Walking (also known as ambulation) is one of the main gaits of locomotion among legged animals, and is typically slower than running and other gaits. Walking is defined by an 'inverted pendulum' gait in which the body vaults over the stiff limb or limbs with each step. This applies regardless of the number of limbs - even arthropods with six, eight or more limbs.

The word ''walk'' is descended from the Old English ''wealcan'' "to roll". In humans and other bipeds, walking is generally distinguished from running in that only one foot at a time leaves contact with the ground and there is a period of double-support. In contrast, running begins when both feet are off the ground with each step. This distinction has the status of a formal requirement in competitive walking events. For quadrupedal species, there are numerous gaits which may be termed walking or running, and distinctions based upon the presence or absence of a suspended phase or the number of feet in contact any time do not yield mechanically correct classification. The most effective method to distinguish walking from running is to measure the height of a person's center of mass using motion capture or a force plate at midstance. During walking, the center of mass reaches a maximum height at midstance while during running, it is at a minimum. Definitions based on the percent of the stride during which a foot is in contact with the ground (averaged across all feet) of greater than 50% contact corresponds well with identification of 'inverted pendulum' mechanics and are indicative of walking for animals with any number of limbs, although this definition is incomplete. Running humans and animals may have contact periods greater than 50% of a gait cycle when rounding corners, running uphill or carrying loads.

Although walking speeds can vary greatly depending on factors such as height, weight, age, terrain, surface, load, culture, effort, and fitness, the average human walking speed is about 5.0 kilometres per hour (km/h), or about 3.1 miles per hour (mph). Specific studies have found pedestrian walking speeds ranging from 4.51 km/h to 4.75 km/h for older individuals to 5.32 km/h to 5.43 km/h for younger individuals. An average human child achieves independent walking ability around 11 months old.

A pedestrian is a person who is walking on a road, pavement or path.

Health benefits of walking[link]

Sustained walking sessions for a minimum period of thirty to sixty minutes a day, five days a week, with the correct walking posture, reduces health risks and has various overall health benefits, such as reducing the chances of cancer, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, anxiety and depression. Life expectancy is also increased even for individuals suffering from obesity or high blood pressure. Walking also increases bone health, especially strengthening the hip bone, and lowering the more harmful low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and raises the more useful good high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol.

Studies have found that walking can also prevent dementia and Alzheimer's.

Paleoanthropology and ambulation[link]

Judging from footprints discovered on a former shore in Kenya, it is thought possible that ancestors of modern humans were walking in ways very similar to the present activity as many as 1.5 million years ago.

Evolutionary origin of walking among all life forms[link]

There is reason to believe that "walking" among tetrapods originated underwater. It is theorized that air-breathing fish that could "walk" underwater, gave rise to the plethora of land-dwelling life that walks on four or two limbs.

Variants of walking[link]

While not strictly bipedal, several ''primarily'' bipedal human gaits (where the long bones of the arms support at most a small fraction of the body's weight) are generally regarded as variants of walking. These include:

Hand walking; an unusual form of locomotion, in which the walker moves primarily using their hands.

Walking on crutches (with a variety of possible gaits);

Walking with one or two walking stick(s) or trekking poles (reducing the load on one or both legs, or supplementing the body's normal balancing mechanisms by also pushing against the ground through at least one arm that holds a long object);

Walking while holding on to a walker, a framework to aid with balance; and

Scrambling, using the arms (and hands or some other extension to the arms) not just as a backup to normal balance, but, as when walking on talus, to achieve states of balance that would be impossible or unstable when supported solely by the legs.

Nordic walking, walking with ski poles in both hands, this form of walking simultaneously mobilises all motor organs and hence produces a greater cardio vascular workout than most walking styles.

Biomechanics [link]

Human walking is accomplished with a strategy called the double pendulum. During forward motion, the leg that leaves the ground swings forward from the hip. This sweep is the first pendulum. Then the leg strikes the ground with the heel and rolls through to the toe in a motion described as an inverted pendulum. The motion of the two legs is coordinated so that one foot or the other is always in contact with the ground. The process of walking recovers approximately sixty per cent of the energy used due to pendulum dynamics and ground reaction force.

Walking differs from a running gait in a number of ways. The most obvious is that during walking one leg always stays on the ground while the other is swinging. In running there is typically a ballistic phase where the runner is airborne with both feet in the air (for bipedals).

Another difference concerns the movement of the center of mass of the body. In walking the body "vaults" over the leg on the ground, raising the center of mass to its highest point as the leg passes the vertical, and dropping it to the lowest as the legs are spread apart. Essentially kinetic energy of forward motion is constantly being traded for a rise in potential energy. This is reversed in running where the center of mass is at its lowest as the leg is vertical. This is because the impact of landing from the ballistic phase is absorbed by bending the leg and consequently storing energy in muscles and tendons. In running there is a conversion between kinetic, potential, and elastic energy.

There is an absolute limit on an individual's speed of walking (without special techniques such as those employed in speed walking) due to the upwards acceleration of the center of mass during a stride - if it's greater than the acceleration due to gravity the person will become airborne as they vault over the leg on the ground. Typically however, animals switch to a run at a lower speed than this due to energy efficiencies.

As a leisure activity [link]

Many people walk as a hobby, and in the post-industrial age it is often enjoyed as one of the best forms of exercise.

Fitness walkers and others may use a pedometer to count their steps. The types of walking include bushwalking, racewalking, weight-walking, hillwalking, volksmarching, Nordic walking and hiking on long-distance paths. Sometimes people prefer to walk indoors using a treadmill. In some countries walking as a hobby is known as hiking (the typical North American term), rambling (a somewhat dated British expression, but remaining in use because it is enshrined in the title of the important Ramblers), or tramping. Hiking is a subtype of walking, generally used to mean walking in nature areas on specially designated routes or trails, as opposed to in urban environments; however, hiking can also refer to any long-distance walk. More obscure terms for walking include "to go by Marrow-bone stage", "to take one's daily constitutional", "to ride Shanks' pony", "to ride Shanks' mare", or "to go by Walker's bus". Among search and rescue responders, those responders who walk (rather than ride, drive, fly, climb, or sit in a communications trailer) often are known as "ground pounders".

The Walking the Way to Health Initiative is the largest volunteer led walking scheme in the United Kingdom. Volunteers are trained to lead free Health Walks from community venues such as libraries and GP surgeries. The scheme has trained over 35,000 volunteers and have over 500 schemes operating across the UK, with thousands of people walking every week.

Professionals working to increase the number of people walking more usually come from 6 sectors: health, transport, environment, schools, sport & recreation and urban design. A new organization called Walk England launched a web site on the 18th June 2008 to provide these professionals with evidence, advice and examples of success stories of how to encourage communities to walk more. The site has a social networking aspect to allow professionals and the public to ask questions, discuss, post news and events and communicate with others in their area about walking, as well as a "walk now" option to find out what walks are available in each region.

The world's largest registration walking event is the International Four Days Marches Nijmegen. The annual Labor Day walk on Mackinac Bridge draws over sixty thousand participants. The Chesapeake Bay Bridge walk annually draws over fifty thousand participants. Walks are often organized as charity events with walkers seeking sponsors to raise money for a specific cause. Charity walks range in length from two mile (3 km) or five km walks to as far as fifty miles (eighty km). The MS Challenge Walk is an example of a fifty mile walk which raises money to fight multiple sclerosis. The Oxfam Trailwalker is a one hundred km event.

In Britain, the Ramblers is the biggest organization that looks after the interests of walkers. A registered charity, it has 139,000 members. The Ramblers’ run Get Walking Keep Walking project provides free routes, led walks and information specifically designed for people new to walking.

Regular, brisk cycling or walking can improve confidence, stamina, energy, weight control, life expectancy and reduce stress. It can also reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, strokes, diabetes, high blood pressure, bowel cancer and osteoporosis. Modern scientific studies have shown that walking, besides its physical benefits, is also beneficial for the mind — improving memory skills, learning ability, concentration and abstract reasoning, as well as reducing stress and uplifting one's spirits.

As a form of tourism there are many options for walking. The most famous one would be "walking tours" normally offered in different cities by paid guide tours. However, there are some volunteers that can drive walking tours for tourists and do not charge for it, but just ask for a small tip at the end of the walk.

As transportation [link]

Walking is the most basic and common mode of transportation and is recommended for a healthy lifestyle, and has numerous environmental benefits. However people are walking less in the UK, a Department of Transport report found that between 1995/97 and 2005 the average number of walk trips per person fell by 16%, from 292 to 245 per year. Many professionals in local authorities and the NHS are employed to halt this decline by ensuring that the built environment allows people to walk and that there are walking opportunities available to them.

"Walking is convenient, it needs no special equipment, is self-regulating and inherently safe. Walking is as natural as breathing." John Butcher, Founder Walk21, 1999

On roads with no sidewalks, pedestrians should always walk facing the oncoming traffic for their own and other people's safety.

When distances are too great to be convenient, walking can be combined with other modes of transportation, such as cycling, public transport, car sharing, carpooling, hitchhiking, ride sharing, car rentals and taxis. These methods may be more efficient or desirable than private car ownership, being a healthy means of physical exercise.

Walkability[link]

There has been a recent focus among urban planners in some communities to create pedestrian-friendly areas and roads, allowing commuting, shopping and recreation to be done on foot. The concept of walkability has arisen as a measure of the degree to which an area is friendly to walking. Some communities are at least partially car-free, making them particularly supportive of walking and other modes of transportation. In the United States, the Active Living network is an example of a concerted effort to develop communities more friendly to walking and other physical activities.

Walking is also considered to be a clear example of a sustainable mode of transport, especially suited for urban use and/or relatively shorter distances. Non-motorised transport modes such as walking, but also cycling, small-wheeled transport (skates, skateboards, push scooters and hand carts) or wheelchair travel are often key elements of successfully encouraging clean urban transport. A large variety of case studies and good practices (from European cities and some worldwide examples) that promote and stimulate walking as a means of transportation in cities can be found at Eltis, Europe's portal for local transport.

The development of specific rights of way with appropriate infrastructure can promote increased participation and enjoyment of walking. Examples of types of investment include pedestrian malls, and foreshoreways such as oceanways and riverwalks.

In robotics [link]

The first successful attempts at walking robots tended to have six legs. The number of legs was reduced as microprocessor technology advanced, and there are now a number of robots that can walk on two legs. One for example, is ASIMO. Although robots have taken great strides in advancement, they still don't walk nearly as well as human beings as they often need to keep their knees bent permanently in order to improve stability.

See also [link]

Carrying on the head

Flâneur

Footpath

Gait training

International charter for walking

List of U.S. cities with most pedestrian commuters

Military step

The Ministry of Silly Walks

Nordic Walking

Outdoor education

Pedestrian-friendly

Power Walking

Relay for Life

Sustainable transport

Terrestrial locomotion in animals

Trail

Walking distance measure

Walking fish

Walking stick

Walking tour

Walking (film)

Notes [link]

Bibliography[link]

Nicholson, Geoff, ''The Lost Art of Walking'', Harbour Books, 2010. ISBN 978-1-905128-15-0

External links [link]

European Local Transport Information Service (ELTIS) provides case studies concerning walking as a local transport concept.

ar:مشي br:Kerzhout ceb:Paglakaw cs:Chůze cy:Cerdded de:Gehen et:Kõndimine eo:Irado fa:پیاده‌روی fr:Marche ko:걷기 hi:चलना is:Ganga he:הליכה nl:Wandelen ja:歩行 ru:Ходьба человека simple:Walk sk:Chôdza su:Leumpang fi:Kävely sv:Gång te:నడవడం th:การเดิน yi:גיין

name	Mayer Hawthorne
background	solo_singer
birth name	Andrew Mayer Cohen
birth date	February 02, 1979
alias	Haircut
origin	Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
instruments	Vocals, multi-instrumentalist
genre	Soul, neo soul
occupation	Singer, producer, songwriter, arranger, audio engineer, DJ, rapper and multi-instrumentalist
years active	2008–present
label	Stones Throw Records, Universal Republic
website	StonesThrow.com/MayerHawthorne }}

Mayer Hawthorne (born Andrew Mayer Cohen; February 2, 1979) is an American singer, producer, songwriter, arranger, audio engineer, DJ, rapper and multi-instrumentalist based in Los Angeles, California, USA. The stage name "Mayer Hawthorne" is a combination of Cohen's real middle name (Mayer) and the name of the street he grew up on in Michigan (Hawthorne Rd). "Mayer Hawthorne and The County" is a name Cohen often uses when performing or recording as Mayer Hawthorne with other artists. In Cohen's words, "The County" is basically anyone who plays an instrument or sings on his album. It is also his band when he performs live. Cohen also performs and records hip hop under the stage name Haircut, sometimes as part of the groups Now On and Athletic Mic League.

Life and career[link]

Born and raised in Ann Arbor, Michigan, Hawthorne moved to Los Angeles in 2008 and was eventually signed to Stones Throw Records by label head Peanut Butter Wolf. Originally the Mayer Hawthorne tracks were meant to be just side projects for pleasure, but upon hearing them Peanut Butter Wolf insisted they be made into an album. Hawthorne has had no previous vocal training.

Mayer Hawthorne draws influence from the music of Curtis Mayfield, Isaac Hayes, Leroy Hutson, Mike Terry, Barry White, Smokey Robinson and the legendary songwriting and production trio of Lamont Dozier, Brian Holland, and Edward Holland, Jr. (known collectively as Holland–Dozier–Holland). Taking umbrage at the notion that his is a purely "throwback" soul sound, however, Hawthorne also cites more contemporary artists, such as J-Dilla, as significant influences.

Hawthorne has performed with major acts such as Bruno Mars, Amy Winehouse and Chromeo.

His debut single, "Just Ain't Gonna Work Out"/"When I Said Goodbye", was released on a red heart-shaped 7" record on Stones Throw Records on November 4, 2008. His second single "Maybe So, Maybe No"/"I Wish It Would Rain" was released on a 12" record on Stones Throw Records on April 19, 2009. His debut album, ''A Strange Arrangement'' was released on CD and LP on Stones Throw Records on September 8, 2009.

In July 2009, Hawthorne was featured on the cover of the third anniversary issue of ''Beyond Race Magazine (BRM).''

The song "When I Said Goodbye", was featured in the Kanye West/Spike Jonze short film ''We Were Once a Fairytale''.

Hawthorne's song, "Your Easy Lovin' Ain't Pleasin' Nothin'" was featured in the fourth season of ''Ugly Betty'' in its finale episode, "Hello Goodbye". The song begins in the scene at Betty's goodbye party when Marc asks Troy if he would like to dance.

In 2011, Hawthorne performed guest vocals for the SebastiAn song "Love in Motion" featured on SebastiAn's 2011 album ''Total''.

Discussing ''How Do You Do'', Hawthorne says, "I found my own unique sound on this album, which I'm excited about." The album has a vintage sound, which involves twelve '70s inspired tracks, filled with orchestral pop and funky bass lines—"I've taken what I can from the classic heroes of soul and updated it with the music I grew up listening to and loving like Public Enemy and Juan Atkins and Cybotron." Despite Hawthorne's jazz sound, he first found his musical voice in hip-hop and rap from his father, who plays in a band in Detroit, Michigan.

On July 15, 2011, Mayer Hawthorne was a guest, along with famed Memphis/Stax Records keyboardist Booker T. Jones, on Episode 43 of Daryl Hall's "Live from Daryl's House" Webcast. Hawthorne, Hall, and Jones combined with Hall's house band on "Strange Arrangement," "Green Onions", "No Strings," "Just Ain't Gonna Work Out," and "Your Easy Lovin' Ain't Pleasin' Nothin'" and Hall's "You Make My Dreams Come True" and "Private Eyes." During Hall's dinner for the group, Hawthorne stated that, when working as a hip-hop DJ, he began recording his own Motown-style tracks to avoid paying fees for sampling other artists' work. He also played all the instruments on each of those tracks, in addition to recording all his own vocals.

Mayer Hawthorne and The County were musical guests on the Conan O'Brien Show on October 17, 2011, and the David Letterman Show on October 25, 2011. On both shows, the group performed their first single from ''How Do You Do'' entitled "The Walk."

Discography[link]

Singles[link]

"Just Ain't Gonna Work Out"/"When I Said Goodbye" 7" single (November 4, 2008, Stones Throw Records, STH7028)

"The Ills"/"The Ills (instrumental)" 7" single (2009, Stones Throw Records, STH7035)

"Maybe So, Maybe No"/"I Wish It Would Rain" 12" single (April 19, 2009, Stones Throw Records, STH2212)

"No Strings" 10" single (April, 2011, Stones Throw Records, STH2265)

"A Long Time" digital single (May, 2011, Universal Republic)

"The Walk" (August, 2011, Universal Republic) #45 US Rock Songs

"Thin Moon" (2011, Stones Throw Records)

"Dreaming" (2011, Universal Republic Records)

Albums[link]

''A Strange Arrangement'' CD/LP (September 8, 2009, Stones Throw Records, STH2219-Deluxe, STH2230-Standard)

''Mayer Hawthorne & The County Direct to Disc'' 2LP (2011, Stones Throw Records, STH2273)

''How Do You Do'' (October 11, 2011, Universal Republic)

Other[link]

''A Few Tracks'' CD (promo)

''Impressions – The Covers'' EP (available for free download)

Guest appearances[link]

"All Your Goodies Are Gone" (Dennis Coffey single)

"Swimsuits" (The Cool Kids single from ''When Fish Ride Bicycles'')

References[link]

External links[link]

Liveagl.com

Mayer Hawthorne on Stones Throw Records

Mayer Hawthorne on Beyond Race Magazine (BRM)

Mayer Hawthorne aka Haircut on A-Side Worldwide

Mayer Hawthorne Fan Group SoulRnB.com

Category:Stones Throw Records artists Category:1979 births Category:Living people Category:Blue-eyed soul singers

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