Daniel François Esprit Auber

Daniel François Esprit Auber (French pronunciation: [daɲɛl fʁɑ̃swa ɛspʁi obɛːʁ]) (29 January 1782 – 12/13 May 1871) was a French composer.

Biography[link]

The son of a Paris print-seller, Auber was born in Caen in Normandy. Though his father expected him to continue in the print-selling business, he also allowed his son to learn how to play several musical instruments. His first teacher was the Tirolean composer, Josef Alois Ladurner (1769–1851). At the age of 20 Auber was sent to London for business training, but he was obliged to leave England in 1804 when the Treaty of Amiens was breached.

Daniel François Esprit Auber

Auber had already attempted musical composition, and at this period produced several concertos pour basse, modeled after violoncellist Lamarre, in whose name they were published. The praise given to his concerto for the violin, which was played at the Paris Conservatoire by Mazas, encouraged him to undertake a resetting of an old comic opera, Julie (1811). He also began to study with the renowned Luigi Cherubini.

In 1813 the unfavourable reception of his one-act debut opera Le Séjour militaire put an end for some years to his attempts as composer. But his failure in business, and the death of his father in 1819, compelled him once more to turn to music. He produced another opera, Le Testament et les billets-doux (1819), which was no better received than the former. But he persevered, and the next year was rewarded by the complete success of La Bergère châtelaine, an opera in three acts.

This was the first in a long series of brilliant successes. In 1822 began his long association with librettist Eugène Scribe. Their first opera, Leicester, shows evidence of the influence of Gioacchino Rossini in its musical style. Auber soon developed his own voice, however: light, vivacious, graceful, and melodious—characteristically French. Le maçon (1825) was his first major triumph, staying in the repertory until the 20th century, with 525 performances at the Opéra-Comique alone. An ensemble from the latter found its way into Herold's ballet La Somnambule (source of Bellini's La sonnambula) as an air parlante (a way of explicating the plot through the words of a relevant operatic aria or salon piece).

Portrait of D.F.E. Auber from sheet music for Lestocq (Boston: William H. Oakes, 19th c.)

Auber achieved another triumph in La muette de Portici, also known as Masaniello after its hero. Produced in Paris in 1828, it rapidly became a European favorite, and the foundation work of a new genre, grand opera, that was consolidated by Rossini's Guillaume Tell the following year. Its characteristic features are a private drama staged in the context of a significant historical event in which the chorus is dramatically engaged as a representative of the people, varied and piquant musical textures, grandiloquent marches, spectacular scenic effects and a statutory ballet. The duet from La Muette, Amour sacré de la patrie (meaning "Sacred Love of the Homeland"), was welcomed as a new Marseillaise; its performance at Brussels on 25 August 1830, in which Adolphe Nourrit sang the leading tenor role, engendered a riot that became the signal for the Belgian Revolution that drove out the Dutch. La Muette broke ground also in its use of a ballerina in a leading role (the eponymous mute), and includes long passages of mime music.

Official and other dignities testified to the public appreciation of Auber's works. In 1829 he was elected a member of the Institute. Fra Diavolo,which premiered on 28 January 1830, was his most successful opera. That same year, 1830, he was named director of the court concerts. Next year, on 20 June 1831, he had another big success, with Le Philtre, starring the great tenor, Adolphe Nourrit. The libretto was translated into Italian and set by Donizetti as L'elisir d'amore, one of the most successful comic operas of all time.

Two years later, on 27 February 1833, Gustave III, his second grand opera, also triumphed and stayed in the repertory for years. The libretto was to be used twice more, first by Saverio Mercadante for Il reggente, with the action transferred to Scotland, and, next by Giuseppe Verdi, as Un ballo in maschera. He enjoyed several more successes, all at the Opéra-Comique. These were Le cheval de bronze (1835), L'Ambassadrice (1836), Le domino noir (1837), Les diamants de la couronne (1841) and La part du diable (1843).

Daniel François Esprit Auber (1869)

In the meantime, in 1842, at the wish of King Louis Philippe, he succeeded Cherubini as director of the Conservatoire. Auber was also a member of the Legion of Honour from 1825, and attained the rank of commander in 1847. That year also saw the premiere of Haydée, another opéra comique, even though it was on a serious subject. The tenor lead in Haydée was sung by the same Gustave Roger who, two years later, created the title role in Meyerbeer's Le Prophète at the Opéra. Napoleon III made Auber his Imperial Maître de Chapelle in 1857.

In his later years, Auber's output slowed down considerably. The 1850s were marked by Manon Lescaut, an opéra comique with a tragic end (1856), and revisions of Le cheval de bronze and Fra Diavolo (both 1857). He had one major success in the 1860s: Le premier jour de bonheur (Opéra comique, 1868). Despite his slowdown in composing, he remained a well-loved figure, known for witty sayings and personal generosity. He survived the German siege of Paris in 1870–71, but died during the upheaval of the Paris Commune on 12 or 13 May 1871.

Today, the Rue Auber leads up to the Paris Opera House and the nearest RER station is called Auber.

Works[link]

See List of operas by Auber

References[link]

Sources

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 
• Daniel Auber at findagrave.com
• Kohut, Adolph, Auber, in Musiker Biographien Leipzig, Volume XVII, 1895.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Daniel-François-Esprit Auber

• Free scores by Daniel Auber at the International Music Score Library Project
• Free scores by Daniel Auber in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)

Daniel
Daniel's Answer to the King by Briton Rivière
Prophet
Born	7th Century B.C
Died	6th Century B.C Babylon (?)
Honored in	Roman Catholic Church Eastern Catholic Churches Eastern Orthodox Church Lutheranism adventism Islam[1] Armenian Apostolic Church
Major shrine	Tomb of Daniel, Susa, Iran
Feast	July 21 December 17
Attributes	Often depicted in the den of the lions

Daniel (Hebrew: דָּנִיֵּאל, Modern Daniyyel Tiberian Dāniyyêl ; Arabic: دانيال, meaning in Hebrew "God is my Judge") is the protagonist in the Book of Daniel of the Hebrew Bible. In the narrative, when Daniel was a young man, he was taken into Babylonian captivity where he was educated in Chaldean thought. However, he never converted to Neo-Babylonian ways. By Divine Wisdom from his God, Yahweh, he interpreted dreams and visions of kings, thus becoming a prominent figure in the court of Babylon. Eventually, he had apocalyptic visions of his own that have been interpreted as the Four monarchies. Some of the most famous tales of Daniel are: Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, The writing on the wall and Daniel in the lions' den.

Narrative of Daniel[link]

Induction into Babylon[link]

Daniel refusing to eat at the King's table, early 1900s Bible illustration

In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim (BC 606), Daniel and his friends Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah were among the young Jewish nobility carried off to Babylon. The four were chosen for their intellect and beauty to be trained as advisors to the Babylonian court,(Daniel 1) Daniel was given the name Belteshazzar, i.e., prince of Bel, or Bel protect the king!(not to be confused with the neo-Babylonian king, Belshazzar). Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah were given the Babylonian names, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, respectively.^[2]

Daniel and Nebuchadnezzar[link]

In the narrative of Daniel chapter 2, it is the second year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar and the king is distressed by his dreams.^[v.1] Thus he summons his interpreters,^[v.2] however, they are unable to relay or interpret the dreams.^[v.10-11] The King acts in fury and demands the execution of all the wise men in Babylon.^[v.12] When Daniel discovers the King's executive order, he requests from the captain of the guard, Arioch, to see the King.^[v.13-16] Daniel prays for God’s mercy to receive a revelation from the King’s dream.^[v.15-18] God then reveals the mystery to Daniel in a vision that night.^[v.19] Daniel praises his God with a doxology.^[v.20-23] After meeting with Arioch again, Daniel is granted access to the king^[v.24-30] and relays the description of the dream,^[v.31-36] followed by its interpretation.^[v.37-45] With Daniel's successful interpretation of the dream, the king expresses homage,^[v.46] followed by his own doxology that affirms that Daniel's God is God of gods for revealing this mystery of his dream.^[v.47] Daniel is then promoted as chief governor over the whole province of Babylon.^[v.48] At Daniel’s request, his companions are also promoted, thus they remain at the king’s court.^[v.49][3]

Nebuchadnezzar's madness[link]

Nebuchadnezzar recounts a dream of a huge tree which is suddenly cut down at the command of a heavenly messenger. Daniel is summoned and interprets the dream. The tree is Nebuchadnezzar himself, who for seven years will lose his mind and become like a wild beast. All of this comes to pass until, at the end of the specified time, Nebuchadnezzar acknowledges that "heaven rules" and his kingdom and sanity are restored and his kingdom is restored to him.

Daniel and Belshazzar[link]

In Daniel's later years, king Belshazzar holds a great feast for all his nobles. In a drunken state, the king calls for the sacred vessels captured from the Jerusalem temple and blasphemously drinks from them. Suddenly, the fingers of a man's hand appear before the king and write on the wall of the palace. When none of his wise men are able to interpret the message, Daniel is called in at the suggestion of the queen-mother. After reprimanding the king for his impiety, Daniel interprets the handwriting on the wall to mean that Belzhazzar is about to lose his kingdom to the Medes and the Persians. For successfully reading the cryptic handwriting, Daniel is rewarded with a purple robe and elevated to the rank of "third ruler" of the kingdom. "That very night", we are told, "Belshazzar, king of the Babylonians, was slain" and his successor was King Darius the Mede, aged 62.

Daniel in the Lion's den protected by an angel by François Verdier

Daniel and Darius the Mede[link]

After the Persian conquest of Babylon, Daniel is depicted as one of three senior administrators of the empire in the reign of Darius the Mede. When the king decides to set Daniel over the whole kingdom, the other officials plot his downfall. Unable to uncover any corruption, they use Daniel's religious devotion to defeat him. The officials trick the king into issuing an irrevocable decree that no god is to be worshiped for a thirty day period. When Daniel continues to pray three times a day towards Jerusalem, he is thrown into a den of lions, much to the distress of Darius. After an angel shuts the lions' mouths, Daniel is delivered and his opponents thrown into the den where they are devoured instantly.

Daniel's visions[link]

Daniel's ministry as a prophet began late in life. Whereas his early exploits were a matter of common knowledge within his community, these same events, with his pious reputation, serve as the basis for his prophetic ministry. The recognition for his prophetic message is that of other prophets like Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel whose backgrounds are the basis for their revelations.

From Chapter 7 to the end of the book of Daniel, an apocalyptic vision is being described, supposedly from the perspective of Daniel.^[2] This marks a change in the narrative from Daniel interpreting to messengers of God interpreting for Daniel. Daniel dreams of four beasts that come out of the sea: a lion with eagles wings, a bear with three tusks, a leopard with four wings and four heads, and a beast with iron teeth, ten horns and one little horn and human eyes.(Daniel 7:4-8) These beasts are all present at a convening of the divine counsel. Presiding over the counsel is the Ancient of Days, which may, in fact, be the Israelite God.^[2] The Ancient One proceeds to put to death the beast with the one little horn. (Daniel 7:9-11) Daniel also describes the fates of the other beasts saying that while their dominion was taken away, their lives were prolonged. (Daniel 7:12) This introduction leads into a series of dreams and visions where these events are expressed in greater detail.

Scholars argue that each of these beasts represent an emperor or kingdom that ruled over the Israelites. The first being Babylon, then Media, then Persia, and finally the Greeks. The horns of the last beast may be symbolic of the rulers that replaced Alexander the Great upon his death, culminating with the little horn, or Antiochus IV.^[2] There are additional details in the text that allude to Antiochus IV, including some form of desecration to the temple (Daniel 11:31) and persecution (Daniel 11:23).^[2] The final message of the second half of Daniel is that God will deliver the people from oppression, the latest of which is Antiochus IV.^[2]

Daniel's final days[link]

The time and circumstances of Daniel's death have not been recorded. However, tradition maintains that Daniel was still alive in the third year of Cyrus according to the Tanakh (Daniel 10:1). He would have been almost 100 years old at that point, having been brought to Babylon when he was in his teens, more than 80 years previously. Many^[who?] posit that he possibly died at Susa in Iran. Tradition holds that his tomb is located in Susa at a site known as Shush-e Daniyal. Other locations have been claimed as the site of his burial, including Daniel's Tomb in Kirkuk, Iraq, as well as Babylon, Egypt, Tarsus and, notably, Samarkand, which claims a tomb of Daniel (see "The Ruins of Afrasiab" in the Samarkand article), with some traditions suggesting that his remains were removed, perhaps by Tamerlane, from Susa to Samarkand (see, for instance, Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, section 153).

References to Daniel[link]

Tomb of Daniel at Susa, Iran.

Book of Ezekiel[link]

The prophet Ezekiel, with whom Daniel was a contemporary, describes a Daniel as a "pattern of righteousness" in the Book of Ezekiel 14:14, 20 and "wisdom" (28:3).^[4] In the Book of Daniel, the name is spelled with a middle letter suggesting the i of that name — but this letter is not included in Ezekiel,^[5] suggesting that the reference there may be to another person, possibly the "Danel" ("Judgement of God") known from Caananite Ugaritic literature (such as the Epic of Aqhat and Anat), whose reputation for wisdom and righteousness had made him legendary. (Vowel-points were not added to the consonantal Hebrew text before well into the Common Era, and the scribes may then have slipped in a vowel-point for "i" as a middle syllable.)

Bel and the Dragon[link]

In the Deuterocanonical portion of Daniel known as Bel and the Dragon, the prophet Habakkuk is miraculously transported by an angel to take a meal to Daniel while he is in the lions' den. In response, Daniel prays, "Thou hast remembered me, O God; neither hast thou forsaken them that seek Thee and love Thee".^[6]

Six tombs of Daniel[link]

There are six different locations claiming to be the site of the tomb of the biblical figure Daniel: Babylon, Kirkuk and Muqdadiyah in Iraq, Susa and Malamir in Iran, and Samarkand in Uzbekistan.

Religious perspectives[link]

Rabbinic literature[link]

According to Rabbinical tradition, Daniel was of royal descent; and his fate, together with that of his three friends, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, was foretold by the prophet Isaiah to King Hezekiah in these words, "and they shall be eunuchs in the palace of the king of Babylon".^{Isaiah 39:7[7][8]}

According to this view, Daniel and his friends were eunuchs, and were consequently able to prove the groundlessness of charges of immorality brought against them, which had almost caused their death at the hands of the king.^[8]

Daniel on the window in the church of St Daniel in Celje (Slovenia)

Islamic views[link]

Muslims traditionally consider Daniel (Arabic: دانيال, Danyal) as an Islamic prophet, alongside the other major prophets of the Old Testament. Although Daniel is not mentioned in the Qur'an, there are accounts of Daniel's life which feature in later Muslim literature. There are debates, however, that go on about Daniel's time of preaching and some Muslims believe that he was not a prophet but a saintly man. Daniel is listed as a prophet in all major versions of Stories of the Prophets.^[9] When the Muslims conquered Alexandria in 641 C.E, a mosque was immediately built dedicated to Daniel.^[10]

Muslim literature[link]

Muslim exegesis, including Tabari's History of the Prophets and Kings narrates that Daniel was carried off to Babylon after Nebuchadnezzar's attack on Jerusalem. It goes onto state that there he was thrown into the den of the lions, but was later rescued. In one such account, Daniel is aided by Jeremiah, who comes to Babylon to help Daniel in the lions den.^[11] In the apocryphal Bel and the Dragon, however, there is a very similar tale which states that the Hebrew prophet Habbakuk was miraculously transported to the den of the lions, to give a meal to Daniel.

All sources, classical and modern, describe Daniel as a saintly and spiritual man. Abdullah Yusuf Ali, in his Qur'anic commentary says:

Daniel was a righteous man of princely lineage and lived about 506-538 B.C. He was carried off to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, the Assyrian, but was still living when Assyria was overthrown by the Medes and Persians. In spite of the "captivity" of the Jews, Daniel enjoyed the highest offices of state at Babylon, but he was ever true to Jerusalem. His enemies (under the Persian monarch) got a penal law passed against any one who "asked a petition of any god or man for 30 days" except the Persian King. But Daniel continued true to Jerusalem. "His windows being open in his chambers towards Jerusalem, he kneeled upon his knees three times a day, and prayed, and gave thanks before his God, as he did aforetime."

—Abdullah Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation and Commentary^[12]

Commemorations[link]

Eastern Orthodox commemorations[link]

On the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, the feast days celebrating St. Daniel the Prophet together with the Three Young Men, falls on December 17 (during the Nativity Fast), on the Sunday of the Holy Forefathers^[13] (the Sunday which falls between 11 and 17 December), and on the Sunday before Nativity.^[14] Daniel's prophesy regarding the stone which smashed the idol (Daniel 2:34-35) is often used in Orthodox hymns as a metaphor for the Incarnation: the "stone cut out" being symbolic of the Logos (Christ), and the fact that it was cut "without hands" being symbolic of the virgin birth. Thus the hymns will refer to the Theotokos (Virgin Mary) as the "uncut mountain"

Roman Catholic Commemorations[link]

The Roman Catholic Church commemorates St. Daniel in the Roman Martyrology on July 21.^[15] However, his commemoration at Mass occurs only on local calendars of particular dioceses, sometimes on July 21 and sometimes on another day. For example, the archdiocese of Gorizia celebrates the feast of St. Daniel, prophet and confessor, on September 11. The reading of the Mass is taken from the Book of Daniel, chapter 14; the Gradual from Psalm 91; the Alleluia verse from the Epistle of James 1; and the Gospel from Matthew 24.^[16]

Coptic Church Commemoration[link]

The prophet is commemorated in the Coptic Church on the 23rd day of the Coptic month of Baramhat.^[17]

Protestant Commemorations[link]

He is commemorated as a prophet in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod together with the Three Young Men (Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego), on December 17.^[18]

Chapters of the Book of Daniel
1: Induction into Babylon 2: Nebuchadnezzar's dream of an image 3: The fiery furnace 4: The madness of Nebuchadnezzar 5: Belshazzar's feast 6: Daniel in the lions' den 7: Daniel's first vision 8: Vision of the ram and goat 9: Prophecy of Seventy Weeks 10: Vision of a man 11: Kings of the North and South 12: Epilogue
v t e

See also[link]

Saints portal

• Book of Daniel
• List of names referring to El
• Nebuchadnezzar II, King of Neo-Babylon
• Arioch, Captain of the guard
• Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, Daniel's narrative companions
• Belshazzar, possible last King of Neo-Babylon
• Darius the Mede
• Cyrus the Persian, King of Achaemenid Empire
• Ezekiel, Daniel's narrative contemporary
• Persian Jews
• Apocalypse of Daniel

References[link]

• James B. Jordan (1995). "Daniel: Historical & Chronological Comments (II)" (– ^{Scholar search}). Biblical Chronology 7 (1). http://www.biblicalhorizons.com/ch/ch7_01.htm. ^{[dead link]}
• Francis E. Gigot (1889). "Daniel". Catholic Encyclopedia on CD-ROM. New Advent. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04620a.htm. 
• T. E. Gaston (2009). Historical Issues in the Book of Daniel. Taanathshiloh. 

External links[link]

• Book of Daniel (Biblical Passage)
• Daniel by Rob Bradshaw Detailed dictionary-style article.
• Daniel in the TaNaKh Detailed authorized Jewish translation of the original

Wikisource has original 1897 Easton's Bible Dictionary text related to:

Daniel

• Who is Ezekiel's Daniel? : The Ugaritic Danel
• Daniel 11 in Context Overview of the allusions to the Syrian Wars in Daniel 11

Alfredo Kraus Trujillo (24 November 1927 – 10 September 1999) was a distinguished Spanish tenor of partly Austrian descent, particularly known for the artistry he brought to opera's bel canto roles.^[1] He was also considered an outstanding interpreter of the title role in Massenet's opera Werther, and especially of its famous aria, "Pourquoi me réveiller?"^[2]

Early years[link]

Kraus was born in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands of Spain. He began his musical career with piano lessons at the age of four, and he sang in the school choir by age eight. His older brother, Francisco Kraus Trujillo, a baritone, studied music and opera alongside him.

Career[link]

After refining his technique singing Spanish zarzuela on stage in Madrid and Barcelona, Kraus made his professional operatic debut in Cairo during 1956 as the Duke in Rigoletto, which became one of his signature roles. In 1958, he sang Alfredo at the Teatro Nacional de São Carlos in Lisbon in a production of La traviata with Maria Callas, a live recording of which was later released.

Kraus made his Covent Garden debut as Edgardo in Lucia di Lammermoor in 1959 and his La Scala debut as Elvino in La sonnambula in 1960. He made his American debut with Lyric Opera of Chicago in 1962, and his Metropolitan Opera debut in 1966 in Rigoletto, the role of his last performance there in 1994.

In subsequent decades, Kraus extended his repertoire to include more Italian operas such as Lucrezia Borgia, La fille du régiment, Linda di Chamounix, Don Pasquale and La favorita by Donizetti; and French operas such as Roméo et Juliette, Les contes d'Hoffmann, Faust and Lakmé, while continuing to sing his hallmark roles of Werther and of Des Grieux in Manon. He also recorded a number of rarely performed French operas including La jolie fille de Perth and Les pêcheurs de perles, both by Georges Bizet, and La muette de Portici by Daniel Auber. He also performed in some very well known works, such as Don Giovanni and Faust.

Kraus came to be virtually synonymous with such lyric tenor roles as Werther, Faust, Don Ottavio (Don Giovanni), Nemorino, and Arturo. He was also known for his performances of Spanish music, notably many classics from the zarzuela repertoire, which he continued to perform live on stage in Spain until the end of his career, and many of which he recorded complete for EMI Spain as well as for his own label, Carillon.

Technique[link]

Thanks to his superlative technique and careful husbanding of his vocal resources, Kraus sang onstage until his early 70s. He studied voice technique in Milan with Mercedes Llopart.

Kraus was also noted for extremely refined musicianship, accompanied by a seemingly effortless high register. As a result, many opera connoisseurs consider him to be one of the best tenors of the end of the 20th century. He was admired for his cultivated musical education and his complete respect for his chosen profession. His first priority was the integrity of his artistic interpretation of a piece, rather than his formidable range and excellent technique.

He performed all over the world, including the Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires, Teatro Municipal in Caracas, Teatro Municipal in Santiago, Chile, Teatro Municipal in Rio de Janeiro, and the Liceu in Barcelona.

In 1991, Kraus was awarded the Prince of Asturias Award. In 1997, his home city of Las Palmas opened The Alfredo Kraus Auditorium in his honor.

Later years[link]

The loss of his wife in 1997 affected Kraus so deeply that he stopped performing for eight months. A proud and strong-willed man, he eventually returned to the stage and to teaching. He said, "I don't have the will for singing but I must do it, because, in a sense, it is a sign that I have overcome the tragedy. Singing is a form of admitting that I'm alive."

Kraus died on 10 September 1999 in Madrid, at the age of 71, after a long illness.

Complete repertoire[link]

References[link]

• Forbes, Elizabeth, Obituary: Alfredo Kraus, The Independent, September 14, 1999.

• Hamilton, David. (1987). The Metropolitan Opera Encyclopedia: A Comprehensive Guide to the World of Opera. New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo: Simon and Schuster. p. 182. ISBN 0-671-61732-X.

• Sadie, Stanley and Christina Bashford. (1992). The New Grove Dictionary of Opera. London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd. p. 1039 ISBN 0-935859-92-6.

• Sadie, Stanley and John Tyrrell. (2001). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Vol. 13, p. 874-5. ISBN 0-333-60800-3.

• Rosenthal, Harold and John Warrack. (1979, 2nd ed.). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Opera. London, New York and Melbourne: Oxford University Press. p. 265. ISBN 0-19-311318-X.

• Warrack, John and Ewan West. (1996 3rd ed.). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Opera. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 271. ISBN 0-19-280028-0.

External links[link]

• The Alfredo Kraus Auditorium
• Discography (Capon's Lists of Opera Recordings)
• Biography and discography (in Spanish)

Michele Pezza
Born	(1771-04-07)April 7, 1771 Itri, Kingdom of Naples
Died	November 11, 1806(1806-11-11) (aged 35) Naples, Kingdom of Naples
Other names	Fra Diavolo
Organization	Sanfedismo

Fra Diavolo (lit. Brother Devil; April 7, 1771–November 11, 1806), is the popular name given to Michele Pezza, a famous Neapolitan guerrilla leader who resisted the French occupation of Naples, proving an “inspirational practicioner of popular insurrection”.^[1] Pezza figures prominently in folk lore and fiction. He appears in several works of Alexandre Dumas, including The Last Cavalier: Being the Adventures of Count Sainte-hermine in the Age of Napoleon, not published until 2007^[2] and in Washington Irving's short story "The Inn at Terracina".^[3]

Biography[link]

The nickname "Fra Diavolo" came about due to an old Itrano custom: Until early in the twentieth century Itrani boys and girls who had recently recovered from serious illnesses were dressed as monks on the second Sunday after Easter, for a procession in honor of St. Francis of Paola, the patron of sick children. On one of these solemn occasions little Michele, who was apparently a handful to begin with, proved so naughty that someone called him “Fra Diavolo” which stuck.^[4]

Early life[link]

The notion that Pezza "was born of low parentage" has received wide circulation but is hardly accurate; it forms part of a hostile tradition derived from French propaganda.^[5] The Pezzas had some land in olives and were also engaged in the wool trade. The family home has some interesting architectural details, which also suggests some wealth, and they were related to several of the most prominent families in Itri, such as the Ialongo and the Pennachia.^[6]

Although little is known with certainty of his early life, Pezza learned to read and write, hardly a common accomplishment at the time, and further indication of some wealth in the family. As a young man he secured employment as a courier for the Neapolitan Royal Mail, making the 240 km (149 mi) round trip between Terracina and Naples twice a week for 50 ducats a year, a considerable sum, while becoming intimately familiar with the local terrain, which had a reputation for brigandage, knowledge that would later serve him in good stead.^[7] In 1797, while so employed, he vied for the affections of a young woman with another young man. One night his rival and another man ambushed Pezza, intending to do him some harm. Pezza, who reportedly had a "fiery temper," managed to kill both of his attackers. He took to the hills, but was soon caught. Tried, he was convicted of manslaughter, since the slaying had been committed in self-defense, and on October 25, 1797, he was sentenced to a tour in the army in lieu of prison.^[8]

On January 20, 1798, Pezza was enrolled in the Reggimento di Messapi, stationed at Fondi, about a dozen miles north of Itri and perhaps a dozen south of the frontier with the Papal States. Pezza rose quickly, becoming a sergeant, probably because he was literate and, as a member of the middle class and a former Royal courier, already familiar with firearms.^[9] In November of late 1798 Pezza took part in the disastrous attempt of the Neapolitan Army to oust the French from the Papal States.^[10]

The French responded quickly to the Neapolitan incursion, forcing them to retreat, and then undertook an invasion of the Kingdom of Naples. Plagued by cold and heavy rains, the Neapolitans fell back along the Appian Way. Thousands of troops deserted and many more were captured. Pezza, who was with the rear guard, was almost captured by the French, but escaped by donning peasant dress, and took to the hills above Itri.^[11] During the retreat, the Neapolitan Reggimento di Lucania fortified an old Roman villa, the Fortino di San Andrea, located about a mile north of Itri, where a pass carries the Appian Way over the Auruncian Mountains. On December 26, reinforced by some irregulars hastily recruited by Pezza, the regiment ambushed elements of the French "Polish Legion", touching off a three day skirmish. Unable to get through the easily defended defile, some French troops passed down the coast road, along the ancient Via Flacca, from Terracina to capture Sperlonga. The weather was foul, very cold with incessant rains that turned to ice. From Sperlonga, the French began working their way overland across the mountains, to outflank the Neapolitans at the old villa, and by dawn on the 29th were in position to attack. But the French movement had been detected by Pezza’s irregulars, who were patrolling the hills, and they guided the Neapolitan troops safely out of the encirclement, so that they could fall back on the great fortress of Gaeta, about 15 miles down the coast.^[12] The French pressed on, and over the next few weeks, despite unusually cold and icy weather, overran the rest of Naples, capturing the city itself on January 22, 1799 and proclaiming the Parthenopaean Republic. For Pezza, the most critical event of this period occurred on December 30, when French and Polish troops captured Itri. A band of peasants from the vicinity attempted to resist, but were rapidly overcome. The invaders then shot their prisoners, plundered the town a bit, proclaimed a new age of freedom, erected a “Liberty Tree,” and held a ball.^[13]

Resistance to French rule[link]

Though many reform-minded nobles and some intellectuals backed it, the French puppet regime in Naples, the Parthenopaean Republic, had little popular support. In addition, French and Polish troops acted abominably, looting and rape were common. French atrocities were so blatant that their commander in Naples, General Jean Étienne Championnet, was sacked by Guillaume-Charles Faipoult, one of the government Representatives on mission, and subsequently imprisoned.^[14]

Irregular resistance had begun almost as soon as the invaders entered the country, and French atrocities only served to send more young men into the hills to join the insurgency. Attacks on French soldiers became common. The French retaliated swiftly and brutally, which only made matters worse. The experience of Itri was typical. On January 15 two French soldiers were killed while patrolling the Appian Way near the town. The next day a mixed force of French and Polish troops inflicted severe reprisals on the town, looting, raping, and murdering, leaving 60 men, women, and children lying dead in the streets; Michele Pezza’s 67-year old father was among the dead.^[15]

Meanwhile, although in exile in Sicily, the Neapolitan government, effectively controlled by Queen Maria Carolina, wife of King Ferdinand IV of Naples, appointed Fabrizio Ruffo, a progressive government minister and one of the last laymen to hold the dignity of cardinal in the Roman Catholic Church, to organized a resistance movement. On February 8, 1799, British and Neapolitan ships landed 5,000 troops and volunteers under Ruffo's command in Calabria. This force soon expanded into an unruly army of laymen and clerics, nobles and peasants, rich and poor, men, women, and children. Dubbed “La Armata cristiana della Santa Fede– The Christian Army of the Holy Faith,” this horde made up for its lack of training and equipment with enthusiasm, ferocity, and suicidal courage.^[16]

Pezza had already organized a small band of irregulars in the northern part of the Terra di Lavoro, and soon became one of Ruffo's principal subordinate commanders. His "massa - band," quickly grew to some 4,000 men, including his three brothers and the scions of a number of the leading families of Itri, such as Pasquale-Maria Nofi, who served as his adjutant with the rank of lieutenant.^[17] With these men, he raided French outposts far and wide. On one occasion he slipped into heavily occupied Fondi in the guise of a priest – thus becoming once again “Fra Diavolo” – to cut down the “Liberty Tree” which the French had planted there, replacing it with a cross that still stands. He even harassed French forces holding Gaeta, the great fortress dominating the northwestern route into the Kingdom of Naples, ambushing supply trains (he once made off with 1,400 sheep) and couriers. Pezza made the Fortino di San Andrea his base of operations, and spread terror against French supporters over a wide area. He soon had a substantial price on his head.^[18]

The city of Naples was liberated from the French in June, Gaeta was recaptured at the end of July by royal troops and Pezza's men, aided by the British fleet. By late September the French had largely been driven out of the kingdom, and a Neapolitan Army had gone on to liberate Rome. The Neapolitan insurrection had probably cost the lives of 50,000 or 60,000 people in the kingdom.

A hard, tough leader, Pezza gave no quarter. His men committed “most monstrous misdeeds,” torturing and murdering hundreds of prisoners of war, including a French general; He was so ferocious that for a time Cardinal Ruffo placed him under arrest for his many atrocities.^[19] Nevertheless, for his services, Pezza was made a colonel in the army, ennobled as the Duke of Cassero, granted an annual pension of 2,500 ducats, making him one of the richest men in the district, and was even given a lock of the queen’s hair. He settled down near Itri with his wife, Fortunata Rachele Di Franco, a local beauty whom he had married in July 1799, when she was just 18, and he was en route to the liberation of Rome. For the next few years they lived quietly, while producing two sons.^[20]

In 1806 Napoleon, Emperor of the French, decided to place his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Neapolitan throne.^[21] Some 32,000 French troops invaded Naples in January, in three columns under General Laurent de Gouvion-Saint-Cyr, later a Marshal of France; about 12,000 men marched down the Adriatic coast, 15,000 more attacked down the Apennines, which form the spine of Italy, and General Jean Louis Reynier, later a Marshal of France, led about 10,000 troops, down the Appian Way. The Neapolitan Army, with barely 13,000 men available for mobile operations, fell back on Calabria as the French quickly occupied frontier areas and pressed on. By February Reynier's column had captured Fondi and continued on towards Itri. Some Neapolitan troops were garrisoned at Pezza's old base, the Fortino di San Andrea, but they fled south to Itri when the French turned up. The French pursued. There was a short skirmish at Itri, which hardly impeded the French advance. Reynier sent a regiment ahead to seize Gaeta by a coup de main, but the fortress, commanded by the Prince of Hesse-Philippstead, resisted stoutly; he would hold out until July 18.^[22] But if Gaeta stood against them, the French found the rest of Naples easier prey. The capital fell on February 14 as the king and queen once more fled to Sicily, and the French soon overran most of the rest of the kingdom.

When the French invaded, Pezza was recalled to active duty, and ordered to organize a guerrilla column to resist the attackers. But the French moved so fast he was barely able to escape, and fled with his brothers to Sicily. He soon returned, however, and on March 23, 1806, he clashed with the French near Itri.^[23] Shortly afterwards, Pezza was recalled to Sicily to gather more forces, and in April joined an expedition to reinforce Gaeta that was led by the British admiral Sir Sydney Smith, one of Napoleon’s most inveterate foes.

Hesse-Philippstead gave Pezza command of a band of irregulars who were landed along the coast near the mouth of the Garigliano River, about 20 miles southeast of Gaeta, with instructions to stir up guerrilla resistance in the French rear. Pezza conducted several raids against French outposts, but then undertook an ill-advised attack against a substantial French force. Defeated, he fled back to Gaeta, assuming a disguise so as to con a French officer into giving him a pass through the siege lines. To Hesse-Philippstead this smacked of treachery, and he decided that Pezza was secretly in league with the French. Pezza was arrested and sent in chains to Palermo in May 1806. Sir Sidney quickly cleared Pezza’s name, however, and for a few weeks he conducted seaborne raids against French outposts along the coast from Ponza and the other islands in the Gulf of Gaeta.^[24]

On June 4, a small British army inflicted a stunning defeat on the French in the Battle of Maida, in Calabria. Hoping to follow-up this victory, Pezza and a band of followers landed at Amante, in Calabria, on the 26th. Pezza proved to be the most effective of the many guerrilla leaders who had sprung up in the aftermath of the invasion, and soon attracted considerable local support. The French were soon closely invested at Cosenza. Given time the guerrillas might have taken the city. But Gaeta had fallen to the French on July 18, after twelve days of heavy bombardment, during which Hesse-Phillipstread had been gravely wounded. This released some 10,000 French troops, most of whom were promptly sent into Calabria. The various guerrilla leaders unwisely attempted to make a stand at Lauria. There, on August 8 Marshal Massena defeated them, virtually annihilating their forces in a no quarter fight. Although on August 14, with the support of Sir Sydney’s ships, Pezza managed to capture Fort Licosa from the enemy, that very same day the French relieved Cosenza. As by this time enormously superior French forces were on the march, the British decided to withdraw their expedition; this withdrawal arguably prevented the Neapolitan insurgency from developing into an "ulcer" such as the Peninsular War in Spain beginning in 1808.^[25]

Despite the withdrawal of the British, for a time the guerrilla fighting in Calabria intensified. It was a horribly bloody affair, with the French often slaughtering whole villages, and the people massacring French prisoners. Surprisingly, Pezza proved far less ferocious than he had been in 1799. He even turned French prisoners over to the British in return for money and supplies, and once proved enormously courteous to the some French officers’ wives whom he had captured. Nevertheless, the French posted a 50,000 ducat reward for anyone who killed or captured him, a sum equivalent to millions of dollars today.^[26]

Capture and death[link]

Late in August 1806, Sir Sidney transferred Pezza and about 300 of his guerrillas by sea to the coast near Sperlonga, north of Gaeta. For a couple of weeks Pezza caused considerable trouble for the French, raiding local garrisons and ambushing convoys. On September 5, he ambushed and massacred a considerable French force near Itri. As a result, the French organized a “flying column,” which pinned him down near Itri on the 28th. A hot battle resulted, but the French were able to storm his position from three different directions, resulting in the defeat of Pezza's band, which lost more than one hundred killed and about 60 taken prisoner, all of whom were immediately shot by the French. Pezza himself was reported dead, but survived.^[27]

With the remnants of his band, Pezza fled eastwards over the mountains. He was soon operating near Sora in the Abruzzi, with two thousand men and two cannon, having joined forces with other guerrilla leaders. A much stronger French force converged on his base. Pezza failed to retreat in time, and the French closed in on October 24, storming his base camp. Most of his men were killed or captured, and Pezza was again initially thought to be dead, but he had escaped, though wounded; it was, however, to no avail. On November 1, while at Baronissi, near Avellino, he was betrayed and captured in a pharmacy by French Corsican troops under the command of Major Joseph Léopold Sigisbert Hugo, father of the novelist Victor Hugo.^[28]

The French offered Pezza an enormous bribe if he would join them. When he refused, they tried him on charges of banditry, and sentenced him to death. The French spurned an offer by Queen Maria Carolina to exchange 200 French prisoners for him, and on November 9 they hanged him in the Piazza del Mercato at Naples, ostensibly for banditry.

Pezza's last words reportedly were “It pains me that I am condemned as a bandit and not a soldier”.^[29]

Pezza's death did not end the insurrection against the French, as it was not until 1811 that widespread resistance came to an end, and there were still sporadic outbreaks as late as 1815. Over 33,000 suspected guerrillas were arrested during the fighting, and thousands – men, women, and children alike – were killed.^[30]

Legacy[link]

In addition to the works by Alexandre Dumas and Washington Irving, noted above, Pezza figures in a number of other artistic endeavors.

Daniel Auber's opera Fra Diavolo is founded on traditions associated with the legend, but has very little historical accuracy. Laurel and Hardy starred as "Stanlio" and "Ollio" in the 1933 feature film The Devil's Brother (sometimes titled as Fra Diavolo) based on Auber's opera.

There are several other films about Fra Diavolo, a complete listing of which may be found in the Italian Wikipedia site. The most important of these is Fra Diavolo, made in 1942 by Luigi Zampa based a play by of the same name by Luigi Bonelli, later a prolific screenwriter. In the film, Pezza is a Robin Hood-like figure fighting the French.

The only Italian film about Pezza to be available in English is the 1964 Giovanni Addessi produzioni cinematografiche of Rome, production, The Legend of Fra Diavolo, with an Italian cast but starring Tony Russell, which was released in the U.S. by Globe Films International. The film is rather more realistic than the Bonelli effort.

Paul Féval, père used the character of Fra Diavolo in his Les Habits Noirs book series. In it, Michele Bozzo (sic) is the nearly immortal Colonel Bozzo-Corana, feared leader of an international criminal brotherhood.

References[link]

1. ^ Piero Pieri, Storia militare del Risorgimento (Torino: Einaudi, 1962), p. 18. The short accounts in Pieri and Tommaso Argiolas' Storia dell’Esercito Borbonico (Napoli: ESI, 1970), provide succinct treatments of the Neapolitan insurrection of 1799; Milton Finley's The Most Monstrous of Wars: The Neapolitan Guerrilla War in Southern Italy, 1806-1811 (Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina, 1994), provides an account of the second Neapolitan insurgency against the French.
2. ^ Alexandre Dumas, The Last Cavalier: Being the Adventures of Count Sainte-hermine in the Age of Napoleon (New York: Pegasus, 2007)
3. ^ Washington Irving, Tales of a Traveler, Vol. III, pp. 8-33
4. ^ Michele M. Colaguori, Itri e S. Francesco di Paola (Gaeta: Poligrafico di Gaeta, 1973), p. 9.
5. ^ See, for example, the Britannica 11th Edition
6. ^ Anna Franchi, Fra Diavolo (Milano: VIR, 1946), pp. 26-27; Giuseppi dall’Ongaro, Fra Diavolo (Novara: De Agostini, 1985), p. 32
7. ^ Franchi, p. 34; Vittorio Gleijeses, Napoli Nostra el la Sua Storia (Napoli: LSE, 1971), p. 121
8. ^ ’Ongaro, pp. 37-39; Gleijeses, p. 121
9. ^ Gleijeses, p. 122.
10. ^ For the brief Neapolitan campaign in the Papal States see Bruto Amante, Fra Diavolo e il Suo Tempo (1796-1806) (reprint, Napoli: Attivita bibliografica editoriale, 1974), pp. 31-36; Adolphe Thiers, History of the French Revolution (London: Richard Bentley, 1881), Vol. V, pp. 328-336, which is the only treatment in English.
11. ^ Ongaro, pp. 41-42.
12. ^ Ongaro, pp. 26-28
13. ^ Amante, pp. 70, 75; Piero Bargellini, Fra Diavolo (Firenze: Vollecchi, 1932), pp. 86-88.
14. ^ Jacques Godechot, La revolution francaise: Chronologie e commente, 1787-1797(Paris: Perrin, 1988), pp. 242-245.
15. ^ Ongaro, pp. 51-52
16. ^ Godechot, p. 245; Giglioli, p. 168.
17. ^ Francesco Barra, Michele Michele Pezza, detto Fra’ Diavlo (Cava di Tirreni: Avagliano, 1999) p. 83, n. 89
18. ^ Gleijeses, p. 123; Charles Lister, Between Two Seas: A Walk Down the Appian Way (London: Secker & Warburg, 1991), pp. 51-52; Dora Jane Hamblin and Mary Jane Grunsfled, The Appian Way: A Journey (New York: n.p., 1974)., p. 68.
19. ^ Finley, p. 76; Lister, p. 54.
20. ^ Pezza has a number of living descendants, in Italy and America, the most notable of whom is his great-great-granddaughter, Maria Alba Pezza, a journalist and the author of Fra Diavolo in valigia: Viaggi alla scoperta del mio antenato (Genova: Liberodiscrivere, 2006)
21. ^ For the Napoleonic domination of Naples see, Robert M Johnston, The Napoleonic Empire in Southern Italy and the Rise of the Secret Societies (London:Macmillan, 1904), and Owen Connelly's Napoleon’s Satellite Kingdoms (New York: The Free Press, 1965),
22. ^ Pieri, pp. 13-14; Argiolas, p. 35.
23. ^ Johnston, II, 112; Francesco Barra, Cronache del Brigantaggio meridionale, 1806-1815 (Salerno & Catanzaro: Societa editrice meridionale, 1981), p. 297-298.
24. ^ Connelly, p. 64; Johnston, II, 113.
25. ^ Connelly, p. 64; Pieri, p. 14; Johnston, II, 127.
26. ^ Finely, p. 76; Gleijeses, p. 124
27. ^ Pieri, p. 15; Amante, pp. 319-320 (who observes that Pezza was officially reported killed by the French on numerous occasions); Johnston, II, p. 144
28. ^ Johnston, II, p. 145; Finely, pp. 77-78; Gleijeses, p. 125. Major Hugo was promptly promoted to colonel
29. ^ Gleijeses, p. 125; Colletta, II, pp. 42-43; Lister, pp. 51-52. Because he asserted that as a military officer he had to be treated as a prisoner of war, the French dressed him in the full uniform of a Neapolitan brigadier general before hanging him.
30. ^ Pieri, p. 16; Connelly, p. 68, 113.

External links[link]

• Notes about Fra Diavolo on Around Napoli
• A short life of Pezza on the Itri town website
• Fra Diavolo and Museo del Brigantaggio in Itri

Further reading[link]

• Bruto Amante (1796–1806). Fra Diavolo e il Suo Tempo (reprint: Attivita bibliografica editoriale, 1974)
• Anna Franchi (1946). Fra Diavolo. VIR.
• Giuseppi dall’Ongaro (1985). Fra Diavolo. De Agostini.
• Francesco Barra (1999). Michele Pezza, detto Fra’ Diavlo. Avagliano. ISBN 978-88-8309-020-2.

 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 

Magdalena Kožená (Czech pronunciation: [ˈmaɡdalɛna ˈkoʒɛnaː]) (born 26 May 1973) is a Czech mezzo-soprano.

In 2003, Kožená was awarded the title of Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Government. She was formerly married to the French baritone Vincent le Texier, and is now married to Sir Simon Rattle, with whom she has two children.

Biography[link]

Kožená was born in Brno, the daughter of a mathematician father and a biologist mother. Her original goal was to be a pianist, but she broke her hand at the age of six and switched to singing, starting in the Brno Philharmonic children's choir.^[1] She studied at the Brno Conservatoire and at the College of Performing Arts in Bratislava, and graduated in 1995. In 1995, she was a prize winner at the International Mozart Competition. From 1996–97, she was a member of the Vienna Volksoper.

Professional career[link]

Recordings[link]

Kožená's first recording was of Bach arias, recorded in the Czech Republic. Upon hearing the recording, Deutsche Grammophon (DG) signed her to a recording contract.^[2] Later recordings include Handel’s Roman Motets and Italian Cantatas and Messiah with Marc Minkowski for DG/Archiv, and her first solo recital disc (Dvořák, Janáček and Martinů with Graham Johnson – Gramophone Solo Vocal Award, 2001) for Deutsche Grammophon. Further recordings include recitals of arias of Mozart, Gluck and Mysliveček (with the Prague Philharmonia and Michel Swierczewski), of French arias with the Mahler Chamber Orchestra and Minkowski, Gluck’s Paride ed Elena under Paul McCreesh, a recital disc with Malcolm Martineau and an acclaimed disc of cantatas by members of the Bach family (“Lamento”) with Musica Antiqua Köln and Reinhard Goebel. She is the 2004 Gramophone Awards Artist of the Year. Among her latest recordings are a disc with opera arias of Handel and one with opera arias by Antonio Vivaldi, both with the Venice Baroque Orchestra conducted by Andrea Marcon and released on DG/Archiv.

Concerts and recitals[link]

Kožená appears regularly at the Prague Spring and at the Concentus Moraviae Festivals. She has given recitals in London, the Schubertiade Schwarzenberg, Brussels, Paris, Hamburg, Amsterdam, Munich, Prague, Tokyo, Yokohama and Sapporo, Carnegie Hall, in San Francisco and in London, Brussels, Lisbon, Vienna, Copenhagen, Amsterdam, Hamburg and Prague.

Her operatic engagements have included several notable debuts: at the Châtelet, Paris in the title role in Gluck's Orphée with John Eliot Gardiner; at the Vienna Festival as Nerone (“L'incoronazione di Poppea”) with Minkowski; at the Edinburgh Festival (Sesto in La clemenza di Tito); at the Leipzig Opera (Mélisande with Minkowski); at the Aix-en-Provence Festival as Cherubino; at the Netherlands Opera as Sesto (“Giulio Cesare”) and at the Salzburg Festival as Zerlina under Harnoncourt. She sang the centenary performance of Pelléas et Mélisande at the Opera Comique, Paris under Minkowski and most recently Cleopatra in Giulio Cesare under Minkowski.

Recent engagements include the roles of Idamante at the Glyndebourne and Salzburg Festivals, Cherubino in Le nozze di Figaro for both the Bavarian State Opera and the Metropolitan Opera, Dorabella in Mozarts Cosi fan tutte (Salzburg Easter Festival and in Berlin) and her return to the Metropolitan Opera as Varvara (Katja Kabanova) and Dorabella. She sings Zerlina with the Metropolitan Opera in Japan, returns to the Salzburg Festival for Idamante and to the Théâtre des Champs-Elysées for Melisande.

Awards[link]

• 2001 Gramophone Solo Vocal Award
• 2001 Czech Crystal Award, Golden Prague International Television Festival – Best recording of a concert or stage performance (opera, operetta, ballet, dance, musical), Magdalena Kožená and Thierry Gregoire, Česká televize, Brno Television Studio, Czech Republic^[3]
• 2003 title of Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Government
• 2004 Gramophone Awards Artist of the Year

Personal[link]

Once married to the French baritone Vincent le Texier,^[4] her marriage ended after she began a relationship with the conductor Sir Simon Rattle. In March 2005, she gave birth to their son, Jonas. In 2008 the couple had another son named Milos.^[5]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Kožená's homepage
• Review of Kožená's album "Enchantment" by Charles T. Downey (Ionarts, 17 September 2006)