6th August 2003. He again refers to the basilica as his Ark & is <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Pope_Gregory_XVII_Sermons_2000_2003
2012 Mayan Calendar subverted by Pope Gregory for the control of the masses (Part 1)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:58
- Published: 23 Nov 2011
- Updated: 29 Apr 2012
www.youtube.com originally posted at the link above: Mirrored by: Robert Arnett Otey 11-22-11
http://wn.com/2012_Mayan_Calendar_subverted_by_Pope_Gregory_for_the_control_of_the_masses_Part_1
2012 Mayan Calendar subverted by Pope Gregory for the control of the masses (Part 2)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:39
- Published: 23 Nov 2011
- Updated: 24 Nov 2011
www.youtube.com Orginally Posted at the link above: Mirrored by Robert Arnett Otey Free Energy and Free Thinking www.feandft.com 11-22-11
http://wn.com/2012_Mayan_Calendar_subverted_by_Pope_Gregory_for_the_control_of_the_masses_Part_2
The Story of Pope Gregory and King Henry IV
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:03
- Published: 13 Oct 2011
- Updated: 24 Nov 2011
Story this is made by two 8th graders (A students) who want Extra Credit
http://wn.com/The_Story_of_Pope_Gregory_and_King_Henry_IV
St. Gregory the Great_Part 1.mpg
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:51
- Published: 06 Feb 2012
- Updated: 13 Jul 2012
Stephen Diacrussi as Pope Gregory I
http://wn.com/St_Gregory_the_Great_Part_1mpg
2012 Mayan Calendar subverted by Pope Gregory for the control of the masses (Part 3)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:08
- Published: 23 Nov 2011
- Updated: 25 Nov 2011
www.youtube.com originally posted at the lnk above: Mrrored by Robert Arnett Otey Free Energy and Free Thinking www.feandft.com 11-22-11
http://wn.com/2012_Mayan_Calendar_subverted_by_Pope_Gregory_for_the_control_of_the_masses_Part_3
pope gregory 06-07
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:25
- Published: 21 Mar 2007
- Updated: 13 Apr 2012
the adventures of da gregorians
http://wn.com/pope_gregory_06-07
Pope Gregory XVI (Mirari Vos) Destroys Vatican II - part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:00
- Published: 24 May 2010
- Updated: 26 May 2012
www.vaticancatholic.com This is a discussion of the most interesting parts of Pope Gregory XVI's 1832 encyclical, Mirari Vos. This video shows how this encyclical contradicts various heresies in Vatican II, and other heresies which are prevalent today.
http://wn.com/Pope_Gregory_XVI_Mirari_Vos_Destroys_Vatican_II_part_1
A Monty Pythonesque Report of Pope Gregory VII
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:12
- Published: 07 Mar 2008
- Updated: 29 May 2012
Just a project from Freshmen year that I came across the other day; Thought I'd post it up for the hell of it.
http://wn.com/A_Monty_Pythonesque_Report_of_Pope_Gregory_VII
Ave Maria by Pope Gregory 11910~1983
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:58
- Published: 10 Apr 2011
- Updated: 10 Apr 2011
Death of Pope Gregory XIII 04-10
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:19
- Published: 28 Oct 2011
- Updated: 20 Jul 2012
Pope Gregory XIII, the man responsible for the Gregorian calendar, died on this day in history, 1585 AD A 'This Day in History' program from www.realcatholictv.com
http://wn.com/Death_of_Pope_Gregory_XIII_04-10
LSU Grade 9 pope gregory by RAPHAEL CABILLAS
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:39
- Published: 24 Oct 2006
- Updated: 23 Aug 2010
Green Blooded gregorians. ANIMO LASALLE!
http://wn.com/LSU_Grade_9_pope_gregory_by_RAPHAEL_CABILLAS
Palmarian Church - Gregory XVII Vison of Jesus - HOAX
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:09
- Published: 16 Nov 2007
- Updated: 10 Jul 2012
A full, unedited video of Anti-Pope Gregory XVII of the Spanish Cult called The Palmarian Church, hoaxing a Vision in 2001. For more information regarding The Palmarian Church visit www.palmardetroya.org Description of the event given by Palmarian Leaders: VISION OF HIS HOLINESS POPE GREGORY XVII ON THE TRIUMPH OF THE HOLY PALMARIAN CHURCH On the 1st of January of the year 2001, at about 11.10 at night in the central nave of the Palmarian Cathedral-Basilica, at the conclusion of the Most Solemn Procession with the Scared Images of Our Crowned Mother of El Palmar and Most Holy Crowned St Joseph of El Palmar: His Holiness Pope Gregory XVII, while still vested in the Pontifical Ornaments of the Scared Ceremony, had a magnificent vision of the triumph of the Holy Palmarian Church In this ecstasy appeared Our Lord Jesus Christ, the Most Holy Virgin Mary, Most Holy Joseph and St Teresa of Jesus. The Lord came surrounded by a multitude of Angels. There also appeared Pope St Paul VI, St Peter Martin Ngo Dinh Thuc; as well as the Apostles St Peter and St Paul, who placed themselves respectively at the right and left of His Holiness Pope Gregory XVII, while Christ was before him. Then appeared St Angela of the Cross, St Pio of Pietrelcina and St Francis of Paola. The last named came up to the Lord, knelt before Him and prayed for the Palmarian Church; Christ told St Francis of Paola: "The work is in your hands; help my Church" His Holiness Pope Gregory XVII kissed Christ's feet <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Palmarian_Church_Gregory_XVII_Vison_of_Jesus_HOAX
Pope Gregory XVI (Mirari Vos) Destroys Vatican II - part 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:00
- Published: 24 May 2010
- Updated: 24 May 2012
www.vaticancatholic.com This is a discussion of the most interesting parts of Pope Gregory XVI's 1832 encyclical, Mirari Vos. This video shows how this encyclical contradicts various heresies in Vatican II, and other heresies which are prevalent today.
http://wn.com/Pope_Gregory_XVI_Mirari_Vos_Destroys_Vatican_II_part_2
St. Gregory the Great_Part 2.mpg
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:00
- Published: 06 Feb 2012
- Updated: 13 Jul 2012
Stephen Diacrussi as Pope Gregory I
http://wn.com/St_Gregory_the_Great_Part_2mpg
Pope Gregory and King Henry Race!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:10
- Published: 24 Mar 2009
- Updated: 01 May 2012
This is a video that JKS Productions put together for a young customer and their class project. It is a very long race between two historic people. If you would like JKS Productions to make a video for you please go to JKSProductions.com
http://wn.com/Pope_Gregory_and_King_Henry_Race!
Saint Gregory the Great, Pope (September 3)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:11
- Published: 29 Aug 2009
- Updated: 07 Mar 2012
September 3 is the feast day of one of the greatest pontiffs in the history of the Roman Catholic Church, Pope Gregory the Great. This prayer is for the present Roman pontiff, Pope Benedict XVI.
http://wn.com/Saint_Gregory_the_Great,_Pope_September_3
Papal Coronation 05 -St Gregory's Altar
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:18
- Published: 13 Mar 2007
- Updated: 01 May 2012
Pope John is carried to the altar of St Gregory the Great to receive the cardinals and others.
http://wn.com/Papal_Coronation_05_-St_Gregory's_Altar
Gregory Erlandson: Pope Benedict Right Man for Job Right Now
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:05
- Published: 25 Jun 2010
- Updated: 01 Jun 2012
Catholic publisher Gregory Erlandson discusses his book on Pope Benedict's response to the clerical sex abuse scandal. He explains how the pope is dealing with the scandal head-on with a thorough investigation and clear message to church leaders.
http://wn.com/Gregory_Erlandson_Pope_Benedict_Right_Man_for_Job_Right_Now
Gregory the Great
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:55
- Published: 19 May 2007
- Updated: 03 Dec 2011
Part four, featuring everybody's favorite Benedictine chanter, Gregory the Great.
http://wn.com/Gregory_the_Great
Alan Hovhaness - Prayer of St. Gregory
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:53
- Published: 04 Mar 2011
- Updated: 21 Jul 2012
An overlooked masterpiece by the late Alan Hovhaness (1911-2000). I noticed this piece was not yet on youtube in its original arrangement (ie chamber orchestra + trumpet), so I had to do something about that. (Original photograph from central Italy -- incidentally the home of St. Gregory himself)
http://wn.com/Alan_Hovhaness_Prayer_of_St_Gregory
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"Saint Gregory" redirects here. For other uses, see Saint Gregory (disambiguation).
| Pope Gregory I | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Papacy began | 3 September 590 |
| Papacy ended | 12 March 604 |
| Predecessor | Pelagius II |
| Successor | Sabinian |
| Orders | |
| Consecration | 3 September 590 |
| Personal details | |
| Birth name | Gregorius |
| Born | c. 540 Rome, Kingdom of the Ostrogoths |
| Died | 12 March 604(604-03-12) (age 64) Rome, Byzantine Empire |
| Buried | St. Peter's Basilica (1606) |
| Residence | Rome |
| Parents | Gordianus, Silvia |
| Sainthood | |
| Feast day | 3 September, 12 March |
| Other Popes named Gregory | |
Pope Gregory I (Latin: Gregorius I) (c. 540 – 12 March 604), better known in English as Gregory the Great, was pope from 3 September 590 until his death. Gregory is well known for his writings, which were more prolific than those of any of his predecessors as pope.[1]
Throughout the Middle Ages he was known as “the Father of Christian Worship” because of his exceptional efforts in revising the Roman worship of his day.[2]
He is also known as St. Gregory the Dialogist in Eastern Orthodoxy because of his Dialogues. For this reason, English translations of Orthodox texts will sometimes list him as "Gregory Dialogus". He was the first of the popes to come from a monastic background. Gregory is a Doctor of the Church and one of the Latin Fathers. He is considered a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican Communion, and some Lutheran churches. Immediately after his death, Gregory was canonized by popular acclaim.[3] The Protestant reformer, John Calvin, admired Gregory and declared in his Institutes that Gregory was the last good pope.[4] He is the patron saint of musicians, singers, students, and teachers.[5]
Contents |
Early life[link]
The exact date of Gregory's birth is uncertain, but is usually estimated to be around the year[6] 540,[7] in the city of Rome. His parents named him Gregorius, which according to Aelfric in An Homily on the Birth-Day of S. Gregory, "... is a Greek Name, which signifies in the Latin Tongue Vigilantius, that is in English, Watchful...."[8] The medieval writers who give this etymology[9] do not hesitate to apply it to the life of Gregory. Aelfric, for example, goes on: "He was very diligent in God's Commandments."[10]
When Gregory was a child, Italy was retaken from the Goths by Justinian I, emperor of the Roman Empire ruling from Constantinople. The war was over by 552. An invasion of the Franks was defeated in 554. The Western Roman Empire had long since vanished in favor of the Gothic kings of Italy. After 554 there was peace in Italy and the appearance of restoration, except that the government now resided in Constantinople. Italy was still united into one country, "Rome" and still shared a common official language, the very last of classical Latin.
From 542 the so-called Plague of Justinian swept through the provinces of the empire, including Italy. The plague caused famine, panic, and sometimes rioting. In some parts of the country, over 1/3 of the population was wiped out or destroyed. This had heavy spiritual and emotional effects on the people of the Empire.[11]
As the fighting had been mainly in the north, the young Gregorius probably saw little of it. Totila sacked and vacated Rome in 547, destroying most of its ancient population, but in 549 he invited those who were still alive to return to the empty and ruinous streets. It has been hypothesized that young Gregory and his parents, Gordianus and Silvia, retired during that intermission to Gordianus' Sicilian estates, to return in 549.[12]
Gregory had been born into a wealthy noble Roman family with close connections to the church. The Lives in Latin use nobilis but they do not specify from what historical layer the term derives or identify the family. No connection to patrician families of the Roman Republic has been demonstrated.[13] Gregory's great-great-grandfather had been Pope Felix III,[14] but that pope was the nominee of the Gothic king, Theodoric.[13] Gregory's election to the throne of St Peter made his family the most distinguished clerical dynasty of the period.[15] The family owned and resided in a villa suburbana on the Caelian Hill, fronting the same street, now the Via di San Gregorio, with the former palaces of the Roman emperors on the Palatine Hill opposite. The north of the street runs into the Colosseum; the south, the Circus Maximus. In Gregory's day the ancient buildings were in ruins and were privately owned.[16] Villas covered the area. Gregory's family also owned working estates in Sicily[17] and around Rome.[18]
Gregory's father, Gordianus, held the position of Regionarius in the Roman Church. Nothing further is known about the position. Gregory's mother, Silvia, was well-born and had a married sister, Pateria, in Sicily. Gregory later had portraits done in fresco in their former home on the Caelian and these were described 300 years later by John the Deacon. Gordianus was tall with a long face and light eyes. He wore a beard. Silvia was tall, had a round face, blue eyes and a cheerful look. They had another son whose name and fate are unknown.[19]
The monks of St. Andrew's (the ancestral home on the Caelian) had a portrait of Gregory made after his death, which John the Deacon also saw in the 9th century. He reports the picture of a man who was "rather bald" and had a "tawny" beard like his father's and a face that was intermediate in shape between his mother's and father's. The hair that he had on the sides was long and carefully curled. His nose was "thin and straight" and "slightly aquiline." "His forehead was high." He had thick, "subdivided" lips and a chin "of a comely prominence" and "beautiful hands."[20]
Gregory was well educated, with Gregory of Tours reporting that "in grammar, dialectic and rhetoric ... he was second to none...."[21] He wrote correct Latin but did not read or write Greek. He knew Latin authors, natural science, history, mathematics and music and had such a "fluency with imperial law" that he may have trained in law, it has been suggested, "as a preparation for a career in public life."[21]
While his father lived, Gregory took part in Roman political life and at one point was Prefect of the City.
In the modern era, Gregory is often depicted as a man at the border, poised between the Roman and Germanic worlds, between East and West, and above all, perhaps, between the ancient and medieval epochs.[22]
Monastic years[link]
“Gregory had a deep respect for the monastic life. He viewed being a monk as the 'ardent quest for the vision of our Creator.[23] 'His three paternal aunts were nuns renowned for their sanctity. However, after the two eldest passed away after seeing a vision of their ancestor Pope Felix, the youngest soon abandoned the religious life and married the steward of her estate. Gregory's response to this family scandal was “many are called but few are chosen."[24] Gregory's mother Silvia herself is a saint. On his father's death, he converted his family villa suburbana, located on the Caelian Hill just opposite the Circus Maximus, into a monastery dedicated to the apostle Saint Andrew. After his death it was rededicated as San Gregorio Magno al Celio. In his life of contemplation, Gregory concluded that “in that silence of the heart, while we keep watch within through contemplation, we are as if asleep to all things that are without." [25] Gregory was not always forgiving, or pleasant for that matter, even in his monastic years. For example, a monk lying on his death bed confessed to stealing three gold pieces. Gregory forced the monk to die friendless and alone, then threw his body and coins on a manure heap to rot with a curse, “Take your money with you to perdition”. Gregory believed that punishment of sins can begin, even on one's deathbed.[26] Eventually, Pope Pelagius II ordained him a deacon and solicited his help in trying to heal the schism of the Three Chapters in northern Italy. However, Italy was not healed until well after Gregory was gone.[27]
Apocrisiariate (579–585)[link]
In 579, Pelagius II chose Gregory as his apocrisiarius (ambassador to the imperial court in Constantinople).[28] Gregory was part of the Roman delegation (both lay and clerical) that arrived in Constantinople in 578 to ask the emperor for military aid against the Lombards.[29] With the Byzantine military focused on the East, these entreaties proved unsuccessful; in 584, Pelagius II wrote to Gregory as apocrisiarius, detailing the hardships that Rome was experiencing under the Lombards and asking him to ask Emperor Maurice to send a relief force.[29] Maurice, however, had long ago determined to limit his efforts against the Lombards to intrigue and diplomacy, pitting the Franks against them.[29] It soon became obvious to Gregory that the Byzantine emperors were unlikely to send such a force, given their more immediate difficulties with the Persians in the East and the Avars and Slavs to the North.[30]
According to Ekonomou, "if Gregory's principle task was to plead Rome's cause before the emperor, there seems to have been little left for him to do once imperial policy toward Italy became evident. Papal representatives who pressed their claims with excessive vigor could quickly become a nuisance and find themselves excluded from the imperial presence altogether".[30] Gregory had already drawn an imperial rebuke for his lengthy canonical writings on the subject of the legitimacy of John III Scholasticus, who had occupied the Patriarchate of Constantinople for twelve years prior to the return of Eutychius (who had been driven out by Justinian).[30] Gregory turned himself to cultivating connections with the Byzantine elite of the city, where he became extremely popular with the city's upper class, "especially aristocratic women".[30] Ekonomou surmises that "while Gregory may have become spiritual father to a large and important segment of Constantinople's aristocracy, this relationship did not significantly advance the interests of Rome before the emperor".[30] Although the writings of John the Deacon claim that Gregory "labored diligently for the relief of Italy", there is no evidence that his tenure accomplished much towards any of the objectives of Pelagius II.[31]
Gregory's theological disputes with Patriarch Eutychius would leave a "bitter taste for the theological speculation of the East" with Gregory that continued to influence him well into his papacy.[32] According to Western sources, Gregory's very public debate with Eutychian culminated in an exchange before Tiberius II where Gregory cited a biblical passage ("Palpate et videte, quia spiritus carnem et ossa non habet, sicut me videtis habere") in support of the view that Christ was corporeal and palpable after his Resurrection; allegedly as a result of this exchange, Tiberius II ordered Eutychian's writings burned.[32] Ekonomou views this argument, though exaggerated in Western sources, as Gregory's "one achievement of an otherwise fruitless apokrisiariat".[33] In reality, Gregory was forced to rely on Scripture because he could not read the untranslated Greek authoritative works.[33] Gregory left Constantinople for Rome in 585, returning to his monastery on the Caelian Hill.[34] Gregory was elected by acclamation to succeed Pelagius II in 590, when the latter died of the plague spreading through the city.[34] Gregory was approved by an Imperial iussio from Constantinople the following September (as was the norm during the Byzantine Papacy).[34]
Missions[link]
Amid all his burdens and anxieties, it seems that the Pope had never forgotten the English slaves whom he had once seen in the Roman Forum.[35] Pope Gregory had strong convictions on missions. "Almighty God places good men in authority that He may impart through them the gifts of His mercy to their subjects. And this we find to be the case with the British over whom you have been appointed to rule, that through the blessings bestowed on you the blessings of heaven might be bestowed on your people also.”[36]
Papacy (590–604)[link]
| Saint Gregory the Great | |
|---|---|
 Pope Gregory I, by Francisco de Zurbarán. |
|
| Pope, Dialogist, Church Father, Monk and Doctor of the Church | |
| Born | c. AD 540 Rome |
| Died | c. AD 604 Rome |
| Honored in | Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican Communion, Lutheranism |
| Major shrine | St. Peter's Basilica |
| Feast | 3 September, 12 March |
| Major work(s) | Dialogues of Gregory I |
Although Gregory was resolved to retire into the monastic lifestyle of contemplation, he was unwillingly forced back into a world that, although he loved, he no longer wanted to be a part of.[37] In texts of all genres, especially those produced in his first year as pope, Gregory bemoaned the burden of office and mourned the loss of the undisturbed life of prayer he had once enjoyed as monk.[38] When he became Pope in 590, among his first acts was writing a series of letters disavowing any ambition to the throne of Peter and praising the contemplative life of the monks. At that time, for various reasons, the Holy See had not exerted effective leadership in the West since the pontificate of Gelasius I. The episcopacy in Gaul was drawn from the great territorial families, and identified with them: the parochial horizon of Gregory's contemporary, Gregory of Tours, may be considered typical; in Visigothic Spain the bishops had little contact with Rome; in Italy the territories which had de facto fallen under the administration of the papacy were beset by the violent Lombard dukes and the rivalry of the Jews in the Exarchate of Ravenna and in the south.
Gregory is credited with re-energizing the Church's missionary work among the non-Christian peoples of northern Europe. He is most famous for sending a mission, often called the Gregorian mission, under Augustine of Canterbury, prior of Saint Andrew's, where he had perhaps succeeded Gregory, to evangelize the pagan Anglo-Saxons of England. The mission was successful, and it was from England that missionaries later set out for the Netherlands and Germany. The preaching of the Catholic faith and the elimination of all deviations from it was a key element in Gregory's worldview, and it constituted one of the major continuing policies of his pontificate.[39]
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, he was declared a saint immediately after his death by "popular acclamation".[40]
In his official documents, Gregory was the first to make extensive use of the term "Servant of the Servants of God" (servus servorum Dei) as a papal title, thus initiating a practice that was to be followed by most subsequent popes.[41]
Works[link]
Liturgical reforms[link]
John the Deacon wrote that Pope Gregory I made a general revision of the liturgy of the Pre-Tridentine Mass, "removing many things, changing a few, adding some". In letters, Gregory remarks that he moved the Pater Noster (Our Father) to immediately after the Roman Canon and immediately before the Fraction. This position is still maintained today in the Roman Liturgy. The pre-Gregorian position is evident in the Ambrosian Rite. Gregory added material to the Hanc Igitur of the Roman Canon and established the nine Kyries (a vestigial remnant of the litany which was originally at that place) at the beginning of Mass. He also reduced the role of deacons in the Roman Liturgy.
Sacramentaries directly influenced by Gregorian reforms are referred to as Sacrementaria Gregoriana. With the appearance of these sacramentaries, the Western liturgy begins to show a characteristic that distinguishes it from Eastern liturgical traditions. In contrast to the mostly invariable Eastern liturgical texts, Roman and other Western liturgies since this era have a number of prayers that change to reflect the feast or liturgical season; These variations are visible in the collects and prefaces as well as in the Roman Canon itself.
A system of writing down reminders of chant melodies, known as neumes, was devised by monks in the early 9th century to aid in unifying the church service throughout the Frankish empire. Charlemagne brought cantors from the Papal chapel in Rome to instruct his clerics in the “authentic” liturgy. A program of propaganda spread the idea that the chant used in Rome came directly from Gregory the Great, who had died two centuries earlier and was universally venerated. Pictures were made to depict the dove of the Holy Spirit perched on Gregory's shoulder, singing God's authentic form of chant into his ear. This gave rise to calling the music "Gregorian chant". Gregorian chanting is a type of plainsong or plainchant.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Gregory is credited with compiling the Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts. This liturgy is celebrated on Wednesdays, Fridays, and certain other weekdays during Great Lent in the Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite.
Gregory wrote over 850 letters in the last 13 years of his life (590–604) that give us an accurate picture of his work.[42] A truly autobiographical presentation is nearly impossible for Gregory. The development of his mind and personality remains purely speculative in nature.[43]
Writings[link]
Gregory is commonly accredited with founding the medieval papacy and so many attribute the beginning of medieval spirituality to him.[44] Gregory is the only Pope between the fifth and the eleventh centuries whose correspondence and writings have survived enough to form a comprehensive corpus. Some of his writings are:
- Sermons (forty on the Gospels are recognized as authentic, twenty-two on Ezekiel, two on the Song of Songs)
- Dialogues, a collection of miracles, signs, wonders, and healings including the popular life of Saint Benedict[45]
- Commentary on Job, frequently known even in English-language histories by its Latin title, Magna Moralia
- The Rule for Pastors, in which he contrasted the role of bishops as pastors of their flock with their position as nobles of the church: the definitive statement of the nature of the episcopal office
- Copies of some 854 letters have survived, out of an unknown original number recorded in Gregory's time in a register. It is known to have existed in Rome, its last known location, in the 9th century. It consisted of 14 papyrus rolls, now missing. Copies of letters had begun to be made, the largest batch of 686 by order of Adrian I. The majority of the copies, dating from the 10th to the 15th century, are stored in the Vatican Library.[46]
Opinions of the writings of Gregory vary. "His character strikes us as an ambiguous and enigmatic one," Cantor observed. "On the one hand he was an able and determined administrator, a skilled and clever diplomat, a leader of the greatest sophistication and vision; but on the other hand, he appears in his writings as a superstitious and credulous monk, hostile to learning, crudely limited as a theologian, and excessively devoted to saints, miracles, and relics".[47]
Controversy with Eutychius[link]
In Constantinople, Gregory took issue with the aged Patriarch Eutychius of Constantinople, who had recently published a treatise, now lost, on the General Resurrection. Eutychius maintained that the resurrected body "will be more subtle than air, and no longer palpable".[48] Gregory opposed with the palpability of the risen Christ in Luke 24:39. As the dispute could not be settled, the Byzantine emperor, Tiberius II Constantine, undertook to arbitrate. He decided in favor of palpability and ordered Eutychius' book to be burned. Shortly after both Gregory and Eutychius became ill; Gregory recovered, but Eutychius died on 5 April 582, at age 70. On his deathbed Eutychius recanted inpalpability and Gregory dropped the matter. Tiberius also died a few months after Eutychius.
Iconography[link]
In art Gregory is usually shown in full pontifical robes with the tiara and double cross, despite his actual habit of dress. Earlier depictions are more likely to show a monastic tonsure and plainer dress. Orthodox icons traditionally show St. Gregory vested as a bishop, holding a Gospel Book and blessing with his right hand. It is recorded that he permitted his depiction with a square halo, then used for the living.[49] A dove is his attribute, from the well-known story recorded by his friend Peter the Deacon,[50] who tells that when the pope was dictating his homilies on Ezechiel a curtain was drawn between his secretary and himself. As, however, the pope remained silent for long periods at a time, the servant made a hole in the curtain and, looking through, beheld a dove seated upon Gregory's head with its beak between his lips. When the dove withdrew its beak the pope spoke and the secretary took down his words; but when he became silent the servant again applied his eye to the hole and saw the dove had replaced its beak between his lips.[51]
This scene is shown as a version of the traditional Evangelist portrait (where the Evangelists' symbols are also sometimes shown dictating) from the tenth century onwards. An early example is the dedication miniature from the an eleventh century manuscript of St. Gregory's Moralia in Job.[52] The miniature shows the scribe, Bebo of Seeon Abbey, presenting the manuscript to the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry II. In the upper left the author is seen writing the text under divine inspiration. Usually the dove is shown whispering in Gregory's ear for a clearer composition.
The imaginative and anachronistic example at the top of this article is from the studio of Carlo Saraceni or by a close follower, ca. 1610. From the Giustiniani collection, the painting is conserved in the Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Rome.[53] The face of Gregory is a caricature of the features described by John the Deacon mentioned under his early life above: total baldness, outthrust chin, beak-like nose, where John had described partial baldness, a mildly protruding chin, slightly aquiline nose and strikingly good looks. In this picture also Gregory has his monastic back on the world, which the real Gregory, despite his reclusive intent, was seldom allowed to have.
The late medieval subject of the Mass of St Gregory shows a version of a 7th century story that was elaborated in later hagiography. Gregory is shown saying Mass when Christ as the Man of Sorrows appears on the altar. The subject was most common in the 15th and 16th centuries, and was an reflected growing emphasis on the Real Presence, and after the Protestant Reformation was an assertion of the doctrine against Protestant theology.[54]
Alms[link]
Alms in Christianity is defined by passages of the New Testament such as Matthew 19:21, which commands "...go and sell that thou hast, and give to the poor ... and come and follow me." A donation on the other hand is a gift to some sort of enterprise, profit or non-profit.
On the one hand the alms of St. Gregory are to be distinguished from his donations, but on the other he probably saw no such distinction. The church had no interest in secular profit and as pope Gregory did his utmost to encourage that high standard among church personnel. Apart from maintaining its facilities and supporting its personnel the church gave most of the donations it received as alms.
Gregory is known for his administrative system of charitable relief of the poor at Rome. They were predominantly refugees from the incursions of the Lombards. The philosophy under which he devised this system is that the wealth belonged to the poor and the church was only its steward. He received lavish donations from the wealthy families of Rome, who, following his own example, were eager to expiate to God for their sins. He gave alms equally as lavishly both individually and en masse. He wrote in letters:[55]
- "I have frequently charged you ... to act as my representative ... to relieve the poor in their distress ...."
- "... I hold the office of steward to the property of the poor ...."
The church received donations of many different kinds of property: consumables such as food and clothing; investment property: real estate and works of art; and capital goods, or revenue-generating property, such as the Sicilian latifundia, or agricultural estates, staffed and operated by slaves, donated by Gregory and his family. The church already had a system for circulating the consumables to the poor: associated with each parish was a diaconium or office of the deacon. He was given a building from which the poor could at any time apply for assistance.[56][57]
The state in which Gregory became pope in 590 was a ruined one. The Lombards held the better part of Italy. Their predations had brought the economy to a standstill. They camped nearly at the gates of Rome. The city was packed with refugees from all walks of life, who lived in the streets and had few of the necessities of life. The seat of government was far from Rome in Constantinople, which appeared unable to undertake the relief of Italy. The pope had sent emissaries, including Gregory, asking for assistance, to no avail.
In 590, Gregory could wait for Constantinople no longer. He organized the resources of the church into an administration for general relief. In doing so he evidenced a talent for and intuitive understanding of the principles of accounting, which was not to be invented for centuries. The church already had basic accounting documents: every expense was recorded in journals called regesta, "lists" of amounts, recipients and circumstances. Revenue was recorded in polyptici, "books". Many of these polyptici were ledgers recording the operating expenses of the church and the assets, the patrimonia. A central papal administration, the notarii, under a chief, the primicerius notariorum, kept the ledgers and issued brevia patrimonii, or lists of property for which each rector was responsible.[58]
Gregory began by aggressively requiring his churchmen to seek out and relieve needy persons and reprimanded them if they did not. In a letter to a subordinate in Sicily he wrote: "I asked you most of all to take care of the poor. And if you knew of people in poverty, you should have pointed them out ... I desire that you give the woman, Pateria, forty solidi for the children's shoes and forty bushels of grain ...."[59] Soon he was replacing administrators who would not cooperate with those who would and at the same time adding more in a build-up to a great plan that he had in mind. He understood that expenses must be matched by income. To pay for his increased expenses he liquidated the investment property and paid the expenses in cash according to a budget recorded in the polyptici. The churchmen were paid four times a year and also personally given a golden coin for their trouble.[60]
Money, however, was no substitute for food in a city that was on the brink of famine. Even the wealthy were going hungry in their villas. The church now owned between 1,300 and 1,800 square miles (3,400 and 4,700 km2) of revenue-generating farmland divided into large sections called patrimonia. It produced goods of all kinds, which were sold, but Gregory intervened and had the goods shipped to Rome for distribution in the diaconia. He gave orders to step up production, set quotas and put an administrative structure in place to carry it out. At the bottom was the rusticus who produced the goods. Some rustici were or owned slaves. He turned over part of his produce to a conductor from whom he leased the land. The latter reported to an actionarius, the latter to a defensor and the latter to a rector. Grain, wine, cheese, meat, fish and oil began to arrive at Rome in large quantities, where it was given away for nothing as alms.[61]
Distributions to qualified persons were monthly. However, a certain proportion of the population lived in the streets or were too ill or infirm to pick up their monthly food supply. To them Gregory sent out a small army of charitable persons, mainly monks, every morning with prepared food. It is said that he would not dine until the indigent were fed. When he did dine he shared the family table, which he had saved (and which still exists), with 12 indigent guests. To the needy living in wealthy homes he sent meals he had cooked with his own hands as gifts to spare them the indignity of receiving charity. Hearing of the death of an indigent in a back room he was depressed for days, entertaining for a time the conceit that he had failed in his duty and was a murderer.[60]
These and other good deeds and charitable frame of mind completely won the hearts and minds of the Roman people. They now looked to the papacy for government, ignoring the rump state at Constantinople, which had only disrespect for Gregory, calling him a fool for his pacifist dealings with the Lombards. The office of urban prefect went without candidates. From the time of Gregory the Great to the rise of Italian nationalism the papacy was most influential in ruling Italy.
Famous quotes and anecdotes[link]
- Non Angli, sed angeli – "They are not Angles, but angels". Aphorism, summarizing words reported to have been spoken by Gregory when he first encountered pale-skinned English boys at a slave market, sparking his dispatch of St. Augustine of Canterbury to England to convert the English, according to Bede.[62] He said: "Well named, for they have angelic faces and ought to be co-heirs with the angels in heaven."[63] Discovering that their province was Deira, he went on to add that they would be rescued de ira, "from the wrath", and that their king was named Aella, Alleluia, he said.[64]
- Ecce locusta – "Look at the locust." Gregory himself wanted to go to England as a missionary and started out for there. On the fourth day as they stopped for lunch a locust landed on the edge of the Bible Gregory was reading. He exclaimed ecce locusta, "look at the locust", but reflecting on it he saw it as a sign from Heaven since the similar sounding loco sta means "stay in place." Within the hour an emissary of the pope[65] arrived to recall him.[63]
- “I beg that you will not take the present amiss. For anything, however trifling, which is offered from the prosperity of St. Peter should be regarded as a great blessing, seeing that he will have power both to bestow on you greater things, and to hold out to you eternal benefits with Almighty God.”
- Pro cuius amore in eius eloquio nec mihi parco – "For the love of whom (God) I do not spare myself from His Word."[66][67] The sense is that since the creator of the human race and redeemer of him unworthy gave him the power of the tongue so that he could witness, what kind of a witness would he be if he did not use it but preferred to speak infirmly?
- “For the place of heretics is very pride itself...for the place of the wicked is pride just as conversely humility is the place of the good.”[39]
- Non enim pro locis res, sed pro bonis rebus loca amanda sunt – "Things are not to be loved for the sake of a place, but places are to be loved for the sake of their good things." When Augustine asked whether to use Roman or Gallican customs in the mass in England, Gregory said, in paraphrase, that it was not the place that imparted goodness but good things that graced the place, and it was more important to be pleasing to the Almighty. They should pick out what was "pia", "religiosa" and "recta" from any church whatever and set that down before the English minds as practice.[68]
- "For the rule of justice and reason suggests that one who desires his own orders to be observed by his successors should undoubtedly keep the will and ordinances of his predecessor."[69] In his letters, Gregory often emphasized the importance of giving proper deference to last wills and testaments, and of respecting property rights.
- “Compassion should be shown first to the faithful and afterwards to the enemies of the church.”[70]
- "At length being anxious to avoid all these inconveniences, I sought the haven of the monastery… For as the vessel that is negligently moored, is very often (when the storm waxes violent) tossed by the water out of its shelter on the safest shore, so under the cloak of the Ecclesiastical office, I found myself plunged on a sudden in a sea of secular matters, and because I had not held fast the tranquillity of the monastery when in possession, I learnt by losing it, how closely it should have been held."[71] In Moralia, sive Expositio in Job (“Commentary on Job,” also known as Magna Moralia), Gregory describes to the Bishop Leander the circumstances under which he became a monk.
- "Illiterate men can contemplate in the lines of a picture what they cannot learn by means of the written word." [72]
Memorials[link]
Lives[link]
In Britain, appreciation for Gregory remained strong even after his death, with him being called Gregorius noster ("our Gregory") by the British.[73] It was in Britain, at a monastery in Whitby, that the first full length life of Gregory was written, in c. 713.[74] Appreciation of Gregory in Rome and Italy itself, however, did not come until later. The first vita of Gregory written in Italy was not produced until John the Deacon in the 9th century.
Monuments[link]
The namesake church of San Gregorio al Celio (largely rebuilt from the original edifices during the 17th and 18th centuries) remembers his work. One of the three oratories annexed, the oratory of St. Silvia, is said to lie over the tomb of Gregory's mother.
In England, Gregory is revered as the apostle of the land. They regarded him as the source of their conversion.[75]
Music[link]
Composer Alan Hovhaness wrote an elegiac intermezzo for strings and trumpet called the Prayer of Saint Gregory (Op. 62b).
Italian composer Ottorino Respighi composed a piece named St. Gregory the Great (San Gregorio Magno) that features as the fourth and final part of his Church Windows (Vetrate di Chiesa) works, written in 1925.
Feast day[link]
The current Roman Catholic calendar of saints, revised in 1969 as instructed by the Second Vatican Council,[76] celebrates St. Gregory the Great on 3 September. Before that, the General Roman Calendar assigned his feast day to 12 March, the day of his death in 604. This day always falls within Lent, during which there are no obligatory memorials. For this reason his feast day was moved to 3 September the day of his episcopal consecration in 590.[77]
The Eastern Orthodox Church and the associated Eastern Catholic Churches continue to commemorate St. Gregory on 12 March. The occurrence of this date during Great Lent is considered appropriate in the Byzantine Rite, which traditionally associates Saint Gregory with the Divine Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts, celebrated only during that liturgical season.
Other Churches also honour Saint Gregory: the Church of England on 3 September, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the Episcopal Church in the United States on 12 March.
A traditional procession is held in Żejtun, Malta in honour of Saint Gregory (San Girgor) on Easter Wednesday, which most often falls in April, the range of possible dates being 25 March to 28 April. The feast day of St. Gregory also serves as a commemorative Day for the former pupils of Downside School, the so-called Old Gregorians. Traditionally, the OG ties are worn by all of the society's members on this day.
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ Ekonomou, 2007, p. 22.
- ^ Christian Life and Worship (Dissertations in European Economic History), 1948, 1979, Gerald Ellard (1894–1963), Arno Press, ISBN 0-405-10819-2 ISBN 9780405108198, p. 125. [1]
- ^ F.L. Cross, ed. (2005). "Gregory I". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press.
- ^ F.L. Cross, ed. (1515). "Institutes of the Christian Religion Book IV". Institutes of the Christian Religion Book IV. New York: Oxford University Press.
- ^ "St. Gregory the Great". Web site of Saint Charles Borromeo Catholic Church. http://www.scborromeo.org/saints/gregory.htm. Retrieved 2009-11-14.
- ^ Richards, Jeffrey (1980). Consul of God. London: Routelege & Keatland Paul.
- ^ Gregory mentions in Dialogue 3.2 that he was alive when Totila attempted to murder Carbonius, Bishop of Populonia, probably in 546. In a letter of 598 (Register, Book 9, Letter 1) he rebukes Bishop Januarius of Cagliari, Sardinia, excusing himself for not observing 1 Timothy 5.1, which cautions against rebuking elders. 5.9 defines elderly women to be 60 and over, which may apply to everyone. Gregory appears not to consider himself an elder, limiting his birth to no earlier than 539, but 540 is the typical selection. Dudden (1905), page 3, notes 1–3.
- ^ Aelfric; Elizabeth Elstob (translator); William Elstob (1709). An English-Saxon Homily on the Birth-day of St. Gregory: Anciently Used in the English-Saxon Church, Giving an Account of the Conversion of the English from Paganism to Christianity. London: W. Bowyer. pp. 4.
- ^ Elizabeth goes on to state that "Paulus Diaconus, who first writ the life of St. Gregory, and is followed by all the after Writers on that subject, observes that 'ex Greco eloquio in nostra lingua ... vigilator, seu vigilans sonat." However, Paul the deacon is too late for the first vita, or life.
- ^ The name is Biblical, derived from New Testament contexts: grēgorein is a present, continuous aspect, meaning to be watchful of forsaking Christ. It is derived from a more ancient perfect, egrēgora, "roused from sleep", of egeirein, "to awaken someone." Thayer, Joseph Henry (1962). Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament being Grimm's Wilke's Clavis Novi Testamenti Translated Revised and Enlarged. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House.
- ^ Markus pg 4–5
- ^ Dudden (1905), pages 36–37.
- ^ a b Dudden (1905), page 4.
- ^ Whether III or IV depends on whether Antipope Felix II is to be considered pope.
- ^ Richards
- ^ Dudden (1905), pages 11–15.
- ^ Dudden (1905), pages 106–107.
- ^ Richards (1980), page 25.
- ^ Dudden (1905), pages 7–8.
- ^ Richards (1980), page 44.
- ^ a b Richards (1980), page 26.
- ^ Leyser pg 132
- ^ Markus- pg 69
- ^ Consul of God, Richards. Pg 26
- ^ Cavadini pg 155
- ^ Straw pg 47
- ^ Gregory the great and his world pg 3
- ^ Ekonomou, 2007, p. 8.
- ^ a b c Ekonomou, 2007, p. 9.
- ^ a b c d e Ekonomou, 2007, p. 10.
- ^ Ekonomou, 2007, pp. 10–11.
- ^ a b Ekonomou, 2007, p. 11.
- ^ a b Ekonomou, 2007, p. 12.
- ^ a b c Ekonomou, 2007, p. 13.
- ^ Dudden pg 99
- ^ Dudden pg 124
- ^ Straw pg 25
- ^ Cavadini pg 39
- ^ a b Richards pg 228
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia retrieved 30 September 2010
- ^
"Servus servorum Dei". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. - ^ R.A. Markus “Gregory the Great and his world” pg I
- ^ Gregory the great and his world. pg. 2
- ^ Straw pg 4
- ^ * Gardner, Edmund G. (editor) (1911. Reprinted 2010). The Dialogues of Saint Gregory the Great. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-94-7. http://www.evolpub.com/CRE/CREseries.html#CRE9.
- ^ Ambrosini, Maria Luisa; Mary Willis (1996). The Secret Archives of the Vatican. Barnes & Noble Publishing. pp. 63–64. ISBN 0-7607-0125-3, 9780760701256.
- ^ Cantor (1993) page 157.
- ^ Smith, William; Henry Wace (1880). A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects and Doctrines: Being a Continuation of 'The Dictionary of the Bible': VolumeII Eaba – Hermocrates. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. pp. 415. The dictionary account is apparently based on Bede, Book II, Chapter 1, who used the expression "...impalpable, of finer texture than wind and air."
- ^ Gietmann, G. (1911). "Nimbus". The Catholic Encyclopedia. XI. New York: Robert Appleton Company
- ^ Peter the Deacon, Vita, xxviii
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia article – see links, below.
- ^ Bamberg State Library, Msc.Bibl.84
- ^ Saraceni, Carlo; Emil Kren; Daniel Marx (1996). "St. Gregory the Great". Web Gallery of Art. http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/s/saraceni/gregory.html. Retrieved 2008-08-23.
- ^ Rubin, Miri, Corpus Christi: The Eucharist in Late Medieval Culture, pp. 120–122, 308–310, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-43805-5, ISBN 978-0-521-43805-6 Google books
- ^ Dudden (1905) page 316.
- ^ Later these deacons became cardinals and from the oratories attached to the buildings grew churches.
- ^ Smith, William; Samuel Cheetham (1875). A dictionary of Christian antiquities: Comprising the History, Institutions, and Antiquities of the Christian Church, from the Time of the Apostles to the Age of Charlemagne. J. Murray. pp. 549 under diaconia.
- ^ Mann, Horace Kinder; Johannes Hollnsteiner (1914). The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages: Volume X. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., Ltd.. pp. 322.
- ^ Ambrosini & Willis (1996) pages 66–67.
- ^ a b Dudden (1905) pages 248–249.
- ^ Deanesly, Margaret (1969). A History of the Medieval Church, 590–1500. London, New York: Routledge. pp. 22–24. ISBN 0-415-03959-2, 9780415039598.
- ^ Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, II.i. http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bede/bede2.shtml
- ^ a b Hunt, William (1906). The Political History of England. Longmans, Green. pp. 115.
- ^ The earliest life written a generation earlier than Bede at Whitby relates the same story but in it the English are merely visitors to Rome questioned by Gregory (see Holloway, who translates from the manuscript kept at St. Gallen). The earlier story is not necessarily the more accurate, as Gregory is known to have instructed presbyter Candidus in Gaul by letter to buy young English slaves for placement in monasteries. These were intended for missionary work in England: Ambrosini & Willis (1996) page 71.
- ^ Benedict I or Pelagius II.
- ^ Dudden pg 317
- ^ Homilies on Ezekiel Book 1.11.6. For the text in manuscript see Codices Electronici Sangalienses: Codex 211, page 193 column 1, line 5 (External links below.)
- ^ Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English People, Book I section 27 part II. Bede is translated in Bede; Judith McClure, Bertram Colgrave, Roger Collins (editors, translators, contributors) (1999). The Ecclesiastical History of the English People: The Greater Chronicle ; Bede's Letter to Egbert. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283866-0, 9780192838667.
- ^ Gregory the Great. The Letters of Gregory the Great. Trans. John R. C. Martyn. 3 vols. (2004). Book VI, Epistle XII.
- ^ Richards pg 232
- ^ Pope Gregory I, Moralia, sive Expositio in Job, published by Nicolaus Kessler Basel, 1496.
- ^ Theories of Art: From Plato to Winckelmann
- ^ Champ, Judith (2000). The English Pilgrimage to Rome: A Dwelling for the Soul. Gracewing Publishing. pp. ix. ISBN 0-85244-373-0, 9780852443736.
- ^ A monk or nun at Whitby A.D. 713; Julia Bolton Holloway, ed. (1997–2008). "The Earliest Life of St. Gregory the great". Julia Bolton Holloway. http://www.umilta.net/gregory.html. Retrieved 2008-08-10.
- ^ Richards pg 260
- ^ Sacrosanctum Concilium, 108–111
- ^ Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 1969), pp. 100 and 118
Bibliography[link]
- Cantor, Norman F. (1993). The Civilization of the Middle Ages. New York: Harper.
- Cavadini, John, ed. (1995). Gregory the Great: A Symposium. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.
- Dudden, Frederick H. (1905). Gregory the Great. London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
- Ekonomou, Andrew J. 2007. Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes: Eastern influences on Rome and the papacy from Gregory the Great to Zacharias, A.D. 590–752. Lexington Books.
- Gardner, Edmund G. (editor) (1911. Reprinted 2010). The Dialogues of Saint Gregory the Great. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-94-7. http://www.evolpub.com/CRE/CREseries.html#CRE9.
- Richards, Jeffrey (1980). Consul of God. London: Routelege & Keatland Paul.
- Straw, Carole E. (1988). Gregory the Great: Perfection in Imperfection. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Leyser, Conrad (2000). Authority and Asceticism from Augustine to Gregory the Great. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Markus, R.A. (1997). Gregory the Great and His World. Cambridge: University Press.
- Ricci, Cristina (2002). Mysterium dispensationis. Tracce di una teologia della storia in Gregorio Magno. Rome: Centro Studi S. Anselmo. (Italian). Studia Anselmiana, volume 135.
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Pope Gregory I |
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Pope Gregory I |
- "Documenta Catholica Omnia: Gregorius I Magnus". Cooperatorum Veritatis Societas. 2006. http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/01_01_0590-0604-_Gregorius_I,_Magnus,_Sanctus.html. Retrieved 2008-08-10. (Latin). Index of 70 downloadable .pdf files containing the texts of Gregory I.
- "Complete English translation of Gregory's Moralia in Job.". http://www.lectionarycentral.com/GregoryMoraliaIndex.html. . Found on the website: Lectionary Central.
- Gregory the Great (2007). "Homiliae in Ezechielem I-XXII" (in mediaeval Latin written in Carolingian minuscule). Codices Electronici Sangallenses: Codex 211. Stiftsbibliothek St.Gallen. http://www.cesg.unifr.ch/cesg-cgi/kleioc/e0010/exec/pagesmaframe/%22csg-0211_004.jpg%22. Retrieved 2008-08-10. Photographic images of a manuscript copied about 850–875 AD.
- "St Gregory Dialogus, the Pope of Rome". Orthodox Church in America. http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=100789. Retrieved 2008-08-10. Orthodox icon and synaxarion.
- Women's Biography: Barbara and Antonina, contains two of his letters.
| Catholic Church titles | ||
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| Preceded by Pelagius II |
Pope 590–604 |
Succeeded by Sabinian |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Gregory I |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Pope Pope |
| Date of birth | 540 |
| Place of birth | Rome, Ostrogothic Kingdom |
| Date of death | 604 |
| Place of death | Rome, Byzantine Empire |
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There are many people in history who are commonly appended with the phrase "the Great", or who were called that or an equivalent phrase in their own language. Other languages have their own suffixes such as e Bozorg and e azam in Persian and Urdu respectively.
In Persia, the title "the Great" at first seems to be a colloquial version of the Old Persian title "Great King". This title was first used by the conqueror Cyrus II of Persia.[1]
The Persian title was inherited by Alexander III of Macedon (336–323 BC) when he conquered the Persian Empire, and the epithet "Great" eventually became personally associated with him. The first reference (in a comedy by Plautus)[2] assumes that everyone knew who "Alexander the Great" was; however, there is no earlier evidence that Alexander III of Macedon was called "the Great".
The early Seleucid kings, who succeeded Alexander in Persia, used "Great King" in local documents, but the title was most notably used for Antiochus the Great (223–187 BC).
Later rulers and commanders began to use the epithet "the Great" as a personal name, like the Roman general Pompey. Others received the surname retrospectively, like the Carthaginian Hanno and the Indian emperor Ashoka the Great. Once the surname gained currency, it was also used as an honorific surname for people without political careers, like the philosopher Albert the Great.
As there are no objective criteria for "greatness", the persistence of later generations in using the designation greatly varies. For example, Louis XIV of France was often referred to as "The Great" in his lifetime but is rarely called such nowadays, while Frederick II of Prussia is still called "The Great". A later Hohenzollern - Wilhelm I - was often called "The Great" in the time of his grandson Wilhelm II, but rarely later.
Contents |
Rulers[link]
- Abbas I of Persia (1571–1629), Shah of Iran
- Akbar (1542–1605), ruler of the Mughal Empire of South Asia, mainly India
- Alain I of Albret (1440–1522), French aristocrat
- Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), King of Macedonia, Persia, Greece, Egypt, and all of Mesopotamia
- Alexander I of Georgia (1386–1446), King of Georgia
- Alfonso III of León (c. 848-910), King of León, Galicia and Asturias
- Alfred the Great (848/849-899), King of Wessex
- Antiochus III the Great (c. 241–187 BC), ruler of the Seleucid Empire
- Ashoka the Great (c. 304–232 BC), Indian emperor of the Maurya dynasty
- Ashot I of Iberia “the Great”(died 826/830), presiding prince of Iberia (modern Georgia),
- Askia Mohammad I (c. 1442–1538), ruler of the Songhai Empire
- Bhumibol Adulyadej (born 1927), King of Thailand
- Bolesław I Chrobry (967-1025), sometimes called "the Great", first King of Poland
- Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the following section)
- Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke (1736–1809), founder and ruler of the Rattanakosin Kingdom (in what is now Thailand)
- Cnut the Great (c. 985 or 995-1035), King of Denmark, England, Norway and parts of Sweden
- Casimir III the Great (1310–1370), King of Poland
- Catherine the Great (1729–1796), Empress of Russia
- Chandragupta II (reigned 375-413/415), also known as Vikramaditya, ruler of the Gupta empire in India
- Charlemagne (died 814), King of the Franks and Emperor of the Romans
- Chulalongkorn (1853–1910), King of Siam (now Thailand)
- Chlothar II (584-629), King of Neustria and King of the Franks
- Conrad, Margrave of Meissen (c. 1097-1157), Margrave of Meissen
- Constantine I (c. 272-337), Roman emperor
- Cyaxares the Great (c. 625-585 BC), third king of Media
- Cyrus the Great (c. 600 BC or 576 BC–530 BC), founder and ruler of the Persian or Achaemenid Empire
- Darius the Great (550 – 486 BC), third ruler of the Persian Empire
- Devapala (died 850), ruler of the Pala Empire in the Indian subcontinent
- Dionysius I, Greek tyrant of Syracuse[3]
- Ferdinand I of León and Castile (c. 1015–1065), King of León and Count of Castile
- Frederick the Great (1712–1786), King of Prussia
- Genghis Khan (1162?-1227), founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire
- Gero (c. 900–965), ruler of Marca Geronis, a very large march in Europe
- Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1594–1632), King of Sweden, founder of the Swedish Empire, and noted military leader
- Gwanggaeto the Great, King of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea[4][5]
- Hanno the Great, the name of three leaders of Carthage, in the 4th, 3rd, and 2nd centuries BC
- Henry I, Duke of Burgundy (946–1002)
- Henry IV of France (1553–1610), King of France and King of Navarre
- Herod the Great (73/74 BC-4 BC), King of Judea
- Hugh the Great (898-956), Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris
- Hugh Magnus of France (1007–1025), co-King of France
- Hugh I, Count of Vermandois (1057–1101)
- Humphrey I de Bohun (died c. 1123), Anglo-Norman aristocrat
- Ivan III of Russia (1440–1505), Tsar of Russia
- John I of Portugal (1358–1433), King of Portugal and the Algarve
- John II of Aragon (1398–1479), King of Aragon and, through his wife, King of Navarre
- Justinian I (483-565), Byzantine Emperor
- Kamehameha I (c. 1758-1819), first King of Hawai'i
- Kanishka (died c. 127), ruler of the Kushan Empire in Central Asia and parts of India
- Kvirike III of Kakheti (1010–1029), King of Kakheti in eastern Georgia
- Kublai Khan (1215–1294), Mongol ruler in the 13th century and Emperor of China; founder of the Yuan Dynasty
- Llywelyn the Great (c. 1172–1240), Prince of Gwynedd and de facto ruler of most of Wales
- Louis I of Hungary (1326–1382), King of Hungary, Croatia and Poland
- Mangrai the Great (1238–1317), Lanna, northern Thailand
- Emperor Meiji (1852–1912), Emperor of Japan
- Mircea I of Wallachia (1355–1418)
- Mithridates II of Parthia (died 88 BC), ruler of the Parthian Empire (in present day Iran)
- Mithridates VI of Pontus (134 BC–63 BC), ruler of Pontus and the Bosporan Kingdom
- Mstislav I of Kiev (1076–1132), Grand Prince of Kievan Rus
- Naresuan (1555–1605), King of Ayutthaya
- Narai (1633–1688), King of Ayutthaya (in what is now modern Thailand)
- Odo the Great (died c. 735), Duke of Aquitaine
- Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (912-973)
- K'inich Janaab' Pakal (603-683), ruler of the Mayan city-state of Palenque
- Parakramabahu I of Polonnaruwa (1123–1186), King of Sri Lanka
- Peter Krešimir IV of Croatia (died 1075), King of Croatia
- Peter the Great (1672–1725), Tsar of Russia
- Peter III of Aragon (1239–1285), King of Aragon and King of Sicily
- Pompey (106 BC-48 BC), military and political leader of the late Roman Republic, rival of Julius Caesar
- Radama I (1793–1828), first king of greater Madagascar
- Raja Raja Chola I (c. 947-1014), Indian emperor of the Cholas.[6][7][8]
- Rajendra Chola I (reigned 1014–1044), Tamil King of India
- Ramesses II (reigned 1279 BC – 1213 BC), considered the greatest pharaoh of Ancient Egypt
- Ram Khamhaeng (around 1237 to 1247-1298), King of Sukhothai (in present day Thailand)
- Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona (1082–1131), also Count of Provence and various other counties
- Rhodri the Great (c. 820–878), King of Gwynedd (in present day Wales)
- Roman the Great (after 1160-1205), Grand Prince of Kiev
- Saladin (c. 1138-1193), Kurdish Sultan of Egypt and Syria, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, and victor over the Crusaders
- Samudragupta (c. 335–375), ruler of the Gupta empire in the Indian subcontinent
- Sancho III of Navarre (c. 992-1035), King of Kingdom of Navarre
- Sargon of Akkad (died c. 2215 BC), ruler of the Akkadian Empire
- Sejong the Great (1397–1450), Korean king[9]
- Shapur II (309-379), king of the Sassanid Empire, Persia
- Simeon I of Bulgaria (864/865-927), ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire
- Stephen III of Moldavia (1433–1504), Prince of Moldavia (Romania)
- Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia (c. 1308-1355), King of Serbia and Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks
- Taksin (1734–1782), King of the Thonburi Kingdom (Thailand)
- Tamar (1160-1123), Queen of the Georgian Empire
- Timur (1336–1405), better known as Tamerlane, founder of the Timurid Dynasty
- Theobald II, Count of Champagne (1090–1151), Count of Blois and of Chartres as Theobald IV, Count of Champagne and of Brie
- Theodoric the Great (454-526), King of the Ostrogoths, regent of the Visigoths and a viceroy of the Byzantine Empire
- Theodosius I (347-395), Roman emperor
- Tigranes the Great (140-55 BC), Emperor of Armenia
- Tiridates III of Armenia (285-339), King of Armenia
- Umar (c. 586 to 590–644), second caliph of the Muslim Empire
- Valdemar I of Denmark (1131–1182), King of Denmark
- Valentinian I (364-375), Roman Emperor
- Vladimir I of Kiev (c. 958-1015), ruler of Kievan Rus
- Vytautas (c. 1350-1430), archduke of the Lithuanian Grand Duchy
- William I, Count of Burgundy (1020–1087), Count of Burgandy and Mâcon
- William V, Duke of Aquitaine (969-1030), also Count of Poitou
- Xerxes I (519-465 BC), King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire (Persia)
- Yu the Great (c. 2200-2100 BC), legendary ruler in ancient China
Religious figures[link]
- Abraham the Great of Kashkar (ca. 492-586), monk and saint of the Assyrian Church of the East
- Abraham Kidunaia (died c. 366, hermit, priest, and Christian saint of Mesopotamia
- Albertus Magnus (1193/1206–1280), medieval German philosopher and theologian
- Anthony the Great (c. 251–356), early Christian saint of Egypt
- Babai the Great (c. 551–628), Assyrian church leader
- Basil of Caesarea (330-379), Greek bishop and theologian
- Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the previous section)
- Euthymius the Great (377-473), abbot and Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saint
- Gertrude the Great (1256-c. 1302), German Benedictine, mystic, theologian and Roman Catholic saint
- Pope Gregory I (c. 540-604)
- Hiyya the Great, 3rd-century rabbi, Palestine
- Pope John Paul II (1920–2005)
- Pope Leo I (c. 391 or 400-461)
- Macarius of Egypt (c. 300-391), Egyptian hermit
- Pope Nicholas I (c. 800-867)
- Photius I of Constantinople (c. 810–c. 893), Eastern Orthodox saint and Patriarch of Constantinople
- William of Maleval (died 1157), founder of the Catholic congregation of Williamites
Other[link]
- Beli Mawr, a figure in medieval Welsh literature and genealogies
- Emmy the Great, folk singer
- Matteo Rosso the Great, Roman politician and father of Pope Nicholas III
- Prokop the Great, Hussite general in Bohemia
See also[link]
- Epithet
- List of monarchs by nickname
- List of nicknames of European Royalty and Nobility: G-I
- James, son of Zebedee, also known as James the Greater, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus
- Ajax (mythology), called Ajax the Greater
- Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, whose common honorific "Mahatma" means "Great Soul"
Notes[link]
- ^ In a clay cylinder (online). The expression was used in a propagandistic context: the conqueror wants to show he is a normal Babylonian ruler. The first Persian ruler to use the title in an Iranian context was Darius I of Persia (Darius the Great), in the Behistun Inscription (online).
- ^ Plautus, Mostellaria 775.
- ^ History, Instituto Geografico De Agostini S.p.A., p. 479
- ^ World and Its Peoples:Korea. Marshall Cavendish Corporation. September 2008. p. 887. ISBN 0-7614-7631-8.
- ^ Alison Behnke (2004). North Korea in Pictures. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 70. ISBN 0-8225-1908-9. http://books.google.com/?id=ovWvhyLc6hAC&pg=RA1-PA70&dq=%22Gwanggaeto+the+Great%22.
- ^ Sarkar, Benoy Kumar (December 1919). "An English History of India". Political Science Quarterly 34 (4): 644–653. DOI:10.2307/2142032. JSTOR 2142032. ""The finances of the state were not more centralized under Louis XIV than under Rajaraja the Great.""
- ^ "Heaven sent: Michael Wood explores the art of the Chola dynasty". Royal Academy, UK. http://www.royalacademy.org.uk/ra-magazine/winter2006/features/heven-sent,47,RAMA.html. Retrieved 2007-04-26.
- ^ "The Chola Dynasty: Accession of Rajaraja, the Great". Sify.com. http://sify.com/itihaas/fullstory.php?id=13219885. Retrieved 2007-04-26.
- ^ Christoph Bluth; Gareth Schott (2007). Korea. Polity. p. 10. ISBN 0-7456-3356-0.
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| Gregory XVI | |
|---|---|
 |
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| Papacy began | 2 February 1831 |
| Papacy ended | 1 June 1846 |
| Predecessor | Pius VIII |
| Successor | Pius IX |
| Orders | |
| Ordination | 1787 |
| Consecration | 6 February 1831 by Bartolomeo Pacca |
| Created Cardinal | 13 March 1826 |
| Personal details | |
| Birth name | Bartolomeo Alberto Cappellari |
| Born | (1765-09-18)18 September 1765 Belluno, Republic of Venice |
| Died | 1 June 1846(1846-06-01) (aged 80) Rome, Papal State |
| Other Popes named Gregory | |
Pope Gregory XVI (18 September 1765 – 1 June 1846), born Bartolomeo Alberto Cappellari, was Pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 1831 to 1846. He had adopted the name Mauro upon entering the religious order of the Camaldolese. Strongly conservative and traditionalist, he opposed democratic and modernising reforms in the Papal States and throughout Europe, seeing them as fronts for revolutionary leftism, and he sought to strengthen the religious and political authority of the papacy (see Ultramontanism).
Contents |
Early life[link]
Cappellari was born at Belluno on 18 September 1765, to an Italian noble family. His parents were from a small village named Pesariis, in Friuli. At an early age he joined the order of the Camaldolese (part of the Benedictine monastic family) and entered the Monastery of San Michael in Murano, near Venice. As a Camaldolese monk, Cappellari rapidly gained distinction for his theological and linguistic skills. In 1799 he published a polemic against the Italian Jansenists titled II Trionfo della Santa Sede ("The Triumph of the Holy See"), which passed through various editions in Italy and was translated into several European languages. In 1800 he became a member of the Academy of the Catholic Religion, founded by Pope Pius VII (1800–23), to which he contributed memoirs on theological and philosophical questions. In 1805 he was made abbot of the Monastery of San Gregorio on Rome's Caelian Hill.
When the French Emperor Napoleon took Rome and expelled Pope Pius VII in 1809, Cappellari fled to Murano. From there he and a group of monks moved to Padua in 1814. After Napoleon's final defeat, the Congress of Vienna re-established the sovereignty of the Papal States over central Italy and Cappellari was called back to Rome to assume the post of Camaldolese vicar general. He was then appointed as counsellor to the Inquisition and later promoted to Prefect of the Congregation of Propaganda Fide ("Propagation of the Faith"), which dealt with all missionary work outside of the Spanish Empire, including to the non-Catholic states in Europe.
On 21 March 1825, Cappellari was created cardinal by Pope Leo XII, and shortly afterwards he was asked to negotiate a concordat to safeguard the rights of Catholics in the Low Countries, a diplomatic task which he completed successfully. He also negotiated a peace on behalf of Armenian Catholics with the Ottoman Empire. He publicly condemned the Polish revolutionaries, who he thought were seeking to undermine Russian Tsar Nicholas I's efforts to support the Catholic royalist cause in France by forcing him to divert his troops to suppress the uprising in Poland.
Election as Pope[link]
| Papal styles of Pope Gregory XVI |
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|---|---|
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| Reference style | His Holiness |
| Spoken style | Your Holiness |
| Religious style | Holy Father |
| Posthumous style | none |
On 2 February 1831, after a sixty-four day conclave, Cappellari was unexpectedly chosen to succeed Pope Pius VIII (1829–30). His election was influenced by the fact that the cardinal considered the most papabile, Giacomo Giustiniani, was vetoed by King Ferdinand VII of Spain. There then arose a deadlock between the other two major candidates, Emmanuele De Gregorio and Bartolomeo Pacca. To resolve the impasse, the cardinals turned to Cappellari, but it took as many as eighty-three ballots for a sufficient majority to be reached.
At the time of election, Cardinal Cappellari was not yet a bishop: he is the last man so far to be elected Pope prior to his episcopal consecration. He was consecrated as bishop by Bartolomeo Pacca, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and Velletri and dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals, with Pier Francesco Galleffi, Cardinal Bishop of Porto e Santa Rufina and sub-dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals, and Tommasso Arezzo, Cardinal Bishop of Sabina, acting as co-consecrators.
The choice of Gregory XVI as his regnal name was influenced by the fact that he had been abbot of San Gregorio monastery on the Coelian Hill for more than twenty years. This was the same abbey from which Pope Gregory the Great had dispatched missionaries to England in 596.
Pontificate[link]
The Revolution of 1830, which overthrew the House of Bourbon, had just inflicted a severe blow on the Catholic royalist party in France. Almost the first act of the new French government was to seize Ancona, thus throwing Italy, and particularly the Papal States, into a state of confusion and political upheaval. In the course of the struggle that ensued, it was more than once necessary to call in Austrian troops to fight the red-shirted republicans engaged in a guerrilla campaign. The conservative administration of the Papal States postponed their promised reforms after a series of bombings and assassination attempts. The replacement of Tommaso Bernetti by Luigi Lambruschini as Cardinal Secretary of State in 1836 did nothing to appease the situation.
Pope Gregory and Cardinal Lambruschini opposed basic technological innovations such as gas lighting and railways, believing that they would promote commerce and increase the power of the bourgeoisie, leading to demands for liberal reforms which would undermine the monarchical power of the Pope over central Italy. Gregory in fact banned railways in the Papal States, calling them chemins d'enfer (literally "ways of hell," a play on the French for railroad, chemin de fer, literally "iron road").
The insurrections at Viterbo in 1836, in various parts of the Legations in 1840, at Ravenna in 1843 and Rimini in 1845, were followed by wholesale executions and draconian sentences of hard labour and exile, but they did not bring the unrest within the Papal States under the control of the authorities. Gregory XVI made great expenditures for defensive, architectural and engineering works, and he lavished patronage on such scholars as Angelo Mai, Giuseppe Mezzofanti, and Gaetano Moroni. This largesse, however, significantly weakened the finances of the Papal States.
In 1839 Gregory issued an encyclical against the Atlantic slave trade, In Supremo Apostolatus, and canonized Veronica Giuliani, an Italian mystic. Other important encyclicals were Mirari Vos, on liberalism and religious indifferentism (issued on 15 August 1832), Quo Graviora, on the Pragmatic Constitution in the Rhineland (issued on 4 October 1833), and Singulari Nos, on the errors of Hugues Felicité Robert de Lamennais (issued on 25 June 1834).
Gregory died on 1 June 1846, after a severe attack of facial erysipelas.
Condemnation of the slave trade[link]
In 1839, Gregory wrote that:
[W]e have judged that it belonged to Our pastoral solicitude to exert Ourselves to turn away the Faithful from the inhuman slave trade in Negroes and all other men. [...] [D]esiring to remove such a shame from all the Christian nations, having fully reflected over the whole question and having taken the advice of many of Our Venerable Brothers the Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, and walking in the footsteps of Our Predecessors, We warn and adjure earnestly in the Lord faithful Christians of every condition that no one in the future dare to vex anyone, despoil him of his possessions, reduce to servitude, or lend aid and favour to those who give themselves up to these practices, or exercise that inhuman traffic by which the Blacks, as if they were not men but rather animals, having been brought into servitude, in no matter what way, are, without any distinction, in contempt of the rights of justice and humanity, bought, sold, and devoted sometimes to the hardest labour. Further, in the hope of gain, propositions of purchase being made to the first owners of the Blacks, dissensions and almost perpetual conflicts are aroused in these regions. We reprove, then, by virtue of Our Apostolic Authority, all the practices abovementioned as absolutely unworthy of the Christian name. By the same Authority We prohibit and strictly forbid any Ecclesiastic or lay person from presuming to defend as permissible this traffic in Blacks under no matter what pretext or excuse, or from publishing or teaching in any manner whatsoever, in public or privately, opinions contrary to what We have set forth in this Apostolic Letter.— From In Supremo Apostolatus[1]
References[link]
See also[link]
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Gregorius XVI |
- "Pope Gregory XVI". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
| Catholic Church titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Giulio Maria della Somaglia |
Prefect of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith 1826–1831 |
Succeeded by Carlo Maria Pedicini |
| Preceded by Pius VIII |
Pope 2 February 1831 – 1 June 1846 |
Succeeded by Pius IX |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Gregory 16 |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 18 September 1765 |
| Place of birth | Belluno, Republic of Venice |
| Date of death | 1 June 1846 |
| Place of death | Rome, Papal State |
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| Gregory VII | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Papacy began | 22 April 1073 |
| Papacy ended | 25 May 1085 |
| Predecessor | Alexander II |
| Successor | Victor III |
| Personal details | |
| Birth name | Ildebrando di Soana |
| Born | c. 1020 Sovana, Holy Roman Empire |
| Died | 25 May 1085(1085-05-25) Salerno, Duchy of Apulia |
| Other Popes named Gregory | |
Pope Gregory VII (c. 1015/1028[1] – 25 May 1085), born Hildebrand of Sovana (Italian: Ildebrando da Soana), was Pope from 22 April 1073 until his death.
One of the great reforming popes, he is perhaps best known for the part he played in the Investiture Controversy, his dispute with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor that affirmed the primacy of papal authority and the new canon law governing the election of the pope by the College of Cardinals. He was also at the forefront of developments in the relationship between the emperor and the papacy during the years before he became pope.
He twice excommunicated Henry, who in the end appointed Antipope Clement III to oppose him in the political power struggles between the Catholic Church and his empire. Hailed as one of the greatest of the Roman pontiffs after his reforms proved successful, Gregory was, during his own reign, despised by some for his expansive use of papal powers.[2]
Gregory was beatified by Gregory XIII in 1584 and canonized in 1728 by Pope Benedict XIII.[3]
Having been such a prominent champion of the papacy, the memory of Gregory VII was evoked on many occasions in later generations, both positively and negatively, often reflecting later writers' attitude to the Catholic Church and the papacy.
Benno of Meissen, who opposed Gregory VII in the Investiture Controversy, leveled against him charges such as necromancy, torture of a former friend upon a bed of nails, commissioning an attempted assassination, executions without trials, unjust excommunication, doubting the Real Presence of the Eucharist, and even burning the Eucharist. This was eagerly repeated by later opponents of the Catholic Church, such as the English Protestant John Foxe.[4] Joseph McCabe describes Gregory as a "rough and violent peasant, enlisting his brute strength in the service of the monastic ideal which he embraced."[5]
In contrast, the noted historian of the 11th century H.E.J. Cowdrey writes, "he (Gregory) was surprisingly flexible, feeling his way and therefore perplexing both rigorous collaborators ... and cautious and steady-minded ones ... His zeal, moral force, and religious conviction, however, ensured that he should retain to a remarkable degree the loyalty and service of a wide variety of men and women."[6]
Contents
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Early career[link]
Gregory was born as Hildebrand in Sovana, in what is now southern Tuscany, central Italy. He was said to be of humble origins.[7] According to Johann Georg Estor his birthname was Hildebrand Bonizi, and he was the son of a blacksmith. As a youth he was sent to study in Rome, where, according to some unconfirmed sources, his uncle was abbot of a monastery on the Aventine Hill. Among his masters were the erudite Lawrence, archbishop of Amalfi, and the future Pope Gregory VI.[8] When the latter was deposed by Holy Roman Emperor Henry III and exiled to Germany, Hildebrand followed him to Cologne.
According to some chroniclers,[9] Hildebrand moved to Cluny after Gregory's death; his declaration to have become a monichus in Cluny must not be taken literally. He then accompanied Abbot Bruno of Toul to Rome; there, Bruno was elected Pope, choosing the name Leo IX, and named Hildebrand as deacon and papal administrator. Leo sent Hildebrand as his legate to Tours in France in the wake of the controversy created by Berengar of Tours. At Leo's death, the new Pope, Victor II, confirmed him as legate, while Victor's successor Stephen IX sent him and Anselm of Lucca to Germany to obtain recognition from the Empress Agnes de Poitou. Stephen died before being able to return to Rome, but Hildebrand was successful; he was then instrumental in overcoming the crisis caused by the Roman aristocracy's election of an antipope, Benedict X,[10] who, thanks also to Agnes's support, was replaced by the Bishop of Florence, Nicholas II. With the help of 300 Norman knights sent by Richard of Aversa, Hildebrand personally led the conquest of the castle of Galeria, where Benedict had taken refuge. Between 1058 and 1059, he was created archdeacon of the Roman church, becoming the most important figure in the papal administration.
He was again the most powerful figure behind the election of Anselm of Lucca the Elder as Pope Alexander II in the papal election of October 1061. The new pope put forward the reform program devised by Hildebrand and his followers. In his years as papal advisor, Hildebrand had an important role in the reconciliation with the Norman kingdom of southern Italy, in the anti-German alliance with the Pataria movement in northern Italy and, above all, in the introduction of a law which gave the cardinals exclusive rights concerning the election of a new pope.
Election to the Papacy[link]
On the death of Alexander II on 21 April 1073, as the obsequies were being performed in the Lateran Basilica, there arose a loud outcry from the clergy and people: "Let Hildebrand be pope!", "Blessed Peter has chosen Hildebrand the Archdeacon!" Later, on the same day, Hildebrand was conducted to the church of San Pietro in Vincoli and elected Pope there in legal form by the assembled cardinals, with the due consent of the Roman clergy, amid the repeated acclamations of the people.
It was debated at the time – and remains debated by historians – whether this extraordinary outburst in favor of Hildebrand by clergy and people was wholly spontaneous or could have been the result of some pre-concerted arrangements.[3] Certainly, the mode of his election was highly criticized by his opponents. Many of the charges brought may have been expressions of personal dislike, liable to suspicion from the very fact that they were not raised to attack his promotion until several years later; but it is clear from his own account of the circumstances of his election that it was conducted in a very irregular fashion, and that the forms prescribed by the law of 1059 were not observed. Above all, the requirement of Pope Nicholas II that the Holy Roman Emperor be consulted in the matter was ignored. However, what ultimately turned the tide in favor of validity of Gregory's election was the near universal acclaim of the Roman people. In this sense, his election hearkened back to the earliest centuries of the Church of Rome, regardless of later canonical legislation.
Gregory's earliest pontifical letters clearly acknowledge this fact, and thus helped defuse any doubt about his election as immensely popular. On 22 May 1073 he received presbyetral ordination, and on 30 June was ordained as a bishop in his position as Bishop of Rome.[11]
In the decree of election, those who had chosen him as Bishop of Rome proclaimed Gregory VII "a devout man, a man mighty in human and divine knowledge, a distinguished lover of equity and justice, a man firm in adversity and temperate in prosperity, a man, according to the saying of the Apostle, of good behavior, blameless, modest, sober, chaste, given to hospitality, and one that ruleth well his own house; a man from his childhood generously brought up in the bosom of this Mother Church, and for the merit of his life already raised to the archidiaconal dignity". "We choose then", they said to the people, "our Archdeacon Hildebrand to be pope and successor to the Apostle, and to bear henceforward and forever the name of Gregory" (22 April 1073).[12]
Gregory's first attempts in foreign policy were towards a reconciliation with the Normans of Robert Guiscard; in the end the two parties did not meet. After a failed call for a crusade to the princes of northern Europe,[13] and after obtaining the support of other Norman princes such as Landulf VI of Benevento and Richard I of Capua, Gregory was able to excommunicate Robert in 1074. In the same year Gregory summoned a council in the Lateran palace, which condemned simony and confirmed celibacy for the Church's clergy. These decrees were further stressed, under menace of excommunication, the next year (24–28 February).[13] In particular, Gregory decreed in this second council that only the Pope could appoint or depose bishops or move them from see to see, an act which was later to cause the Investiture Controversy.
Start of Conflict with the Emperor[link]
See also: Investiture Controversy
The main focus of the ecclesiastico-political projects of Gregory VII is to be found in his relationship with Germany. Since the death of Holy Roman Emperor Henry III, the strength of the German monarchy had been seriously weakened, and his son Henry IV had to contend with great internal difficulties. This state of affairs was of material assistance to Gregory. His advantage was further enhanced by the fact that in 1073 Henry IV was only twenty-three years of age.
In the two years following the election of Gregory VII, Henry was forced by the Saxon Rebellion to come to amicable terms with him at any cost. Consequently, in May 1074 he did penance at Nuremberg – in the presence of the papal legates – to atone for his continued friendship with the members of his council who had been banned by Gregory, took an oath of obedience, and promised his support in the work of reforming the Church. This attitude, however, which at first won him the confidence of the pope, was abandoned as soon as he defeated the Saxons at the First Battle of Langensalza on 9 June 1075 (also called the Battle of Homburg or Battle of Hohenburg). Henry then tried to reassert his rights as the sovereign of northern Italy without delay. He sent Count Eberhard to Lombardy to combat the Patarenes; nominated the cleric Tedaldo to the archbishopric of Milan, thus settling a prolonged and contentious question; and finally tried to establish relations with the Norman duke Robert Guiscard.
Gregory VII replied with a rough letter, dated 8 December 1075, in which, among other charges, he accused the German king of breaching his word and with his continued support of excommunicated councilors. At the same time, he sent a verbal message suggesting that the enormous crimes which would be laid to his account rendered him liable, not only to the ban of the Church, but to the deprivation of his crown. Gregory did this at a time when he himself was confronted by a reckless opponent in the person of Cencio I Frangipane, who on Christmas night surprised him in church and carried him off as a prisoner, though on the following day Gregory was released.[11]
Pope and Emperor depose each other[link]
The reprimands of the Pope, couched as they were in such an unprecedented form, infuriated Henry and his court, and their answer was the hastily convened national council in Worms, Germany (the synod of Worms), which met on 24 January 1076. In the higher ranks of the German clergy Gregory had many enemies, and a Roman cardinal, Hugo Candidus, once on intimate terms with him but now his opponent, had hurried to Germany for the occasion. All the accusations with regard to Gregory that Candidus could come up with were well received by the assembly, which committed itself to the resolution that Gregory had forfeited the papacy. In one document full of accusations, the bishops renounced their allegiance to Gregory. In another, Henry pronounced him deposed, and the Romans were required to choose a new pope.[14]
The council sent two bishops to Italy, and they procured a similar act of deposition from the Lombard bishops at the synod of Piacenza. Roland of Parma informed the pope of these decisions, and he was fortunate enough to gain an opportunity for speech in the synod, which had just assembled in the Lateran Basilica, to deliver his message there announcing the dethronement. For the moment the members were frightened, but soon such a storm of indignation was aroused that it was only due to the moderation of Gregory himself that the envoy was not murdered.
| Pope Saint Gregory VII | |
|---|---|
 An engraving of Pope Gregory VII saying Mass, from Little Pictorial Lives of the Saints (1878) |
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| Pope | |
| Honored in | Roman Catholic Church |
| Beatified | 1584 by Pope Gregory XIII |
| Canonized | 1728 by Pope Benedict XIII |
| Feast | 25 May |
On the following day, Pope Gregory pronounced a sentence of excommunication against Henry IV with all due solemnity, divested him of his royal dignity and absolved his subjects from the oaths they had sworn to him. The act of excommunicating a king was incredibly bold, but not without precedent. Pope Zachary had brought significant challenges to rulers of his era a full 200 years earlier, in a move Thomas Hobbes would famously call "one of the greatest abuses of the papacy in the history of the Church".
This sentence purported to eject a ruler from the Church and to strip him of his crown. Whether it would produce this effect, or would be an idle threat, depended not so much on Gregory as on Henry's subjects, and, above all, on the German princes. Contemporary evidence suggests that the excommunication of Henry made a profound impression both in Germany and Italy.
Thirty years before, Henry III had deposed three claimants to the papacy, and thereby rendered an acknowledged service to the Church. When Henry IV tried to copy this procedure he was less successful, as he lacked the support of the people. In Germany there was a rapid and general feeling in favor of Gregory, and the princes took the opportunity to carry out their anti-regal policy under the cloak of respect for the papal decision. When at Whitsun the king proposed to discuss the measures to be taken against Gregory in a council of his nobles, only a few made their appearance; the Saxons snatched at the golden opportunity for renewing their rebellion, and the anti-royalist party grew in strength from month to month.[11]
Walk to Canossa[link]
Main article: Walk to Canossa
The situation now became extremely critical for Henry. As a result of the agitation, which was zealously fostered by the papal legate Bishop Altmann of Passau, the princes met in October at Trebur to elect a new German ruler. Henry, who was stationed at Oppenheim on the left bank of the Rhine, was only saved from the loss of his throne by the failure of the assembled princes to agree on the question of his successor.
Their dissension, however, merely induced them to postpone the verdict. Henry, they declared, must make reparation to Gregory and pledge himself to obedience; and they decided that, if, on the anniversary of his excommunication, he still lay under the ban, the throne should be considered vacant. At the same time they decided to invite Gregory to Augsburg to decide the conflict.
These arrangements showed Henry the course to be pursued. It was imperative under any circumstances and at any price to secure his absolution from Gregory before the period named, otherwise he could scarcely foil his opponents in their intention to pursue their attack against him and justify their measures by an appeal to his excommunication. At first he attempted to attain his ends by an embassy, but when Gregory rejected his overtures he took the celebrated step of going to Italy in person.
Gregory VII had already left Rome and had intimated to the German princes that he would expect their escort for his journey on 8 January to Mantua. But this escort had not appeared when he received the news of the Henry's arrival. Henry, who had travelled through Burgundy, had been greeted with enthusiasm by the Lombards, but resisted the temptation to employ force against Gregory. He chose the unexpected course of forcing Gregory to grant him absolution by doing penance before him at Canossa, where he had taken refuge. The Walk to Canossa soon became legendary.
The reconciliation was only effected after prolonged negotiations and definite pledges on the part of Henry, and it was with reluctance that Gregory at length gave way, considering the political implications. If Gregory granted absolution, the diet of princes in Augsburg in which he might reasonably hope to act as arbitrator would either become useless, or, if it met at all, would change completely in character. It was impossible, however, to deny the penitent re-entrance into the Church, and Gregory's religious obligations overrode his political interests.
The removal of the ban did not imply a genuine reconciliation, and no basis was gained for a settlement of the main question that divided Henry and Gregory: that of investiture. A new conflict was inevitable from the very fact that Henry considered the sentence of deposition repealed along with that of excommunication. Gregory, on the other hand, was intent on reserving his freedom of action and gave no hint on the subject at Canossa [11]
Second excommunication of Henry[link]
That the excommunication of Henry IV was simply a pretext for the opposition of the rebellious German nobles is transparent. Not only did they persist in their policy after his absolution, but they took the more decided step of setting up a rival ruler in the person of Duke Rudolf of Swabia at Forchheim in March 1077. At the election, the papal legates present observed the appearance of neutrality, and Gregory himself sought to maintain this attitude during the following years. His task was made easier in that the two parties were of fairly equal strength, each trying to gain the upper hand by getting the pope on their side. But the result of his non-committal policy was that he largely lost the confidence of both parties. Finally he decided for Rudolf of Swabia after his victory at the Battle of Flarchheim on 27 January 1080. Under pressure from the Saxons, and misinformed as to the significance of this battle, Gregory abandoned his waiting policy and again pronounced the excommunication and deposition of King Henry on 7 March 1080.
But the papal censure now proved a very different thing from the one four years before. It was widely felt to be an injustice, and people began to ask whether an excommunication pronounced on frivolous grounds was entitled to respect. To make matters worse, Rudolf of Swabia died on 16 October of the same year. A new claimant, Hermann of Luxembourg, was put forward in August 1081, but his personality was not suitable for a leader of the Gregorian party in Germany, and the power of Henry IV was at its peak. The king, now more experienced, took up the struggle with great vigour. He refused to acknowledge the ban on the ground of its illegality. A council had been summoned at Brixen, and on 16 June it pronounced Gregory deposed and nominated the archbishop Guibert of Ravenna as his successor. In 1081 Henry opened the conflict against Gregory in Italy. The latter had now become less powerful, and thirteen cardinals deserted him.[11]
The pope's chief military supporter, Matilda of Tuscany,[15] blocked Henry's armies from the western passages over the Apennines, so he had to approach Rome from Ravenna. Rome surrendered to the German king in 1084, and Gregory thereupon retired into the exile of the Castel Sant'Angelo and refused to entertain Henry's overtures, although the latter promised to hand over Guibert as a prisoner, if the sovereign pontiff would only consent to crown him emperor. Gregory, however, insisted as a necessary preliminary that Henry should appear before a council and do penance. The emperor, while pretending to submit to these terms, tried hard to prevent the meeting of the bishops. A small number assembled nonetheless, and, in accordance with their wishes, Gregory again excommunicated Henry.
Henry, upon receipt of this news, again entered Rome on 21 March to see that Guibert of Ravenna be enthroned as Clement III as of 24 March 1084. Henry was crowned emperor by his creature, but Robert Guiscard, with whom in the meantime Gregory had formed an alliance, was already marching on the city, and Henry fled towards Civita Castellana.
Exile from Rome[link]
The pope was liberated, but after the Roman people became incensed by the excesses of his Norman allies, he was compelled to withdraw to Monte Cassino, and later to the castle of Salerno by the sea, where he died the following year. Three days before his death, he withdrew all the censures of excommunication that he had pronounced, except those against the two chief offenders – Henry and Guibert.
Papal policy to the rest of Europe[link]
Normans[link]
The relationship of Gregory to other European states was strongly influenced by his German policy, since the Holy Roman Empire, by taking up most of his energies, often forced him to show to other rulers the very moderation which he withheld from the German king. The attitude of the Normans brought him a rude awakening. The great concessions made to them under Nicholas II were not only powerless to stem their advance into central Italy, but failed to secure even the expected protection for the papacy. When Gregory was hard pressed by Henry IV, Robert Guiscard left him to his fate, and only intervened when he himself was threatened with German arms. Then, on the capture of Rome, he abandoned the city to his troops, and the popular indignation evoked by his act brought about Gregory's exile.
Claims of Papal sovereignty[link]
In the case of several countries, Gregory tried to establish a claim of sovereignty on the part of the Papacy, and to secure the recognition of its self-asserted rights of possession. On the ground of "immemorial usage", Corsica and Sardinia were assumed to belong to the Roman Church. Spain, Hungary and Croatia were also claimed as her property, and an attempt was made to induce the king of Denmark to hold his realm as a fief from the pope.
In his treatment of ecclesiastical policy and ecclesiastical reform, Gregory did not stand alone, but found powerful support: in England Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury stood closest to him; in France his champion was Bishop Hugo of Dié, who afterwards became Archbishop of Lyon.[11]
France[link]
Philip I of France, by his practice of simony and the violence of his proceedings against the Church, provoked a threat of summary measures. Excommunication, deposition and the interdict appeared to be imminent in 1074. Gregory, however, refrained from translating his threats into actions, although the attitude of the king showed no change, for he wished to avoid a dispersion of his strength in the conflict soon to break out in Germany.
England[link]
In England, William the Conqueror also derived benefits from this state of affairs. He felt himself so safe that he interfered autocratically with the management of the church, forbade the bishops to visit Rome, made appointments to bishoprics and abbeys, and showed little anxiety when the pope lectured him on the different principles which he had as to the relationship of spiritual and temporal powers, or when he prohibited him from commerce or commanded him to acknowledge himself a vassal of the apostolic chair. Gregory had no power to compel the English king to an alteration in his ecclesiastical policy, so he chose to ignore what he could not approve, and even considered it advisable to assure him of his particular affection.[citation needed]
Distant Christian countries[link]
Gregory, in fact, established some sort of relations with every country in Christendom; though these relations did not invariably realize the ecclesiastico-political hopes connected with them. His correspondence extended to Poland, Kievan Rus' and Bohemia. He unsuccessfully tried to bring Armenia into closer contact with Rome.[citation needed]
Byzantine Empire[link]
Gregory was particularly concerned with the East. The schism between Rome and the Byzantine Empire was a severe blow to him, and he worked hard to restore the former amicable relationship. Gregory successfully tried to get in touch with the emperor Michael VII. When the news of the Arab attacks on the Christians in the East filtered through to Rome, and the political embarrassments of the Byzantine emperor increased, he conceived the project of a great military expedition and exhorted the faithful to participate in recovering the Church of the Holy Sepulchre – foreshadowing the First Crusade.[citation needed]
Internal policy and reforms[link]
Main article: Gregorian Reform
His lifework was based on his conviction that the Church was founded by God and entrusted with the task of embracing all mankind in a single society in which divine will is the only law; that, in her capacity as a divine institution, she is supreme over all human structures, especially the secular state; and that the pope, in his role as head of the Church, is the vice-regent of God on earth, so that disobedience to him implies disobedience to God: or, in other words, a defection from Christianity. But any attempt to interpret this in terms of action would have bound the Church to annihilate not merely a single state, but all states.
Thus Gregory, as a politician wanting to achieve some result, was driven in practice to adopt a different standpoint. He acknowledged the existence of the state as a dispensation of Providence, described the coexistence of church and state as a divine ordinance, and emphasized the necessity of union between the sacerdotium and the imperium. But at no period would he have dreamed of putting the two powers on an equal footing; the superiority of church to state was to him a fact which admitted of no discussion and which he had never doubted.
He wished to see all important matters of dispute referred to Rome; appeals were to be addressed to himself; the centralization of ecclesiastical government in Rome naturally involved a curtailment of the powers of bishops. Since these refused to submit voluntarily and tried to assert their traditional independence, his papacy is full of struggles against the higher ranks of the clergy.
This battle for the foundation of papal supremacy is connected with his championship of compulsory celibacy among the clergy and his attack on simony. Gregory VII did not introduce the celibacy of the priesthood into the Church, but he took up the struggle with greater energy than his predecessors. In 1074 he published an encyclical, absolving the people from their obedience to bishops who allowed married priests. The next year he enjoined them to take action against married priests, and deprived these clerics of their revenues. Both the campaign against priestly marriage and that against simony provoked widespread resistance.[11]
His writings treat mainly of the principles and practice of Church government. They may be found under the title "Gregorii VII registri sive epistolarum libri".[16] He thought the church was founded by God and entrusted with the task of embracing all mankind in a single society in which divine will is the only law.
Impact on the Eucharist[link]
Gregory VII was seen by Pope Paul VI as instrumental in affirming the tenet that Christ is present in the Blessed Sacrament. Gregory's demand that Berengarius perform a confession of this belief was quoted in Pope Paul VI's historic 1965 encyclical Mysterium Fidei:[17]
I believe in my heart and openly profess that the bread and wine that are placed on the altar are, through the mystery of the sacred prayer and the words of the Redeemer, substantially changed into the true and proper and lifegiving flesh and blood of Jesus Christ our Lord, and that after the consecration they are the true body of Christ.[18]
This profession of faith began a "Eucharistic Renaissance" in the churches of Europe as of the 12th century.[17]
Death[link]
Gregory died in exile in Salerno; the epitaph on Gregory VII's sarcophagus in the city's Cathedral says: "I have loved justice and hated iniquity; therefore, I die in exile."[19]
See also[link]
- Concordat of Worms
- First Council of the Lateran
- Dictatus papae (1075–87)
- Libertas ecclesiae (1079)
References[link]
- ^ Recent analysis of Gregory's remains indicates he was around 70 at his death. Paravicini Bagliani, Agostino (December 2008). Medioevo (143): 62.
- ^ Beno. Gesta Romanae ecclesiae contra Hildebrandum. ca. 1084. In K. Francke, MGH Libelli de Lite II (Hannover, 1892), pp. 369–373. Much of this is reproduced in English in The Acts and Monuments of John Foxe, p.121ff.
- ^ a b Thomas Oestreich (1913). "Pope St. Gregory VII". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- ^ Quoted in "The acts and monuments of John Foxe", Volume 2
- ^ McCabe, Joseph. The Popes and their Church (1918). London: Watts & Co. Section I, Chapter V: The Papacy at its Height.
- ^ Cowdrey, H.E.J., Pope Gregory VII 1073–1085, (Clarendon, Oxford, 1998) 495-6.
- ^ Paravicini Bagliani, Agostino (December 2008). Medioevo (143): 62–63.
- ^ Paravicini Bagliani, Agostino (December 2008). Medioevo (143): 64.
- ^ Paravicini Bagliani, Agostino (December 2008). Medioevo (143): 66.
- ^ According to the sources, feeling his was nearing his end, Stephen had his cardinal swear that they would wait for Hildebrand's return to Rome before electing his successor.Paravicini Bagliani, Agostino (December 2008). "Una carriera dieotr le quinte". Medioevo (143): 70.
- ^ a b c d e f g Mirbt, Carl (1911). "Gregory (Popes)". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Mansi, "Conciliorum Collectio", XX, 60.
- ^ a b Paravicini Bagliani, Agostino (December 2008). "Sia fatta la mia volontà". Medioevo (143): 76.
- ^ Letter to Gregory VII (24 January 1076)
- ^ Robinson. p. 100.
- ^ Mansi, "Gregorii VII registri sive epistolarum libri." Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio. Florence, 1759
- ^ a b The History of Eucharistic Adoration by John A Hardon 2003 ISBN 0-9648448-9-3 pages 4–10
- ^ Vatican website: Mysterium Fidei
- ^ Original: Dilexi iustitiam et odivi iniquitatem propterea morior in exilio. Commentary on the foregoing: This is an echo of the well-known Ps. 44.8 Dilexísti justítiam, et odísti iniquitátem : proptérea unxit te Deus, Deus tuus, óleo lætítiæ præ consórtibus tuis which together with Ps. ibid. 2 Eructávit cor meum verbum bonum : dico ego ópers mea Regi form the Introit of the former of the two Masses of the Common of a virgin not a martyr, the two parts in Eastertide being separated by a pair of Allelúias. The grammatical variation on 'Thou didst love justice and hate iniquity', the original of which, said in apostrophe to the canonised virgin not a martyr whose feast is being being celebrated and certainly recognised by every reader, is here put into the deceased Pope's own mouth: 'I did love justice and hate iniquity [: …]'. However: the verb odi has no set of imperfect forms, and the would-be present perfect/past aorist form *odivi here quoted does not exist, the appropriate form in the first person being odi, in the particular case of this verb unusually (but normally!) not 'I have hated/I hated' but 'I am hating/I hate'. The translation given is probably correct in that something has to do duty for this verb's missing set of perfect meanings 'I have hated - I had hated - I shall have hated' and for the past aorist 'I hated'. I think however someone somehow has confused odi, odisti with audivi, aud[iv]isti. It is thus a matter for regret that the the author of the article does not give a source for his quotation of the epitaph, as checking its veracity would have to be the first step in a further investigation; the quotation as it stands is very suspicious.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. - This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Pope Gregory VII". Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.
Further reading[link]
- Cowdrey, H.E.J. (1998). Pope Gregory VII: 1073–1085. Oxford and New York: Clarendon Press.
- Emerton, Ephraim (1932). The correspondence of Pope Gregory VII: Selected letters from the Registrum. New York: Columbia University Press. OCLC 1471578. http://books.google.com/books?id=EgRbpkgRSZAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+correspondence+of+Pope+Gregory+VII&hl=en&ei=MyOyTd6BGenL0QG6h4WGCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- Robinson, Ian Stuart. (1978). Authority and Resistance in the Investiture Contest: the Polemical Literature of the Late Eleventh Century. Manchester University Press.
External links[link]
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Pope Gregory VII |
- Women's Biography: Matilda of Tuscany, countess of Tuscany, duchess of Lorraine, contains several of his letters to his supporter, Matilda of Tuscany.
| Catholic Church titles | ||
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| Preceded by Alexander II |
Pope 1073–1085 |
Succeeded by Victor III |
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| Persondata | |
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| Name | Gregory 07 |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Pope |
| Date of birth | |
| Place of birth | Sovana, Italy, Holy Roman Empire |
| Date of death | 25 May 1085 |
| Place of death | Salerno, Duchy of Apulia |
http://wn.com/Pope_Gregory_VII
Related pages:
http://ru.wn.com/Григорий VII (папа римский)
http://de.wn.com/Gregor VII.
http://it.wn.com/Papa Gregorio VII
http://es.wn.com/Gregorio VII
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Gregory XIII | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Papacy began | 13 May 1572 |
| Papacy ended | 10 April 1585 |
| Predecessor | Pius V |
| Successor | Sixtus V |
| Orders | |
| Created Cardinal | 12 March 1565 |
| Personal details | |
| Birth name | Ugo Boncompagni |
| Born | 7 January 1502 Bologna, Papal States |
| Died | 10 April 1585 (aged 83) Rome, Papal States |
| Other Popes named Gregory | |
Pope Gregory XIII (7 January 1502 – 10 April 1585), born Ugo Boncompagni, was Pope from 1572 to 1585. He is best known for commissioning and being the namesake for the Gregorian calendar, which remains the internationally accepted civil calendar to this date.
During his pontificate, Gregory fostered cultural patronages associated with his papacy. He strengthened many ecclesiastical and diplomatic envoys to Asia, namely the islands of Japan and the Philippines. He was also the first Pope to bestow the Immaculate Conception as Patroness to the Philippine Islands on 9 February 1579.
Contents |
Early biography[link]
Youth[link]
Ugo Boncompagni was born the son of Cristoforo Boncompagni (10 July 1470–1546) and of his wife Angela Marescalchi in Bologna, where he studied law and graduated in 1530. He later taught jurisprudence for some years, and his students included notable figures such as Cardinals Alexander Farnese, Reginald Pole and Charles Borromeo. He had an illegitimate son before he took holy orders.[1]
Career before papacy[link]
At the age of thirty-six he was summoned to Rome by Pope Paul III (1534–1549), under whom he held successive appointments as first judge of the capital, abbreviator, and vice-chancellor of the Campagna. Pope Paul IV (1555–1559) attached him as datarius to the suite of Cardinal Carlo Carafa, Pope Pius IV (1559–1565) made him Cardinal-Priest of San Sisto Vecchio and sent him to the Council of Trent.
He also served as a legate to Philip II of Spain (1556–1598), being sent by the Pope to investigate the Cardinal of Toledo. It was here that he formed a lasting and close relationship with the Spanish King, which was to become very important in his foreign policy as Pope.
Election as Pope[link]
Upon the death of Pope Pius V (1566–1572), the conclave chose Cardinal Boncompagni, who assumed the name of Gregory XIII in homage to the great reforming Pope, Gregory I (590–604), surnamed the Great. It was a very brief conclave, lasting less than 24 hours. Many historians have attributed this to the influence and backing of the Spanish King. Gregory XIII's character seemed to be perfect for the needs of the church at the time. Unlike some of his predecessors, he was to lead a faultless personal life, becoming a model for his simplicity of life. Additionally, his legal brilliance and management abilities meant that he was able to respond and deal with major problems quickly and decisively, although not always successfully.
Pontificate[link]
| Papal styles of Pope Gregory XIII |
|
|---|---|
 |
|
| Reference style | His Holiness |
| Spoken style | Your Holiness |
| Religious style | Holy Father |
| Posthumous style | None |
Reform of the Church[link]
Once in the chair of Saint Peter, Gregory XIII's rather worldly concerns became secondary and he dedicated himself to reform of the Catholic Church. He committed himself to putting into practice the recommendations of the Council of Trent. He allowed no exceptions for cardinals to the rule that bishops must take up residence in their sees, and designated a committee to update the Index of Forbidden Books. He was the patron of a new and greatly improved edition of the Corpus juris canonici. In a time of considerable centralisation of power, Gregory XIII abolished the Cardinals Consistories, replacing them with Colleges, and appointing specific tasks for these colleges to work on. He was renowned for having a fierce independence; some confidants noted that he neither welcomed interventions nor sought advice. The power of the papacy increased under him, whereas the influence and power of the cardinals substantially decreased.
Formation of clergy and promotion of the arts and sciences[link]
A central part of the strategy of Gregory XIII's reform was to apply the recommendations of Trent. He was a liberal patron of the recently formed Society of Jesus throughout Europe, for which he founded many new colleges. The Roman College of the Jesuits grew substantially under his patronage, and became the most important centre of learning in Europe for a time, known as the University of the Nations.[citation needed] It is now named the Pontifical Gregorian University. Pope Gregory XIII also founded numerous seminaries for training priests, beginning with the German College at Rome, and put them in the charge of the Jesuits.
In 1575 he gave official status to the Congregation of the Oratory, a community of priests without vows, dedicated to prayer and preaching (founded by Saint Filippo Neri). In 1580 he commissioned artists, including Ignazio Danti, to complete works to decorate the Vatican and commissioned The Gallery of Maps.
The Gregorian calendar[link]
Pope Gregory XIII is best known for his reformation of the calendar, with the aid of Jesuit priest/astronomer Christopher Clavius, who is credited as the calendar's chief architect. The reason for the reform was that the average length of the year in the Julian calendar was too long – it treated each year as 365 days, 6 hours in length, whereas calculations showed that the actual mean length of a year is slightly less (365 days, 5 hours and 49 minutes) As a result, the date of the actual vernal equinox had slowly (over the course of 13 centuries) slipped to 10 March, while the computus (calculation) of the date of Easter still followed the traditional date of 21 March.[citation needed]
This was verified by the observations of Clavius, and the new calendar was instituted when Gregory decreed, by the papal bull Inter gravissimas of 24 February 1582, that the day after Thursday, 4 October 1582 would be not Friday, 5 October, but Friday, 15 October 1582. The new calendar duly replaced the Julian calendar, in use since 45 BC, and has since come into universal use. Because of Gregory's involvement, the reformed Julian calendar came to be known as the Gregorian calendar.
The switchover was bitterly opposed by much of the populace, who feared it was an attempt by landlords to cheat them out of a week and a half's rent. However, the Catholic countries of Spain, Portugal, Poland, and Italy complied. France, some states of the Dutch Republic and various Catholic states in Germany and Switzerland (both countries were religiously split) followed suit within a year or two, and Hungary followed in 1587.
However, more than a century passed before Protestant Europe accepted the new calendar. Denmark, the remaining states of the Dutch Republic, and the Protestant states of the Holy Roman Empire and Switzerland adopted the Gregorian reform in 1700–01. By this time, the calendar trailed the seasons by 11 days. Great Britain and its American colonies reformed in 1752, where Wednesday, 2 September 1752 was immediately followed by Thursday, 14 September 1752; they were joined by the last Protestant holdout, Sweden, on 1 March 1753.
The Gregorian calendar was not accepted in eastern Christendom for several hundred years, and then only as the civil calendar.[2] The Gregorian Calendar was instituted in Russia by the Bolsheviks in 1917, Romania accepted it in 1919 under king Ferdinand of Romania (1 November 1919 became 14 November 1919), Turkey in 1923 under Ataturk, and the last Orthodox country to accept the calendar was Greece also in 1923.[citation needed]
While some Eastern Orthodox national churches have accepted the Gregorian calendar dates for feast days that occur on the same date every year, the dates of all movable feasts (such as Easter) are still calculated in the Eastern Orthodox churches by reference to the Julian calendar.[citation needed]
Foreign policy[link]
Though he expressed the conventional fears of the danger from the Turks, Gregory XIII's attentions were more consistently directed to the dangers from the Protestants. He also encouraged the plans of Philip II to dethrone Elizabeth I of England (reigned from 1558–1603), thus helping to develop an atmosphere of subversion and imminent danger among English Protestants, who looked on any Roman Catholic as a potential traitor.[citation needed]
In 1578, to further the plans of exiled English and Irish Catholics such as Nicholas Sanders, William Allen, and James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald, Gregory outfitted adventurer Thomas Stukeley with a ship and an army of 800 men to land in Ireland to aid in the hope for overthrow of Elizabeth's rule through the Catholic leader and former leader of the first Desmond rebellion, Fitzmaurice.[citation needed] To his dismay, Stukeley joined his forces with those of King Sebastian of Portugal against Emperor Abdul Malik of Morocco instead.
Another papal expedition sailed to Ireland in 1579 with a mere 50 soldiers under the command of Fitzmaurice, accompanied by Sanders as papal legate.[citation needed] The resulting Second Desmond Rebellion was equally unsuccessful. Gregory's greatest success came in his patronage of colleges and seminaries which he founded on the Continent for the Irish and English, among others.
In 1580 he was persuaded by English Jesuits to moderate or suspend the Bull Regnans in Excelsis (1570) which had excommunicated Queen Elizabeth I of England. Catholics were advised to obey the queen outwardly in all civil matters, until such time as a suitable opportunity presented itself for her overthrow.[3]
Pope Gregory XIII had no connection[citation needed] with the plot of Henry, Duke of Guise, and his brother, Charles, Duke of Mayenne, to assassinate Elizabeth I in 1582.
After the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacres of Huguenots in France in 1572, Pope Gregory celebrated a Te Deum mass. However, some hold that he was ignorant of the nature of the plot at the time, having been told the Huguenots had tried to take over the government but failed.[citation needed] Three frescoes in the Sala Regia Palace of the Vatican depicting the events were painted by Giorgio Vasari, and a commemorative medal was issued with Gregory's portrait and on the obverse a chastising angel, sword in hand and the legend UGONOTTORUM STRAGES ("Massacre of the Huguenots").[4]
Cultural patronage[link]
In Rome Gregory XIII built the magnificent Gregorian chapel in the Basilica of St. Peter, and extended the Quirinal Palace in 1580. He also turned the Baths of Diocletian into a granary in 1575.
He appointed his illegitimate son Giacomo,[5] born to his mistress at Bologna before his papacy, castellan of Sant'Angelo and Gonfalonier of the Church; Venice, anxious to please, enrolled him among its nobles. Philip II of Spain appointed him general in his army. Gregory also helped his son to become a powerful feudatary through the acquisition of the Duchy of Sora, on the border between the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples.
In order to raise funds for these and similar objects, he confiscated a large proportion of the houses and properties throughout the states of the Church. This measure enriched his treasury for a time, but alienated a great body of the nobility and gentry, revived old factions, and created new ones.[citation needed] Gregory XIII died on 10 April 1585.
See also[link]
Notes and references[link]
- ^ The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church: Ugo Boncompagni
- ^ Henry, Jonathan. "Chapter 3." Earth Science. Clearwater, Fl: Clearwater Christian College, 2010. Print.
- ^ P. J. Corish, "The origins of Catholic nationalism", part 8, vol. III, pp 15–18, in "The History of Irish Catholicism" (Dublin, 1967)
- ^ Schaff, Philip (1910). History of the Christian Church, Volume VII. Modern Christianity. The German Reformation. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Note 53. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc7.ii.i.xi.html.
- ^ Ugo Boncompagni had Giacomo legitimated on 5 July 1548 by the bishop of Feltre.
- Initial text from the 9th edition (1880) of an unnamed encyclopedia.
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Pope Gregory XIII". Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Pope Gregory XIII |
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Wikisource has original works written by or about: |
- "Papal Library" website:[dead link] Gregory XIII
- Monument to Gregory XIII
| Catholic Church titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Pius V |
Pope 13 May 1572 – 10 April 1585 |
Succeeded by Sixtus V |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Gregory XIII |
| Alternative names | Buoncompagni, Ugo |
| Short description | Pope |
| Date of birth | 7 January 1502 |
| Place of birth | Bologna |
| Date of death | 10 April 1585 |
| Place of death | Rome |
http://wn.com/Pope_Gregory_XIII
Related pages:
http://ru.wn.com/Григорий XIII
http://de.wn.com/Gregor XIII.
http://it.wn.com/Papa Gregorio XIII
http://es.wn.com/Gregorio XIII
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
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