Mariana Islands, an oceanic island arc

A volcanic arc is a chain of volcanoes positioned in an arc shape as seen from above. Offshore volcanoes form islands, resulting in a volcanic island arc. Generally they result from the subduction of an oceanic tectonic plate under another tectonic plate, and often parallel an oceanic trench. The oceanic plate is saturated with water, and volatiles such as water drastically lower the melting point of the mantle. As the oceanic plate is subducted, it is subjected to greater and greater pressures with increasing depth. This pressure squeezes water out of the plate and introduces it to the mantle. Here the mantle melts and forms magma at depth under the overriding plate. The magma ascends to form an arc of volcanoes parallel to the subduction zone.

These should not be confused with hotspot volcanic chains, where volcanoes form one after another in the middle of a tectonic plate, as the plate moves over the hotspot, and so the volcanoes progress in age from one end of the chain to the other. The Hawaiian Islands form a typical hotspot chain; the older islands (tens of millions of years) to the northwest are smaller and more lush than the recently-created (400,000 years ago) Hawaii island itself, which is more rocky. Volcanic arcs do not generally exhibit such a simple age pattern.

There are two types of volcanic arcs:

• oceanic arcs form when oceanic crust subducts beneath other oceanic crust on an adjacent plate, creating a volcanic island arc. (Not all island arcs are volcanic island arcs.)
• continental arcs form when oceanic crust subducts beneath continental crust on an adjacent plate, creating an arc-shaped mountain belt. (Not all mountain belts are formed this way.)

In some situations, a single subduction zone may show both aspects along its length, as part of a plate subducts beneath a continent and part beneath adjacent oceanic crust.

(The term "volcanic arc" is often confused with the term "island arc". The former is a series of volcanoes, but not necessarily offshore. The latter is a series of islands, not necessarily composed solely of volcanoes.)

Volcanoes are present in almost any mountain belt, but this does not make it a volcanic arc. Often there are isolated, but impressively huge volcanoes in a mountain belt. For instance, Vesuvius and the Etna volcanoes in Italy are part of separate but different kinds of mountainous volcanic ensembles.

The active front of a volcanic arc is the belt where volcanism develops at a given time. Active fronts may move over time (millions of years) changing their distance from the oceanic trench as well as their width.

Petrology[link]

In the subduction zone, loss of water from the subducted slab induces partial melting of the overriding mantle and generates low-density, calc-alkaline magma that buoyantly rises to intrude and be extruded through the lithosphere of the overriding plate. This loss of water is due to the destabilization of the mineral chlorite at approximately 40–60 km depth.^[1][2] This is the reason for island arc volcanism at consistent distances from the subducting slab: because the temperature-pressure conditions for flux-melting volcanism due to chlorite destabilization will always occur at the same depth, the distance from the trench to the arc volcanoes is determined only by the dip angle of the subducting slab.

On the subducting side of the island arc is a deep and narrow oceanic trench, which is the trace at the Earth’s surface of the boundary between the downgoing and overriding plates. This trench is created by the gravitational pull of the relatively dense subducting plate pulling the leading edge of the plate downward. Multiple earthquakes occur along this subduction boundary with the seismic hypocenters located at increasing depth under the island arc: these quakes define the Wadati-Benioff zones.

Ocean basins that are being reduced by subduction are called 'remnant oceans' as they will slowly be shrunken out of existence and crushed in the subsequent orogenic collision. This process has happened over and over in the geologic history of the Earth.

In the rock record, volcanic arcs can be seen as the volcanic rocks themselves, but because volcanic rock is easily weathered and eroded, it is more typical that they are seen as plutonic rocks, the rocks that formed underneath the arc (e.g. the Sierra Nevada batholith), or in the sedimentary record as lithic sandstones.

• 

  Cascade Volcanic Arc, a continental volcanic arc

• 

  The Aleutian Arc, with both oceanic and continental parts.

Examples[link]

Two classic examples of oceanic island arcs are the Mariana Islands in the western Pacific Ocean and the Lesser Antilles in the western Atlantic Ocean. The Cascade Volcanic Arc in western North America and the Andes along the western edge of South America are examples of continental volcanic arcs. The best examples of volcanic arcs with both sets of characteristics are in the North Pacific, with the Aleutian Arc consisting of the Aleutian Islands and their extension the Aleutian Range on the Alaska Peninsula, and the Kuril-Kamchatka Arc comprising the Kuril Islands and southern Kamchatka Peninsula.

Continental arcs[link]

• Cascade Volcanic Arc
• Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Range
• Kamchatka
• Andes
  • North Volcanic Zone
  • Central Volcanic Zone
  • South Volcanic Zone
  • Austral Volcanic Zone
• Central America Volcanic Arc

Island arcs[link]

• Aleutian Islands
• Kuril Islands
• Northeastern Japan arc
• Japanese Archipelago including the Ryukyu Islands
• Izu-Bonin-Mariana Arc:
  • Izu Islands
  • Bonin Islands
  • Mariana Islands
• Luzon Volcanic Arc
• Philippines
• Tonga and Kermadec Islands
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• Mentawai Islands
• Sunda Arc
• Lesser Sunda Islands
• Tanimbar and Kai Islands
• Solomon Islands
• South Aegean Volcanic Arc
• Egean, or Hellenic arc
• Lesser Antilles, including the Leeward Antilles
• Scotia Arc:
  • South Sandwich Islands
• Mascarene Islands

Ancient island arcs[link]

• Insular Islands
• Intermontane Islands
• Sakhalin island arc

See also[link]

• Back-arc basin
• Volcanic belt
• Island arc

References[link]

• Subduction Zone Volcanism
• Tectonics and Volcanoes of Japan
• USGS: Island-Arc, Oceanic, and Continental Volcanoes

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Mount Shasta
Mount Shasta from the south, taken near Dunsmuir, California
Elevation	14,179 ft (4,322 m) NAVD 88[1]
Prominence	9,822 ft (2,994 m)[2] Ranked 96th
Parent peak	North Palisade[2]
Listing	Ultra
Location
Mount Shasta California
Location	Siskiyou County, California, U.S.
Range	Cascade Range
Coordinates	41°24′33.11″N 122°11′41.60″W / 41.4091972°N 122.194889°W / 41.4091972; -122.194889Coordinates: 41°24′33.11″N 122°11′41.60″W / 41.4091972°N 122.194889°W / 41.4091972; -122.194889[1]
Topo map	USGS Mount Shasta
Geology
Type	Stratovolcano
Age of rock	About 593,000 years
Volcanic arc	Cascade Volcanic Arc
Last eruption	1786[3]
Climbing
First ascent	1854 by E. D. Pearce and party[4]
Easiest route	Avalanche Gulch ("John Muir") route: talus/snow climb[4]

Mount Shasta (Úytaahkoo in Karuk or "White Mountain": the origin of the name "Shasta" is vague, perhaps from Russian (Чистая, means "white, clean, pure" or Счастье, means "happiness, luck, fortune, felicity") from the early Russian settlers in California) is located at the southern end of the Cascade Range in Siskiyou County, California and at 14,179 feet (4,322 m)^[1] is the second highest peak in the Cascades and the fifth highest in California. Mount Shasta has an estimated volume of 85 cubic miles (350 km³) which makes it the most voluminous stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc.^[5][6]

The mountain and its surrounding area are managed by the U.S. Forest Service, Shasta-Trinity National Forest.

Descriptions[link]

Due to its relative isolation, Mount Shasta has a high degree of vertical relief and is the second-most prominent peak in California. Here it is seen from Interstate 5 near Yreka.

Mount Shasta is not connected to any nearby mountain and dominates the northern California landscape. It rises abruptly and stands nearly 10,000 ft (3,000 m) above the surrounding terrain. On a clear day, Mount Shasta can be seen from about 150 miles (240 km) away. The mountain has attracted the attention of poets, authors, and presidents. Mount Shasta was described by the poet Joaquin Miller:

"Lonely as God, and white as a winter moon, Mount Shasta starts up sudden and solitary from the heart of the great black forests of Northern California."^[7]

Naturalist and author John Muir said of Mount Shasta:

"When I first caught sight of it over the braided folds of the Sacramento Valley, I was fifty miles away and afoot, alone and weary. Yet all my blood turned to wine, and I have not been weary since."^[8]

Theodore Roosevelt said:

"I consider the evening twilight on Mt. Shasta one of the grandest sights I have ever witnessed."^[9]

Geology and climate[link]

Aerial view of Mount Shasta from the west.

The mountain consists of four overlapping volcanic cones which have built a complex shape, including the main summit and the prominent satellite cone of 12,330 ft (3,760 m) Shastina, which has a visibly conical form. If Shastina were a separate mountain, it would rank as the fourth-highest peak of the Cascade Range (after Mt. Rainier, Rainier's Liberty Cap, and Mt. Shasta itself).

Mount Shasta's surface is relatively free of deep glacial erosion except, paradoxically, for its south side where Sargents Ridge^[10] runs parallel to the U-shaped Avalanche Gulch. This is the largest glacial valley on the volcano, although it does not presently have a glacier in it. There are seven named glaciers on Mount Shasta, with the four largest (Whitney, Bolam, Hotlum, and Wintun) radiating down from high on the main summit cone to below 10,000 ft (3,000 m) primarily on the north and east sides.^[4] The Whitney Glacier is the longest and the Hotlum is the most voluminous glacier in the state of California. Three of the smaller named glaciers occupy cirques near and above 11,000 ft (3,400 m) on the south and southeast sides, including the Watkins, Konwakiton, and Mud Creek Glaciers.

There are many buried glacial scars on the mountain which were originally created in recent glacial periods ("ice ages") of the present Wisconsinian glaciation. Most have since been filled in with andesite lava, pyroclastic flows, and talus from lava domes. Shastina, by comparison, has a fully intact summit crater indicating that Shastina developed after the last ice age.

Northern side of Mount Shasta

About 593,000 years ago, andesitic lavas erupted in what is now Mount Shasta's western flank near McBride Spring. Over time, an ancestral Mount Shasta stratovolcano was built to a large but unknown height; sometime between 300,000 and 360,000 years ago the entire north side of the volcano collapsed, creating an enormous landslide or debris avalanche, 6.5 cu mi (27 km³)^[11] in volume. The slide flowed northwestward into Shasta Valley, where the Shasta River now cuts through the 28-mile-long (45 km) flow.

What remains of the oldest of Mount Shasta's four cones is exposed at Sargents Ridge on the south side of the mountain. Lavas from the Sargents Ridge vent cover the Everitt Hill shield at Mount Shasta's southern foot. The last lavas to erupt from the vent were hornblende-pyroxene andesites with a hornblende dacite dome at its summit. Glacial erosion has since modified its shape.

The next cone to form is exposed south of Mount Shasta's current summit and is called Misery Hill. It was formed 15,000 to 20,000 years ago from pyroxene andesite flows and has since been intruded by a hornblende dacite dome.

Nearby Black Butte from Weed, California

Since then the Shastina cone has been built by mostly pyroxene andesite lava flows. Some 9,500 years ago, these flows reached about 6.8 mi (10.9 km) south and 3 mi (4.8 km) north of the area now occupied by nearby Black Butte. The last eruptions formed Shastina's present summit about a hundred years later. But before that, Shastina, along with the then forming Black Butte dacite plug dome complex to the west, created numerous pyroclastic flows that covered 43 sq mi (110 km²), including large parts of what is now Mount Shasta, California and Weed, California. Diller Canyon (400 ft (120 m) deep and 0.25 mi (400 m) wide) is an avalanche chute that was probably carved into Shastina's western face by these flows.

The last to form, and the highest cone, the Hotlum Cone, formed about 8,000 years ago. It is named after the Hotlum glacier on its northern face; its longest lava flow, the 500 ft-thick (150 m) Military Pass flow, extends 5.5 mi (8.9 km) down its northwest face. Since the creation of the Hotlum Cone, a dacite dome intruded the cone and now forms the summit. The rock at the 600 ft-wide (180 m) summit crater has been extensively hydrothermally altered by sulfurous hot springs and fumaroles there (only a few examples still remain).

In the last 8,000 years, the Hotlum Cone has erupted at least eight or nine times. About 200 years ago the last significant Mount Shasta eruption came from this cone and created a pyroclastic flow, a hot lahar (mudflow), and three cold lahars, which streamed 7.5 mi (12.1 km) down Mount Shasta's east flank via Ash Creek. A separate hot lahar went 12 mi (19 km) down Mud Creek. This eruption was observed by the explorer La Pérouse, from his ship off the California coast, in 1786.^[3]

Climbing and recreation[link]

Mount Shasta Alpine Lodge at Horse Camp on Mount Shasta. Avalanche Gulch is to the right of the chimney.

Mount Shasta's west face. June 2009

Many climbers attempt the summit of Mount Shasta. The summer climbing season runs from late April until October, although many attempts are made in the winter. The most popular route is Avalanche Gulch, also known as the John Muir Route. It begins at a Sierra Club Foundation hut known as the Mount Shasta Alpine Lodge at Horse Camp, at elevation 7,900 ft (2,400 m) on the southwest side of the mountain, near the tree line. It involves 6,300 ft (1,900 m) of vertical gain over moraines and snowfields, with some danger from rockfall and a bergschrund.^[4] Climbers should possess ice axes, crampons, helmets, and self-arrest skills and be well-prepared for harsh conditions. Climbers are required to pay $20 for a 3-day summit pass, or $30 for an annual pass.^[12] Hiking trails also exist in areas around the base of the mountain.^[4]

In winter, Sargents Ridge and Casaval Ridge, to the east and west of Avalanche Gulch^[13] respectively, become the most traveled routes, to avoid avalanche danger. Mount Shasta is also a popular destination for backcountry skiing. Many of the climbing routes can be descended by experienced skiers, and there are numerous lower-angled areas around the base of the mountain.^[4]

Volcanic hazards[link]

Diller Canyon on Shastina from Weed, California; pyroclastic flows and other volcanic deposits are under the towns of Weed and nearby Mount Shasta.

During the last 10,000 years Mount Shasta has erupted an average of every 800 years but in the past 4,500 years the volcano has erupted an average of every 600 years. The last significant eruption on Mount Shasta may have occurred about two centuries ago.

Mount Shasta can release volcanic ash, pyroclastic flows or dacite and andesite lava. Its deposits can be detected under nearby small towns totaling 20,000 in population. Mount Shasta has an explosive, eruptive history. There are fumaroles on the mountain, which show that Mount Shasta is still alive.

The worst case scenario for an eruption is a large pyroclastic flow, such as what occurred in the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Since there is ice, such as Whitney Glacier and Mud Creek Glacier, lahars would also result. Ash would probably blow inland, perhaps as far as eastern Nevada. There is a small chance that an eruption could also be bigger resulting in a collapse of the mountain, as happened when Mount Mazama in Oregon collapsed to form what is now called Crater Lake, but this is of much lower probability.

The United States Geological Survey considers Mount Shasta a dormant volcano, which will erupt again. It is impossible to pinpoint the date of next eruption, but it likely will occur within the next several hundred years.

History[link]

The oldest known human habitation in the area dates to about 7,000 years ago, and by about 5,000 years ago, there was substantial human habitation in the surrounding area.

At the time of Euro-American contact in the 1820s, the Native American tribes who lived within view of Mount Shasta included the Shasta, Okwanuchu, Modoc, Achomawi, Atsugewi, Karuk, Klamath, Wintu, and Yana tribes.

The historic eruption of Mount Shasta in 1786 may have been observed by Lapérouse, but this is disputed. Although perhaps first seen by Spanish explorers, the first reliably-reported land sighting of Mount Shasta by a European or American was by Peter Skene Ogden (a leader of a Hudson's Bay Company trapping brigade) in 1826. In 1827, the name "Sasty" or "Sastise" was given to nearby Mount McLoughlin by Ogden.^[14] The name was transferred to present-day Mount Shasta in 1841, partly as a result of work by the United States Exploring Expedition.

Beginning in the 1820s, Mount Shasta was a prominent landmark along what became known as the Siskiyou Trail, which runs at Mount Shasta's base. The Siskiyou Trail was located on the track of an ancient trade and travel route of Native American footpaths between California's Central Valley and the Pacific Northwest.

The California Gold Rush brought the first Euro-American settlements into the area in the early 1850s, including at Yreka, California and Upper Soda Springs. The first recorded ascent of Mount Shasta occurred in 1854 (by Elias Pearce), after several earlier failed attempts. In 1856, the first women (Harriette Eddy, Mary Campbell McCloud, and their party) reached the summit.

By the 1860s and 1870s, Mount Shasta was the subject of scientific and literary interest. A book by California pioneer and entrepreneur James Hutchings, titled Scenes of Wonder and Curiosity in California, contained an account of an early summit trip in 1855.^[15] The summit was achieved (or nearly achieved) by John Muir, Josiah Whitney, Clarence King, and John Wesley Powell. In 1877, Muir wrote a dramatic popular article about an experience in which he survived an overnight blizzard on Mount Shasta by lying in the hot sulfur springs found near the summit.^[16]

The 1887 completion of the Central Pacific Railroad, built along the line of the Siskiyou Trail between California and Oregon, brought a substantial increase in tourism, lumbering, and population into the area around Mount Shasta. Early resorts and hotels, such as Shasta Springs, grew up along the Siskiyou Trail around Mount Shasta, catering to these early adventuresome tourists and mountaineers.

In the early Twentieth century, the Pacific Highway followed the track of the Siskiyou Trail to the base of Mount Shasta, leading to still more access to the mountain. Today's version of the Siskiyou Trail, Interstate 5, brings thousands of people a year to Mount Shasta.

February 13–19, 1959 the Mount Shasta Ski Bowl obtained the record of 15.75 feet (480 cm) for the most snowfall during one storm in the U.S.^[17]

It was declared a National Natural Landmark in December 1976.^[18]

Religion and legends[link]

Sunrise on Mount Shasta

The lore of some of the Klamath Tribes in the area held that Mount Shasta is inhabited by the Spirit of the Above-World, Skell, who descended from heaven to the mountain's summit at the request of a Klamath chief. Skell fought with Spirit of the Below-World, Llao, who resided at Mt. Mazama by throwing hot rocks and lava, probably representing the volcanic eruptions at both mountains.^[19]

Italian settlers arrived in the early 1900s to work in the mills and as stonemasons and established a strong Catholic presence in the area. Many other faiths have been attracted to Mount Shasta over the years—more than any other Cascade volcano.^{[citation needed]} Mount Shasta City and Dunsmuir, California, small towns near Shasta's western base, are focal points for many of these, which range from a Buddhist monastery (Shasta Abbey, founded by Houn Jiyu-Kennett in 1971) to modern-day Native American rituals. A group of Native Americans from the McCloud River area practice rituals on the mountain.^[20]

Mount Shasta has also been a focus for non-native American legends, centered on a hidden city of advanced beings from the lost continent of Lemuria.^[21] The legend grew from an offhand mention of Lemuria in the 1880s, to a description of a hidden Lemurian village in 1925. In 1931, Wisar Spenle Cerve wrote a book, published by the Rosicrucians, about the hidden Lemurians of Mount Shasta that cemented the legend in many readers' minds.^[21]

In August 1987, believers in the spiritual significance of the Harmonic Convergence described Mount Shasta as one of a small number of global "power centers".^[22] Mount Shasta remains a focus of "New Age" attention.^[23]

Cultural references[link]

• Joaquin Miller sets his historical novel, Life Amongst the Modocs,^[7] at the base of Mount Shasta. The poet had spent a number of years as a young man living with and near the Native Americans around Mount Shasta, and based this work on that time.

See also[link]

Mount Shasta's west face, as seen from Hidden Valley high on the mountain. The west face gulley is an alternate climbing route to the summit.

• California 4000 meter peaks
• Geology of the Pacific Northwest
• List of California fourteeners
• List of highest points in California by county
• Mountain peaks of California
• Volcanic Legacy Scenic Byway

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Crandell, D. R.; C. D. Miller, H. X. Glicken, R. L. Christiansen and C. G. Newhall (March 1984). "Catastrophic debris avalanche from ancestral Mount Shasta volcano, California". Geology 12 (3): 143–146. DOI:10.1130/0091-7613(1984)12<143:CDAFAM>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7613. 
• Harris, Stephen L. (2005). Fire Mountains of the West: The Cascade and Mono Lake Volcanoes (3rd ed.). Mountain Press Publishing Company. ISBN 0-87842-511-X. 
• "Mount Shasta Collection". College of the Siskiyous Library. http://www.siskiyous.edu/library/Shasta/index.htm. Retrieved 2012-04-21. 
• Miesse, William C. (June 17, 2005). "Mount Shasta Fact Sheet". College of the Siskiyous Library. http://www.siskiyous.edu/library/shasta/factsheet/. Retrieved 2006-02-11. 
• Miesse, William C. "The Name 'Shasta'". Mt. Shasta Annotated Bibliography. College of the Siskiyous Library. http://www.siskiyous.edu/shasta/bib/B14.htm. Retrieved 2006-02-11. 
• "Mountaineering - The First Female". College of the Siskiyous Library. 2008. http://www.siskiyous.edu/library/shasta/mountaineering/first%20female.htm. Retrieved 2012-04-21. 
• Peterson, Robyn; Miesse, William C. (2008). Sudden and solitary: Mount Shasta and its artistic legacy, 1841-2008. Redding, Calif: Turtle Bay Exploration Park. ISBN 1-59714-088-0. 
• "Peninsula Geological Society and Stanford GES-052Q combined field trip, Mount Shasta-Klamathnorthern Coast Range area, NW California, 05/17-05/20/2001" (PDF). Peninsula Geological Society. http://www.diggles.com/pgs/2001/PGS_Field_Trip_2001.pdf. Retrieved 2012-04-21. .
• Wood, Charles A.; Jürgen Kienle, eds. (1990). Volcanoes of North America. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43811-X. 
• Zanger, Michael (1992). Mt. Shasta: History, Legend, Lore. Celestial Arts. ISBN 0-89087-674-6. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Mount Shasta (category)

• "Mount Shasta Webcam". http://www.shastacam.com/. Retrieved 2011-05-08. 
• "Live webcam". SnowCrest Inc.. http://www.snowcrest.net/camera/. Retrieved 2011-05-08. 
• "Sisson Museum". http://www.mountshastasissonmuseum.org/index.htm. Retrieved 2011-05-08. 
• "Museum of the Siskiyou Trail". http://museumsiskiyoutrail.org. Retrieved 2011-05-08. 
• "Mount Shasta on Summitpost.org". SummitPost.org. http://www.summitpost.org/page/150188. Retrieved 2011-05-07. 
• "Mount Shasta". Bivouac.com. http://www.bivouac.com/MtnPg.asp?MtnId=9144. Retrieved 2011-05-07. 
• "Geology of Mount Shasta". College of the Siskiyous. http://www.siskiyous.edu/shasta/geo/. Retrieved 2011-05-08. 
• "Mt. Shasta Climber's Guide". ClimbingMtShasta.org. http://www.climbingmtshasta.org/. Retrieved 2011-05-08. 
• "Summiting the Volcano". Vimeo.com. http://vimeo.com/12878599. Retrieved 2011-05-08. 
• "Land of the Giants". Vimeo.com. http://vimeo.com/8138267. Retrieved 2011-05-08. 
• "Mount Shasta Climbing Above Red Banks". Timberline Trails. http://www.timberlinetrails.net/ShastaAboveRedBanks.html. Retrieved 2011-05-08. 

v t e Cascade Volcanoes British Columbia Silverthrone Caldera Mount Meager Mount Cayley Mount Garibaldi Washington Mount Baker Glacier Peak Mount Rainier Goat Rocks Mount St. Helens Mount Adams Oregon Mount Hood Mount Jefferson Three Sisters Broken Top Mount Bachelor Newberry Volcano Diamond Peak Mount Thielsen Mount Mazama (Crater Lake) Yamsay Mountain Mount McLoughlin California Medicine Lake Volcano Mount Shasta Mount Tehama Lassen Peak