Aisin-Gioro Puyi 愛新覺羅．溥儀
Xuantong Emperor Emperor of Manchukuo
Puyi as Emperor of Manchukuo.
12th Qing Emperor of China
Reign	2 December 1908 – 12 February 1912 (&100000000000000030000003 years, &1000000000000007200000072 days) 1 July 1917 – 12 July 1917 (&100000000000000000000000 years, &1000000000000001100000011 days)
Predecessor	Guangxu Emperor
Regent	Zaifeng, Prince Chun & Empress Dowager Longyu
Prime Minister	List Yikuang, Prince Qing (1911) Yuan Shikai (1911-1912) Zhang Xun <sll>(1917)
Emperor of Manchukuo
Reign	1 March 1934 – 15 August 1945 (&1000000000000001100000011 years, &10000000000000167000000167 days)
Prime Minister	List Zheng Xiaoxu (1932-1935) Zhang Jinghui (1935-1945)
Spouse	Empress Wanrong Consort Wenxiu
Era dates
Xuantong (宣統, 1909 – 1912, 1917) Datong (大同, 1 March 1932 – 28 February 1934) Kangde (康德, 1 March 1934 – 17 August 1945)
House	House of Aisin Gioro
Father	Zaifeng, Prince Chun
Mother	Guwalgiya Youlan
Born	(1906-02-07)7 February 1906 Beijing, China
Died	17 October 1967(1967-10-17) (aged 61) Beijing, China
Burial	Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery (Later moved to the Eastern Qing Mausoleum near Beijing in 1996)

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

Puyi (7 February 1906 – 17 October 1967), of the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan, was the last Emperor of China, and the twelfth and final ruler of the Qing Dynasty. He ruled as the Xuantong Emperor from 1908 until his abdication on 12 February 1912. From 1 to 12 July 1917 he was briefly restored to the throne as a nominal emperor by the warlord Zhang Xun. In 1934 he was declared the Kangde Emperor of the puppet state of Manchukuo by the Empire of Japan, and he ruled until the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1945. After the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, Puyi was a member of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference from 1964 until his death in 1967. Puyi's abdication in 1912 marked the end of centuries of dynastic rule in China, and he is also widely known as The Last Emperor.

Names and titles[link]

Names[link]

Puyi's name is romanised in English as either Puyi (in pinyin) or P'u-i (in Wades-Giles). This naming is in accordance with the Manchu tradition of avoiding the use of a person's clan name and given name together,^{[citation needed]} but is in complete contravention of Chinese tradition, whereby the given name of a ruler was considered taboo and ineffable. Using a former emperor's personal name (or even using a Chinese character from the name) was a punishable offence under traditional Chinese law. However after Puyi lost his imperial title in 1924, he was officially styled Mr. Puyi (simplified Chinese: 溥仪先生; traditional Chinese: 溥儀先生; pinyin: Pǔyí Xiānshēng) in Chinese and Mr. Fugi (溥儀先生; Fugi Sensei) in Japanese. His clan name Aisin Gioro (simplified Chinese: 爱新觉罗; traditional Chinese: 愛新覺羅; pinyin: Àixīn Juéluó) was seldom used.

Puyi also adopted Chinese style names — his zi (字; courtesy name) was Yaozhi (Chinese: 耀之; pinyin: Yàozhī), and his hao (號; pseudonym) was Haoran (Chinese: 浩然; pinyin: Hàorán).

Puyi is also known to have used a Western given name, Henry¹, which was chosen by his English language teacher, a Scotsman named Reginald Johnston.^[1][2]

Titles[link]

When he ruled as Emperor of the Qing Dynasty from 1908 to 1912 and during his brief restoration in 1917, Puyi's era name was Xuantong, so he was known as the Xuantong Emperor (simplified Chinese: 宣统皇帝; traditional Chinese: 宣統皇帝; pinyin: Xuāntǒng Huángdì) during those two periods of time.

As Puyi was also the last ruling Emperor of China, he is widely known as The Last Emperor (Chinese: 末代皇帝; pinyin: Mòdài Huángdì) in China and throughout the rest of the world. Some refer to him as The Last Emperor of the Qing Dynasty (Chinese: 清末帝; pinyin: Qīng Mò Dì).

Due to his abdication, Puyi is also known as Xun Di (simplified Chinese: 逊帝; traditional Chinese: 遜帝; pinyin: Xùn Dì; literally "Yielded Emperor") or Fei Di (simplified Chinese: 废帝; traditional Chinese: 廢帝; pinyin: Fèi Dì; literally "Abrogated Emperor"). Sometimes a Qing (Chinese: 清; pinyin: Qīng) is added in front of the two titles to indicate his affiliation with the Qing Dynasty.

When Puyi ruled the puppet state of Manchukuo from 1934 to 1945, his era name was Kangde, so he was known as the Kangde Emperor (Chinese: 康德皇帝; pinyin: Kāngdé Huángdì) during that period of time.

Ancestry[link]

Paternal side[link]

A three year old Puyi (right), standing next to his father (Zaifeng, Prince Chun) and his younger brother Pujie

Puyi's great-grandfather was the Daoguang Emperor (r. 1820–1850), who was succeeded by his fourth son, the Xianfeng Emperor (r. 1850–1861).^[3][4]

Puyi's paternal grandfather was Yixuan, Prince Chun (1840–1891), the seventh son of the Daoguang Emperor and a younger half-brother of the Xianfeng Emperor. The Xianfeng Emperor was succeeded by his only son, who became the Tongzhi Emperor (r. 1861–1875).^[5]

The Tongzhi Emperor died at the age of 18 without a son, and was succeeded by the Guangxu Emperor (r. 1875–1908), son of 1st Prince Chun and Lady Yehenara Wanzhen (younger sister of Empress Dowager Cixi). The Guangxu Emperor died without an heir.^[6]

Puyi, who succeeded the Guangxu Emperor, was the eldest son of Zaifeng, Prince Chun, who was born to Yixuan, Prince Chun and his second concubine Lady Lingiya (1866–1925). Lady Lingiya used to be a maid in the residence of Yixuan. Born a Han Chinese, her original family name was Liu (劉), and this was changed to the Manchu clan name Lingiya when she became the concubine of Yixuan. Zaifeng was therefore a younger half-brother of the Guangxu Emperor and the first in line to succession after Guangxu.^[7]

Puyi was in a branch of the Aisin Gioro clan with close ties to Empress Dowager Cixi, who was from the Yehenara clan. Cixi's niece, who later became Empress Dowager Longyu (1868–1913), was married to the Guangxu Emperor.

Puyi had a younger full brother, Pujie (1907–1994), who married a cousin of Emperor Hirohito, Lady Hiro Saga. The rules of succession were changed to allow Pujie to succeed Puyi, who had no children.^[8][9]

Puyi's last surviving younger half-brother Puren (b. 1918) has adopted the Chinese name Jin Youzhi and currently still lives in China. In 2006 Jin Youzhi filed a lawsuit in regards to the rights to Puyi's image and privacy. The lawsuit claimed that those rights were violated by the exhibit "China's Last Monarch and His Family".^[10]

Puyi's second cousin,^[11] Pu Xuezhai (溥雪齋), was a musician who played the guqin, and an artist of Chinese painting.^[12]

Maternal side[link]

Puyi's mother was Youlan (1884–1921), the daughter of Ronglu (1836–1903), a statesman and general from the Guwalgiya clan. Ronglu was one of the leaders of the conservative faction in the Qing court, and a staunch supporter of Empress Dowager Cixi; Cixi rewarded his support by marrying his daughter, Puyi's mother, into the imperial family.

The Guwalgiya clan was regarded as one of the most powerful Manchu clans in the Qing Dynasty. Oboi, an influential military commander and statesman who was a regent during the Kangxi Emperor's reign, was from the Guwalgiya clan.^[13]

Chart showing the ancestors of Puyi[link]

Biography[link]

Emperor of China (1908–1912)[link]

Puyi in 1922

Chosen by Empress Dowager Cixi on her deathbed,^[6] Puyi became emperor at the age of 2 years and 10 months in December 1908 after the Guangxu Emperor died on 14 November. Titled the Xuantong Emperor, Puyi's introduction to the life of an emperor began when palace officials arrived at his family residence to take him. The toddler Puyi screamed and resisted as the officials ordered the eunuch attendants to pick him up.^[14] His father, Prince Chun, became Prince-Regent (摄政王). During Puyi's coronation in the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the young emperor was carried onto the throne by his father. Puyi was so frightened by the scene before him and the deafening sounds of ceremonial drums and music that he started crying. His father could do nothing except to quietly comfort him, "Don't cry, it'll be over soon."

Puyi's wet nurse, Wen-Chao Wang, was the only one who could console him, and therefore she accompanied him to the Forbidden City. Puyi did not see his biological mother, Princess Consort Chun, for the next seven years. He developed a special bond with Wen-Chao Wang and credited her with being the only person who could control him. She was sent away when he was eight years old. After Puyi married, he would occasionally bring her to the Forbidden City, and later Manchukuo, to visit him. After his special government pardon in 1959, he visited her adopted son and only then learned of her personal sacrifices to be his nurse.^[15]

Puyi's upbringing was hardly conducive to the raising of a healthy, well-balanced child. Overnight, he was treated as a god and unable to behave as a child. The adults in his life, except for his wet-nurse Wen-Chao Wang, were all strangers, remote, distant, and unable to discipline him. Wherever he went, grown men would kneel down in a ritual kowtow, averting their eyes until he passed. Soon the young Puyi discovered the absolute power he wielded over the eunuchs, and he frequently had them beaten for small transgressions.^[14]

Eunuchs and the Household Department[link]

Quotation of Puyi:^[16]

After his marriage, Puyi began to take control of the palace. He described "an orgy of looting" taking place that involved "everyone from the highest to the lowest". According to Puyi, by the end of his wedding ceremony, the pearls and jade in the empress's crown had been stolen.^[17] Locks were broken, areas ransacked, and on June 27, 1923, a fire destroyed the area around the Palace of Established Happiness. Puyi suspected it was arson to cover theft. The emperor overheard conversations among the eunuchs that made him fear for his life. In response, he evicted the eunuchs from the palace.^[18] His next plan of action was to reform the Household Department; the officials of which he appointed became so wealthy from theft and graft that they were able to run their own businesses outside the palace.^[19]

Abdication[link]

Puyi's father, Prince Chun, served as a regent until 6 December 1911 when Empress Dowager Longyu took over in the face of the Xinhai Revolution.^[3]

Empress Dowager Longyu endorsed the "Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor" (清帝退位詔書) on 12 February 1912, following the Xinhai Revolution, under a deal brokered by Yuan Shikai (a general of the Beiyang Army) with the imperial court in Beijing and the Republicans in southern China.^[20] Signed with the new Republic of China, Puyi was to retain his imperial title and be treated by the government of the Republic with the protocol attached to a foreign monarch. This was similar to Italy's Law of Guarantees (1870) which accorded the Pope certain honors and privileges similar to those enjoyed by the King of Italy.^[21] Puyi and the imperial court were allowed to remain in the northern half of the Forbidden City (the Private Apartments) as well as in the Summer Palace. A hefty annual subsidy of four million silver taels was granted by the Republic to the imperial household, although it was never fully paid and was abolished after just a few years.

The Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after his Abdication[link]

The document is dated 26 December 1914.^[22]

1. After the abdication of the Great Qing Emperor, his title of dignity is to be retained by the Republic of China with the courtesies which it is customary to accord to foreign monarchs.
2. After the abdication of the Great Qing Emperor, he will receive from the Republic of China an annual subsidy of 4,000,000 silver taels. After the reform of the currency this amount will be altered to $4,000,000 (max.).
3. After the abdication of the Great Qing Emperor, he may, as a temporary measure, continue to reside in the Palace (in the Forbidden City), but afterwards he will remove himself to the Summer Palace. He may retain his bodyguard.
4. After the abdication of the Great Qing Emperor, the temples and mausoleums of the imperial family with their appropriate sacrificial rites shall be maintained in perpetuity. The Republic of China will be responsible for the provision of military guards for their adequate protection.
5. As the Chong Mausoleum (崇陵) of the late Emperor Dezong (the Guangxu Emperor) has not yet been completed, the work will be carried out according to the proper regulations (relating to imperial tombs). The last ceremonies of sepulture will also be observed in accordance with the ancient rites. The actual expenses will all be borne by the Republic of China.
6. The services of all the persons of various grades hitherto employed in the Palace may be retained; but in future no eunuchs are to be added to the staff.
7. After the abdication of the Great Qing Emperor, his private property will be safeguarded and protected by the Republic of China.
8. The imperial guard corps as constituted at the time of the abdication will be placed under the military control of the War Office of the Republic of China. It will be maintained at its original strength and will receive the same emoluments as heretofore.

Brief restoration (1917)[link]

In 1917 the warlord Zhang Xun restored Puyi to the throne from July 1 to July 12.^[23] Zhang Xun ordered his army to keep their queues to display loyalty to the emperor. During that period of time, a small bomb was dropped over the Forbidden City by a Republican plane, causing minor damage.^[24] This is considered the first aerial bombardment ever in East Asia. The restoration failed due to extensive opposition across China, and the decisive intervention of another warlord, Duan Qirui.^[25]

Puyi was expelled from the Forbidden City in 1924 by the warlord Feng Yuxiang.^[26]

Residence in Tianjin (1924-1932)[link]

Following his expulsion from the Forbidden City, Puyi spent a few days at the house of his father Prince Chun, and then temporarily resided in the Japanese embassy for a year and a half.^[2] In 1925, he moved to the Quiet Garden Villa in the Japanese Concession in Tianjin.^[27] During this period, Puyi and his advisers Chen Baochen, Zheng Xiaoxu and Luo Zhenyu discussed plans to restore Puyi as Emperor. Zheng and Luo favoured enlisting assistance from external parties, while Chen opposed the idea. In September 1931 Puyi sent a letter to Jirō Minami, the Japanese Minister of War, expressing his desire to be restored to the throne.^[28] He was visited by Kenji Doihara, head of the espionage office of the Japanese Kwantung Army, who proposed establishing Puyi as head of a Manchurian state. In November 1931, Puyi and Zheng Xiaoxu traveled to Manchuria to complete plans for the puppet state of Manchukuo. The Chinese government ordered Puyi's arrest for treason, but was unable to breach the Japanese protection.^[2] Chen Baochen returned to Beijing where he died in 1935.^[29]

Ruler of Manchukuo (1932–1945)[link]

Puyi as Emperor of Manchukuo.

On 1 March 1932, Puyi was installed by the Japanese as the ruler of Manchukuo, considered by most historians as a puppet state of the Empire of Japan, under the reign title Datong (大同). In 1934, he was officially crowned the emperor of Manchukuo under the reign title Kangde (康德). He was constantly at odds with the Japanese in private, though submissive in public. He resented being "Head of State" and then "Emperor of Manchukuo" rather than being fully restored as a Qing Emperor. Puyi lived in a palace (now the Museum of the Imperial Palace of the Manchu State) in this period. At his enthronement he clashed with Japan over dress; they wanted him to wear a Manchukuo-style uniform whereas he considered it an insult to wear anything but traditional Manchu robes. In a typical compromise, he wore a Western military uniform to his enthronement^[30] (the only Chinese emperor ever to do so) and a dragon robe to the announcement of his accession at the Temple of Heaven.^[31]

Puyi's younger full brother Pujie, who married Lady Hiro Saga, a distant cousin to the Japanese Emperor Hirohito, was proclaimed heir apparent. The marriage had been politically arranged by Shigeru Honjō, a general of the Kwantung Army. Puyi thereafter would not speak candidly in front of his brother and refused to eat any food provided by Hiro Saga. Puyi was forced to sign an agreement that if he himself had a male heir, the child would be sent to Japan to be raised by the Japanese.^[32]

Puyi (right) as Emperor of Manchukuo. On the left is Chū Kudō.

From 1935 to 1945 Kwantung Army senior staff officer Yoshioka Yasunori (吉岡安則)^[33] was assigned to Puyi as Attaché to the Imperial Household in Manchukuo. He acted as a spy for the Japanese government, controlling Puyi through fear, intimidation, and direct orders.^[34] There were many attempts on Puyi's life during this period, including a 1937 stabbing by a palace servant.^[2] During Puyi's reign as Emperor of Manchukuo, his household was closely watched by the Japanese, who increasingly took steps toward the full Japanisation of Manchuria, to prevent him from becoming too independent. He was feted by the Japanese populace during his visits there, but had to remain subservient to Emperor Hirohito.^[35] It is unclear whether the adoption of ancient Chinese styles and rites, such as using "His Majesty" instead of his real name, was the product of Puyi's interest or a Japanese imposition of their own imperial house rules.

During these years, Puyi began taking a greater interest in traditional Chinese law and religion^[36] (such as Confucianism and Buddhism), but this was disallowed by the Japanese. Gradually his old supporters were eliminated and pro-Japanese ministers put in their place.^[37] During this period Puyi's life consisted mostly of signing laws prepared by Japan, reciting prayers, consulting oracles, and making formal visits throughout his state.^[2]

Later life (1945–1967)[link]

Puyi (right) and a Soviet military officer

At the end of World War II, Puyi was captured by the Soviet Red Army on 16 August 1945 while he was in an airplane fleeing to Japan.^[38] The Soviets took him to the Siberian town of Chita. He lived in a sanatorium, but was later taken to Khabarovsk near the Chinese border.

In 1946, he testified at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Tokyo,^[39] detailing his resentment of how he had been treated by the Japanese.

When the Chinese Communist Party under Mao Zedong came to power in 1949, Puyi was repatriated to China after negotiations between the Soviet Union and China.^[40][41] Except for a period during the Korean war, when he was moved to Harbin, Puyi spent ten years in the Fushun War Criminals Management Centre in Liaoning province until he was declared reformed. Puyi came to Peking in 1959 with special permission from Chairman Mao Zedong and lived the next six months in an ordinary Peking residence with his sister before being transferred to a government-sponsored hotel. He voiced his support for the Communists and worked at the Peking Botanical Gardens. At the age of 56, he married Li Shuxian, a hospital nurse, on 30 April 1962, in a ceremony held at the Banquet Hall of the Consultative Conference. He subsequently worked as an editor for the literary department of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, where his monthly salary was around 100 yuan,^[42] an office in which he served from 1964 until his death.

With encouragement from Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Zhou Enlai, and openly endorsed by the Chinese government, Puyi wrote his autobiography Wo De Qian Ban Sheng (Chinese: 我的前半生; pinyin: Wǒ Dè Qián Bàn Shēng; literally "The First Half of My Life"; translated in English as From Emperor to Citizen) in the 1960s together with Li Wenda, an editor of Peking's People Publishing Bureau. In the Oxford University edition of the book, in the chapter I Refuse to Admit My Guilt, he made this statement regarding his testimony at the Tokyo war crimes trial:^[43]

I now feel very ashamed of my testimony, as I withheld some of what I knew to protect myself from being punished by my country. I said nothing about my secret collaboration with the Japanese imperialists over a long period, an association to which my open capitulation after September 18, 1931 was but the conclusion. Instead, I spoke only of the way the Japanese had put pressure on me and forced me to do their will.

I maintained that I had not betrayed my country but had been kidnapped; denied all my collaboration with the Japanese; and even claimed that the letter I had written to Jirō Minami was a fake.^[28] I covered up my crimes in order to protect myself.

Death and burial[link]

Puyi's tomb in Yi County, Hebei, China.

Mao Zedong started the Cultural Revolution in 1966, and the youth militia known as the Red Guards saw Puyi, who symbolised Imperial China, as an easy target of attack. Puyi was placed under protection by the local public security bureau, although his food rations, salary, and various luxuries, including his sofa and desk, were removed. Puyi became affected physically and emotionally. He died in Peking of complications arising from kidney cancer and heart disease on 17 October 1967 at the age of 61.^[44]

In accordance with the laws of the People's Republic of China at the time, Puyi's body was cremated. His ashes were first placed at the Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery, alongside those of other party and state dignitaries. (This was the burial ground of imperial concubines and eunuchs prior to the establishment of the People's Republic of China.)

In 1995, as a part of a commercial arrangement, Puyi's widow transferred his ashes to a new commercial cemetery in return for monetary support. The cemetery is located near the Western Qing Tombs, 120 km (75 mi) southwest of Peking, where four of the nine Qing emperors preceding him are interred, along with three empresses and 69 princes, princesses and imperial concubines.^[45]

Family[link]

Quotation of Puyi:^[46]

The Pedigree of the Qing House flow chart can be found in Puyi's autobiography.^[47]

Siblings[link]

Puyi had three younger brothers:

• Pujie (1907–1994), Puyi's only full brother, courtesy name Junzhi (俊之), English name William. He married Tangshixia (唐石霞; courtesy name Yiying 怡瑩), divorced later. He married Hiro Saga and had two daughters. He had a minor role in the government of Manchukuo.
• Puqi (Chinese: 溥倛; Wade–Giles: Pu-chih; 1915–1918), died before he turned three years old.
• Puren (Chinese: 溥任; Wade–Giles: Pu-jen; b. 1918), changed his name to Jin Youzhi. He married Jin Yuting (金瑜庭) and had three sons and two daughters.

Puyi had seven younger sisters, only the first three were his full sisters:

• Yunying (simplified Chinese: 韫媖; traditional Chinese: 韞媖; Wade–Giles: Yun-ying; 1909–1925), married Empress Wanrong's older brother Runliang (潤良), had no children.
• Yunhe (simplified Chinese: 韫和; traditional Chinese: 韞和; Wade–Giles: Yun-ho; 1911–2001), changed her name to Jin Xinru (金欣如). She married Zheng Guangyuan (鄭廣元) and had a son and three daughters.
• Yunying (simplified Chinese: 韫颖; traditional Chinese: 韞穎; Wade–Giles: Yun-ing; 1913–1992), changed her name to Jin Ruixiu (金蕊秀), English name Lily. She married Empress Wanrong's younger brother Runqi (潤麒) and had two sons and a daughter.
• Yunxian (simplified Chinese: 韫娴; traditional Chinese: 韞嫻; Wade–Giles: Yun-hsien; 1914–2003), changed her name to Jin Yunxian (金韞嫻). She married Zhao Qifan (趙琪璠) and had a son and a daughter.
• Yunxing (simplified Chinese: 韫馨; traditional Chinese: 韞馨; Wade–Giles: Yun-hsing; 1917–1998), changed her name to Jin Ruijie (金蕊潔). She married Wan Jiaxi (萬嘉熙) and had three sons and a daughter.
• Yunyu (simplified Chinese: 韫娱; traditional Chinese: 韞娛; Wade–Giles: Yun-yu; 1919–1982), changed her name to Pu Yunyu (溥韞娛), courtesy name Ruile (蕊樂). She married Wanyan Ailan (完顏愛蘭) and had a son and four daughters.
• Yunhuan (simplified Chinese: 韫欢; traditional Chinese: 韞歡; Wade–Giles: Yun-huan; 1921–2004), infant name Ji (姞), changed her name to Jin Zhijian (金志堅), courtesy name Ruihan (蕊莟), pseudonym Biyue (璧月). She married Qiao Hongzhi (喬宏志) and had two sons and a daughter.

Spouses[link]

• Wanrong (1906–1946), married Puyi in 1922, was his Empress.
• Wenxiu (1909–1953), married Puyi in 1922, was his Consort Shu (淑妃).
• Tan Yuling (1920–1942), married Puyi in 1937, was his Concubine Xiang (祥貴人).
• Li Yuqin (1928–2001), married Puyi in 1943, was his Concubine Fu (福貴人).
• Li Shuxian (1925–1997), married Puyi in 1962.

Quotation of Puyi (referring to only the first four wives):^[48]

In detail

In 1921, it was decided by the Dowager Consorts (the four widows of the emperors before Puyi) that it was time for the 15 year old Puyi to be married, although court politics dragged the complete process (from selecting the bride, up through the wedding ceremony) out for almost two years. Puyi saw marriage as his coming of age benchmark, when others would no longer control him. He was given four photographs to choose from. Puyi stated they all looked alike to him, with the exception of different clothing. He chose Wenxiu. Political factions within the palace made the actual choice as to whom Puyi would marry. The selection process alone took an entire year.^[49]

Wanrong[link]

Puyi's second choice for his wife was Wanrong, a Daur. She married Puyi in 1922 and became his Empress. Her father, Rong Yuan (榮源), was a Minister of Domestic Affairs. She was considered beautiful and came from a wealthy family. By Puyi's own account, he abandoned Wanrong in the bridal chamber and went back to his own room.^[50] He maintained that she was willing to be a wife in name only, in order to carry the title of Empress. The couple's relationship was good initially, and Puyi showed preference over Wenxiu for Wanrong and displayed trust in her. However after Wenxiu left in 1931, Puyi blamed Wanrong and stopped speaking to her and ignored her presence.^[48] She became addicted to opium, and eventually died in a prison in Yanji, Jilin after being arrested by Chinese Communist soldiers.^[51]

Wenxiu[link]

Puyi's first choice for his wife was Wenxiu, from the Erdet (鄂爾德特) clan. She married Puyi in 1922. Although she was Puyi's first choice, the Four Dowager Consorts felt that Wenxiu came from an unacceptable impoverished family and was not beautiful enough to be Empress, so they told the court officials to ask Puyi to choose again. The second time Puyi chose Wanrong, who became Empress, while Wenxiu was designated as Consort Shu (淑妃). Puyi and Wenxiu divorced in 1931. Puyi awarded her a house in Beijing and $300,000 in alimony, to be provided by the Japanese.^[2] In his autobiography, Puyi stated her reason for the divorce was the emptiness of life with him in exile, her desire for an ordinary family life, and his own inability to see women as anything but slaves and tools of men. Puyi related that she never re-married, became a primary school teacher, and died in 1953.^[52]

Tan Yuling[link]

Puyi's third wife, Tan Yuling, was a Manchu of the Tatara (他他拉) clan. She married Puyi in 1937 at the age of 16 on the recommendation of the daughter of Yulang (毓朗), a beile. She was designated as Puyi's Concubine Xiang (祥貴人). Puyi married her as "punishment" for Wanrong, and, "...because a second wife was as essential as palace furniture." She was also a wife in name only. She became ill in 1942 with typhoid, which the Japanese doctor said would not be fatal. After the doctor's consultation with Attaché to the Imperial Household Yasunori Yoshioka, Tan Yuling suddenly died. Puyi became suspicious of the circumstances when the Japanese immediately offered him photographs of Japanese girls for marriage.^[53] Puyi posthumously granted her the title Noble Consort Mingxian (明賢貴妃).

Li Yuqin[link]

In 1943 Puyi married his fourth wife, a 15-year-old student named Li Yuqin, who was a Han Chinese from Changchun, Jilin. She was designated as Puyi's Concubine Fu (福貴人).^[54] In February 1943, school principal Kobayashi and teacher Fujii of the Nan-Ling Girls Academy took ten girl students to a photography studio for portraits. Three weeks later, the school teacher and the principal visited Li Yuqin's home and told her Puyi ordered her to go to the Manchukuo palace to study. She was first taken directly to Yasunori Yoshioka who thoroughly questioned her. Yoshioka then drove her back to her parents and told them Puyi ordered her to study at the palace. Money was promised to the parents. She was subjected to a medical examination and then taken to Puyi's sister Yunhe and instructed in palace protocol.^[55] Two years later when Manchukuo collapsed, Li Yuqin shared a train with Empress Wanrong, who was experiencing opium withdrawal symptoms at the time. They were both arrested by the Soviets and sent to a prison in Changchun. Li Yuqin was released in 1946 and sent back home. She worked in a textile factory while she studied the works of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin. In 1955 she began visiting Puyi in prison. After applying to the Chinese authorities for a divorce, the government responded on her next prison visit by showing her to a room with a double bed and ordered her to reconcile with Puyi, and she said the couple obeyed the order. She divorced Puyi in May 1957. She later married a technician, and had two sons.^[56] During the Cultural Revolution she became a target for attack by the Red Guards because she used to be Puyi's concubine. She died of liver problems in 2001.

Li Shuxian[link]

In 1962 under the arrangement of Zhou Enlai, Puyi married his fifth and last wife, Li Shuxian, a nurse of Han Chinese ethnicity. They had no children. She died of lung cancer in 1997.^[38] Li Shuxian recounted that they dated for six months before the marriage, and she found him to be, "...a man who desperately needed my love and was ready to give me as much love as he could."^[57]

Bibliography[link]

By Puyi[link]

• The autobiography of Puyi – ghost-written by Li Wenda. The title of the Chinese book is usually rendered in English as From Emperor to Citizen. The book was re-released in China in 2007 in a new corrected and revised version. Many sentences which had been deleted from the 1964 version prior to its publication were now included.
  • Aisin-Gioro, Puyi (1964, 1987, 2002). 我的前半生 [The First Half of My Life; From Emperor to Citizen: The Autobiography of Aisin-Gioro Puyi]. Foreign Languages Press. ISBN 978-7-119-00772-4.  Invalid language code. – original
  • Pu Yi, Henry (1967, 2010). The Last Manchu: The Autobiography of Henry Pu Yi, Last Emperor of China. Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60239-732-3.  Invalid language code. – translation

By others[link]

• Headland, Isaac Taylor (1909). Court life in China. F.H. Revell. ISBN 0-585-15029-X. http://www.romanization.com/books/courtlifeinchina/index.html. 
• Johnston, Reginald Fleming (1934, 2008). Twilight in the Forbidden City. Soul Care Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9680459-5-4
• Li Shuxian (1984, 1990, 2006). My Husband Puyi: Puyi yu wo / [Li Shuxian kou shu ; Wang Qingxiang zheng li ; Changchun shi zheng xie wen shi zi liao yan jiu wei yuan hui bian]. Chuan guo xin hua shu dian jing xiao. ISBN 978-7-208-00167-1. 

Puyi's fifth wife Li Shuxian. Memories of their life together were ghost written by Wang Qingxian. An English version translated by Ni Na was published by China Travel and Tourism Press.

• Behr, Edward (1998). The Last Emperor. Futura. ISBN 978-0-7088-3439-8. 

Companion to Bernardo Bertolucci's film of the same name.

Portrayal in media[link]

Film[link]

• The Last Emperor (Chinese title 火龍, literally means Fire Dragon), a 1986 Hong Kong film directed by Li Han-hsiang. Tony Leung Ka-fai played Puyi.

• The Last Emperor, a 1987 film directed by Bernardo Bertolucci. John Lone played the adult Puyi.

• Aisin-Gioro Puyi (愛新覺羅·溥儀), a 2005 Chinese documentary film on the life of Puyi. Produced by CCTV, it was part of a series of ten documentary films about ten historical persons.

• The Founding of a Party, a 2011 Chinese film directed by Huang Jianxin and Han Sanping. Child actor Yan Ruihan played Puyi.

• 1911, a 2011 historical film directed by Jackie Chan and Zhang Li. The film tells of the founding of the Republic of China when Sun Yat-sen led the Xinhai Revolution to overthrow the Qing Dynasty. The five year old Puyi is played by child actor Su Hanye. Although Puyi's time on screen is short, there are significant scenes showing how the emperor was treated at court before his abdication at the age of six.^[58]

Television[link]

• The Misadventure of Zoo, a 1981 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB. Adam Cheng played an adult Puyi.

• Modai Huangdi (末代皇帝; literally means The Last Emperor), a 1988 Chinese television series based on Puyi's autobiography From Emperor to Citizen, with Puyi's brother Pujie as a consultant for the series. Chen Daoming starred as Puyi.

• Feichang Gongmin (非常公民; literally means Extraordinary Citizen), a 2002 Chinese television series directed by Cheng Hao. Dayo Wong starred as Puyi.

• Ruten no Ōhi — Saigo no Kōtei (流転の王妃·最後の皇弟; Chinese title 流轉的王妃), a 2003 Japanese television series about Pujie and Hiro Saga. Wang Bozhao played Puyi.

• Modai Huangfei (末代皇妃; literally means The Last Imperial Consort), a 2003 Chinese television series. Li Yapeng played Puyi.

See also[link]

	Biography portal
	China portal
	Politics portal

• Dynasties in Chinese history
• List of monarchs who lost their thrones in the 20th and 21st centuries
• List of heads of regimes who were later imprisoned

Notes[link]

¹ Aisin-Gioro is the clan's name in Manchu, pronounced Àixīn Juéluó in Mandarin; Pǔyí is the Chinese given name as pronounced in Mandarin.

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Pu Yi

• "Five Wives of The Last Emperor Puyi". Cultural China. http://history.cultural-china.com/en/48History6760.html. Retrieved 9 August 2010. 
• Royalty.nu: Extended Bio
• TIME: Last Emperor's Humble Occupation
• Li Xin, Pu Yi's Widow Reveals Last Emperor's Soft Side
• Pu Ru (溥儒), Pu Yi's cousin, accomplished Chinese brush painter and calligrapher

v t e Pretenders to the Chinese throne since 1912 1912-1967 Emperor Puyi 1967-1994 Prince Pujie 1994-present Jin Youzhi See also Qing Dynasty and Ming Dynasty

v t e Pretenders to the Manchukuo throne since 1945 1945–1967 Kāngdé (Puyi) 1967–1994 Pǔjié 1994–present Pǔrèn (Jin Youzhi) See also Qīng Dynasty

"Emperor" is the normal translation of 皇帝 (huangdi), a Chinese term that is not to be confused with the homophonic 黄帝, which refers to the Yellow Emperor.

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2011)

Emperor of China
Former Monarchy
The Imperial Coat of arms of the Empire during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912)
The last emperor of China, Puyi, as the Emperor of Manchukuo
First monarch	Qin Shi Huang
Last monarch	Puyi
Style	Varies according to Dynasty
Official residence	Varies according to Dynasty, most recently the Forbidden City in Beijing
Monarchy started	221 BC
Monarchy ended	12 February 1912
Current pretender	Jin Youzhi (Qing Dynasty)

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

The Emperor of China (Chinese: 皇帝; pinyin: Huángdì, pronounced [xu̯ɑ̌ŋ tî]) refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning between the founding of Qin Dynasty of China, united by the King of Qin in 221 BCE, and the fall of Yuan Shikai's Empire of China in 1916. When referred to as the Son of Heaven (Chinese: 天子; pinyin: tiānzǐ, pronounced [ti̯ɛ́n tsɨ̀]), a title that predates the Qin unification, the Emperor was recognized as the ruler of "All under heaven" (i.e., the world). In practice not every Emperor held supreme power, though this was most often the case.^{[citation needed]}

Emperors from the same family are generally classified in historical periods known as Dynasties. Most of China's imperial rulers have commonly been considered members of the Han ethnicity, although recent scholarship tends to be wary of applying current ethnic categories to historical situations. During the Yuan and Qing dynasties China was ruled by ethnic Mongols and Manchus respectively after being conquered by them. The orthodox historical view over the years sees these as non-native dynasties that were sinicized over time, though some more recent scholars argue that the interaction between politics and ethnicity was far more complex.^[1] Nevertheless, in both cases these rulers had claimed the Mandate of Heaven to assume the role of traditional emperors in order to rule over China proper.

Origin and history[link]

Chinese feudal rulers with power over their particular fiefdoms were called Wang (王), roughly translated as King, but in fact somewhat amorphous and also readily maps to "duke" in English. In 221 BCE, after the then King of Qin completed the conquest of the various kingdoms/duchies of the Warring States Period, he adopted a new title to reflect his prestige as a ruler greater than the rulers before him. He created the new title Huangdi or "Emperor", and styled himself Shi Huangdi, the First Emperor. Before this, Huang (皇) and Di (帝) were given as titles of a number of rulers from the era known as the "sage kings" period, supposedly predating written history, but probably coinciding with or following the invention and early stages of evolution for the Chinese writing system. Huang (皇) was the title generally used for divine entities and legendary/deified rulers, and Di (帝) was used for feudal rulers of vassals who were themselves rulers of their own principalities.^{[citation needed]}

Though these words came to be used synonymously and interchangeably, at the time of Ying Zheng's rule, they were not used together, and would have carried the connotation of "The Holy Emperor" because Huang (皇) was previously associated with divine or deified entities. Furthermore, it is generally agreed upon that the founding of the dominant Chinese race, the Han 漢 race, was the result of the "Yellow Emperor" Huangdi 黃帝, who unified a federation of tribes to drive the other tribes out of central China as it was known then (today's northwestern China), and several imperial dynasties existed since the time of Huang Di and before the time of Ying Zheng, the last of which integral dynasties, the Zhou 周 dynasty, disintegrated and formed the "Warring Nations" which were principalities of various sizes roughly based on the feudal kingdoms and duchies as ascribed under the Zhou dynasty political system.^{[citation needed]} Ying Zheng, therefore, should really be called the re-unifier of the Chinese empire after the fall of the Zhou Dynasty, and his title should more correctly be rendered as "The First Holy Emperor" as opposed to the much less nuanced (and in fact much less accurate) "First Emperor."^{[citation needed]} This is further evidenced by the fact that Chinese emperors since Ying Zheng also typically took on the title 帝 rather than 皇帝, e.g. Han Wu Di 漢武帝 "Emperor Wu of Han [Dynasty]", and it was not until much later that the term Huang Di 皇帝 came to be used interchangeably with the shorter Di 帝.^{[citation needed]}

There is one minor exception to this interpretation in that, where the father of he who has ascended to the throne as emperor of China is still alive, this progenitor of the present emperor would be given the title Tai shang huang 太上皇, literally the "The Grand/Over-Emperor" or the "Grand Imperial Sire" or in the context of "Holy Emperor", the "Holy Imperial Sire." It is said that this practice was initiated by Liu Bang 劉邦, the founder of the Han Dynasty, in emulation of Ying Zheng (who granted his own father the title posthumously once he took on the new title of Huangdi 皇帝 for himself), because Liu Bang would not be bowed to by his own father, who was still technically a commoner.^{[citation needed]}

Chinese political theory does not totally discourage or prevent the rule of non-royals or foreigners holding the title of "Emperor of China". Historically, China has been divided, numerous times, into smaller kingdoms under separate rulers or warlords. The Emperor in most cases was the ruler of a united China, or must at least have claimed legitimate rule over all of China if he did not have de facto control. There have been a number of instances where there has been more than one "Emperor of All China" simultaneously in Chinese history. For example, various Ming Dynasty princes continued to claim the title after the founding of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), and Wu Sangui claimed the title during the Kangxi Emperor's reign. In dynasties founded by foreign conquering tribes that eventually became immersed in Chinese culture, politics, and society, the rulers would adopt the title of Emperor of China in addition to whatever titles they may have had from their original homeland. Thus, Kublai Khan was simultaneously Khagan of the Mongols and Emperor of China.^{[citation needed]}

Number of Emperors[link]

From the Qin Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, there were ^[2] 557 Emperors (including rules of minor states). Some, such as Li Zicheng and Yuan Shu, declared themselves Emperors and founded their own empires as a rival government to challenge the legitimacy of the existing Emperor. Among the most famous Emperors are Qin Shi Huang of the Qin Dynasty, Emperors Gaozu and Wu of the Han Dynasty, Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty, Kublai Khan of the Yuan Dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming Dynasty and the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing Dynasty.^[3]

The Emperor's words were considered sacred edicts (聖旨), and his written proclamations "directives from above" (上諭). In theory, the Emperor's orders were to be obeyed immediately. He was elevated above all commoners, nobility and members of the Imperial family. Addresses to the Emperor were always to be formal and self-deprecatory, even by the closest of family members.

In practice, however, the power of the emperor varied between different Emperors and different dynasties. Generally, in the Chinese dynastic cycle, Emperors founding a dynasty usually consolidated the Empire through absolute rule, examples including Shi Huang of the Qin Dynasty, Taizong of the Tang Dynasty, Kublai Khan of the Yuan Dynasty, and Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty. These emperors ruled as absolute monarchs throughout their reign, maintaining a centralized grip on the country. During the Song Dynasty, the Emperor's power was significantly overshadowed by the power of the chancellor.

The Emperor's position, unless deposed in a rebellion, was always hereditary, usually by agnatic primogeniture. As a result, many Emperors ascended the throne while still children. During these minorities, the Empress Dowager (i.e., the Emperor's mother) would possess significant power. In fact, the vast majority of female rulers throughout Chinese Imperial history came to power by ruling as regents on behalf of their sons; prominent examples include the Empress Lü of the Han Dynasty, as well as Empress Dowager Cixi and Empress Dowager Ci'an of the Qing Dynasty, who for a time ruled jointly as co-regents. Where Empresses Dowager were too weak to assume power, court officials often seized control. Court eunuchs had a significant role in the power structure, as Emperors often relied on a few of them as confidants, which gave them access to many court documents. In a few places, eunuchs wielded vast power; one of the most powerful eunuchs in Chinese history was Wei Zhongxian during the Ming Dynasty. Occasionally, other nobles seized power as regents. The actual area ruled by the Emperor of China varied from dynasty to dynasty. In some cases, such as during the Southern Song dynasty, political power in East Asia was effectively split among several governments; nonetheless, the political fiction that there was but one ruler was maintained.

Heredity and succession[link]

The title of emperor was hereditary, traditionally passed on from father to son in each dynasty. There are also instances where the throne is assumed by a younger brother, should the deceased Emperor have no male offspring. By convention in most dynasties, the eldest son born to the Empress (嫡長子) succeeded to the throne. In some cases when the empress did not bear any children, the emperor would have a child with another of his many wives (all children of the emperor were said also to be the children of the empress, regardless of birth mother). In some dynasties the succession of the empress' eldest son was disputed, and because many emperors had large numbers of progeny, there were wars of succession between rival sons. In an attempt to resolve after-death disputes, the emperor, while still living, often designated a Crown Prince (太子). Even such a clear designation, however, was often thwarted by jealousy and distrust, whether it was the crown prince plotting against the emperor, or brothers plotting against each other. Some emperors, like the Kangxi Emperor, after abolishing the position of Crown Prince, placed the succession papers in a sealed box, only to be opened and announced after his death.

Unlike, for example, the Japanese monarchy, Chinese political theory allowed for a change in the ruling house. This was based on the concept of the "Mandate of Heaven". The theory behind this was that the Chinese emperor acted as the "Son of Heaven" and held a mandate to rule over everyone else in the world; but only as long as he served the people well. If the quality of rule became questionable because of repeated natural disasters such as flood or famine, or for other reasons, then rebellion was justified. This important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties.

This principle made it possible even for peasants to found new dynasties, as happened with the Han and Ming dynasties, and for the establishment of conquest dynasties such as the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty and Manchu-led Qing Dynasty. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of the "Mandate of Heaven". There has been only one lawful reigning Empress in China, Empress Wu of the Tang dynasty or the Wu-Zhou (Wu-Chou) dynasty founded by her. Many females, however, did become de facto leaders, usually as Empress Dowager. Prominent examples include Empress Dowager Cixi, mother of the Tongzhi Emperor (1861–1874), and aunt and adoptive mother of the Guangxu Emperor (1874–1908), who ruled China for 47 years (1861–1908), Empress Wu Zetian (who ultimately declared herself Empress, and was subsequently overthrown) and the Empress Dowager Lü of the Han Dynasty.

Styles, names and forms of address[link]

To see naming conventions in detail, please refer to Chinese sovereign

As the emperor had, by law, an absolute position not to be challenged by anyone else, his subjects were to show the utmost respect in his presence, whether in direct conversation or otherwise. When approaching the Imperial throne, one was expected to kowtow before the Emperor. In a conversation with the emperor, it was considered a crime to compare oneself to the emperor in any way. It was taboo to refer to the emperor by his given name, even if it came from his own mother, who instead was to use Huangdi (Emperor), or simply Er ("son"). The emperor was never to be addressed as you. Anyone who spoke to the emperor was to address him as Bixia (陛下), corresponding to "Your Imperial Majesty", Huang Shang (皇上, lit. Emperor Above or Emperor Highness), Tian zi (天子, lit. the Son of Heaven ), or Sheng Shang (聖上, lit. the Divine Above or the Holy Highness). The emperor could also be alluded to indirectly through reference to the imperial dragon symbology. Servants often addressed the emperor as Wan Sui Ye (萬歲爺, lit. Lord of Ten thousand years). The emperor referred to himself as Zhen (朕), translated into the royal "We", in front of his subjects, a practice reserved solely for the emperor.

In contrast to the Western convention of referring to a sovereign using a regnal name (e.g. George V) or by a personal name (e.g. Queen Victoria), a governing emperor was to be referred to simply as Huangdi Bixia (皇帝陛下, His Majesty the Emperor) or Dangjin Huangshang (當今皇上, The Imperial Highness of the Present Time) when spoken about in the third person. He was usually styled His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the Great [X] Dynasty, Son of Heaven, Lord of Ten Thousand Years. Forms of address varied considerably during the Yuan and Qing Dynasties.

Generally, emperors also ruled with an era name (年號). Since the adoption of era name by Emperor Wu of Han and up until the Ming Dynasty, the sovereign conventionally changed the era name on a semi-regular basis during his reign. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, emperors simply chose one era name for their entire reign, and people often referred to past emperors with that title. In earlier dynasties, the emperors were known with a temple name (廟號) given after their death. All emperors were also given a posthumous name (謚號), which was sometimes combined with the temple name (e.g. Emperor Shengzuren 聖祖仁皇帝 for Kangxi). The passing of an emperor was referred to as jiabeng (駕崩, lit. "collapse of the [imperial] chariot") and an emperor that had just died was referred to as Daxing Huangdi (大行皇帝), literally "the Emperor of the Great Journey."

Family[link]

The Imperial family was made up of the Emperor and the Empress (皇后) as the primary consort and Mother of the Nation (國母). In addition, the Emperor would typically have several other consorts and concubines (妃嬪), ranked by importance into a harem, in which the Empress was supreme. Every dynasty had its set of rules regarding the numerical composition of the harem. During the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), for example, imperial convention dictated that at any given time there should be one Empress, one Huang Guifei, two Guifei, four fei and six pin, plus an unlimited number of other consorts and concubines. Although the Emperor had the highest status by law, by tradition and precedent the mother of the Emperor, i.e., the Empress Dowager (皇太后), usually received the greatest respect in the palace and was the decision maker in most family affairs. At times, especially when a young emperor was on the throne, she was the de facto ruler. The Emperor's children, the princes (皇子) and princesses (公主), were often referred to by their order of birth, e.g., Eldest Prince, Third Princess, etc. The princes were often given titles of peerage once they reached adulthood. The Emperor's brothers and uncles served in court by law, and held equal status with other court officials (子). The Emperor was always elevated above all others despite any chronological or generational superiority.

See also[link]

China portal

• Chinese emperors family tree
  • Ancient – Early – Middle – Late
• List of Chinese monarchs
• List of longest reigning emperors in China
• Terracotta Army

Notes[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Emperors of China

• PRC Qin Shi Huang site