Esotericism or Esoterism signifies the holding of esoteric opinions or beliefs, that is, ideas preserved or understood by a small group or those specially initiated, or of rare or unusual interest. The term derives from the Greek '''' ''(esôterikos)'', a compound of '''' ''(esô)'': "within", thus "pertaining to the more inward", mystic. Its antonym is "exoteric".

The term can also refer to the academic study of esoteric religious movements and philosophies, or more generally of alternative or marginalized religious movements or philosophies whose proponents distinguish their beliefs, practices, and experiences from mainstream institutionalized traditions.

Examples of esoteric religious movements and philosophies include Alchemy, Astrology, Anthroposophy, Christian mysticism, Magic, Mesmerism, Rosicrucianism, Swedenborgianism, Spiritualism, Freemasonry, the Christian Theosophy of Jacob Böhme and his followers, and the Theosophical currents associated with Helena Blavatsky and her followers. There are competing views regarding the common traits uniting these currents, not all of which involve "inwardness", mystery, occultism or secrecy as a crucial trait.

Etymology

Plato, in his dialogue ''Alcibíades'' (circa 390 BC), uses the expression ''ta esô'' meaning "the inner things", and in his dialogue ''Theaetetus'' (circa 360 BC) he uses ''ta exô'' meaning "the outside things". Aristotle applied this distinction to his own writings. The probable first appearance of the Greek adjective ''esôterikos'' is in Lucian of Samosata's "The Auction of Lives", § 26, written around AD 166.

The term ''esoteric'' first appeared in English in the 1701 ''History of Philosophy'' by Thomas Stanley, in his description of the mystery-school of Pythagoras; the Pythagoreans were divided into "exoteric" (under training), and "esoteric" (admitted into the "inner" circle). The corresponding noun "esotericism" was coined in French by Jacques Matter in 1828 and popularized by Eliphas Levi in the 1850s. . It entered the English language in the 1880s via the works of theosophist Alfred Sinnett.

Definition

Among the competing understandings of what unites the various currents designated by "Esotericism" in the scholarly sense, perhaps the most influential has been proposed by Antoine Faivre. His definition is based on the presence in the esoteric currents of four essential characteristics: a theory of correspondences between all parts of the invisible and the visible cosmos, the conviction that nature is a living entity owing to a divine presence or life-force, the need for mediating elements (such as symbols, rituals, angels, visions) in order to access spiritual knowledge, and, fourthly, an experience of personal and spiritual transmutation when arriving at this knowledge. To this are added two non-intrinsic characteristics. Esotericists frequently suggest that there is a concordance between different religious traditions: best example is the belief in ''prisca theologia'' (ancient theology) or in ''philosophia perennis'' (perennial philosophy). Finally, esotericism sometimes suggests the idea of a secret transmission of spiritual teachings, through initiation from master to disciple. It should, however, be emphasized that Faivre's definition is one of several divergent understandings of the most appropriate use of the term.

The “perennialist” or “traditionalist” school is represented by authors like the French René Guénon (1886–1951), the Indian Ananda Coomaraswamy (1877–1947), the Swiss Frithjof Schuon (1907–1998), the Italian Julius Evola (1898–1974), the Iranian Seyyed Hossein Nasr (born in 1933), both scholars and esotericists. They postulate that there exists a Primordial Tradition of non-human origin. : “We say that it [the origin of the traditions] is polar, and the pole is nomore Western than it is Eastern. It is only in a later epoch that the seat of the primordial tradition, transferred to other regions, was able to become either Western or Eastern. We consider the origin of the traditions to be Nordic, and even more to be polar, since this is expressly affirmed in the ''Veda'' as well as in other sacred books.” In perennialist usage, esoterism is a metaphysical concept referring to a supposed “transcendent unity” of all great religious traditions. Esotericism is the metaphysical point of unity where exoteric religions are believed to converge. : “Our starting point is the acknowledgment of the fact that there are diverse religions which exclude each other. This could mean that one religion is right and that all the others are false; it could mean also that all are false. In reality, it means that all are right, not in their dogmatic exclusivism, but in their unanimous inner signification, which coincides with pure metaphysics, or in other terms, with the ''philosophia perennis.''” (F. Schuon, 1995). After all, the esoteric tradition may be recovered if the seeker undergoes initiation. : “Initiation is essentially the transmission of a spiritual influence, a transmission that can only take place through a regular, traditional organization, so that one cannot speak of initiation outside of an affiliation with an organization of this kind. We have explained that 'regularity' must be understood to exclude all pseudo-initiatic organizations, which, regardless of pretention and outward appearance, in no way possess any spiritual influence and thus are incapable of transmitting anything.”

History

Since esotericism is not a single tradition but a vast array of often unrelated figures and movements, there is no single historical thread underlying them all. The developments that one might wish to emphasize in drawing up a history of esotericism furthermore depends on whether esotericism in the dictionary (non-scholarly) or the scholarly sense is intended.

Several historically attested religions emphasize secret or hidden knowledge, and are thus esoteric in the dictionary sense, without necessarily being esoteric movements in the scholarly sense of the word. Thus, the Roman Empire had several mystery religions which emphasized initiation. Some saw Christianity, with its ritual of baptism, as a mystery religion. None of these are "esoteric" in the scholarly sense. The terms "Gnosticism" and "Gnosis" refer to a family of religious movements which claimed to possess secret knowledge (gnosis). Another important movement from the ancient world was Hermeticism or ''Hermetism''. Both of these are often seen as precursors to esoteric movements in the scholarly sense of the word.

Non-Western traditions can also display the characteristics of esoteric movements. The Ismaili Muslims also stress a distinction between the inner and the outer. It is believed that spiritual salvation is attained by receiving the 'Nur' (light) through the "esoteric", that is, spiritual search for enlightenment. Ismaili Islam also has some of the characteristics associated with esotericism as defined by Faivre, e.g. the belief in an intermediate spiritual sphere mediating between humans and the divine. Esoteric movements in Buddhism, which fall under the general category of Vajrayana Buddhism, employ esoteric training into Buddha's teachings, through use of symbols, mantra and hand-gestures, or mudra. Initiation rituals are typically given to students as they progress along these paths, and care is taken not to discuss specific rituals to those lacking the right empowerment.

In order to distinguish esoteric currents based primarily on sources from late Antiquity and the European Middle Ages, from e.g. Islamic or Jewish currents with similar features, the more precise term "Western esotericism" is often employed.

Western esoteric movements in the scholarly sense thus have roots in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. A major phase in the development of Western esotericism begins in the Renaissance, partly as the result of various attempts to revive such earlier movements. During the Italian Renaissance, for example, translators such as Ficino and Pico della Mirandola turned their attention to the classical literature of Neoplatonism, and what was thought to be the pre-Mosaic tradition of Hermeticism. Other pursuits of Antiquity that entered into the mix of esoteric speculation were astrology and alchemy. Beside such revived currents from late Antiquity, a second major source of esoteric speculation is the Kabbalah, which was lifted out of its Jewish context and adapted to a Christian framework by people such as Johannes Reuchlin. Outside the Italian Renaissance, yet another major current of esotericism was initiated by Paracelsus, who combined alchemical and astrological themes (among others) into a complex body of doctrines.

In the early 17th century, esotericism is represented by currents such as Christian theosophy and Rosicrucianism. A century later, esoteric ideas entered various strands of Freemasonry. Later in the 18th century, as well as in the early 19th century, the diffuse movement known as Mesmerism became a major expression of esotericism. In the 19th century, esotericism is also represented by certain aspects of the philosophy, literature and science associated with Romanticism, by spiritualism, and by a notable French wave of occultism.

The major exponent of esotericism in the latter part of the 19th century is the Theosophy of H. P. Blavatsky, not to be confused with the Christian Theosophy mentioned above. In the 20th century, Theosophy was reformulated by Annie Besant, Charles Webster Leadbeater, Alice Bailey, Rudolf Steiner and many others, and became the source for a whole range of post-theosophical movements such as The Summit Lighthouse. A particularly successful post-theosophical movement is Anthroposophy, a synthesis of occultist, Christian and Neoplatonic ideas with Western esoteric concepts as formulated in the wake of Theosophy. Anthroposophy, which was founded by Rudolf Steiner in the early part of the 20th century, includes esoteric versions of education, agriculture, and medicine.

Yet another notable esoteric strain stems from the teachings of G. I. Gurdjieff and P. D. Ouspensky.

Theosophy is also considered a major influence on the many less institutionally organized varieties of esotericism in metaphysical milieus, "Ascended Master Activities", and within the New Age.

Finally, it can be noted that Carl Gustav Jung can be seen as an exponent of esotericism: his writings concern esoteric subject matter such as alchemy, and rephrased the concept of correspondences in a modern, psychologizing terminology in his theory of synchronicity.

Methodology

Wouter J. Hanegraaff is Professor of “History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents” at the University of Amsterdam (1999). The Universiteit van Amsterdam (UvA) is the world's first academic institution to have created a complete program for research and teaching in the field of Western Esotericism. He is also president of the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism. Essential to Hanegraaff’s methodology is what he calls an “empirical” approach, with an informed, open, and, so much as possible, neutral mind. He makes a sharp division between a “religionist” perspective and an “empiricist” one. :“Empirical research must be based on methodological agnosticism with regard to religious and philosophical ‘first principles’, and must fully recognize the historicity of religious phenomena. This empirical perspective is applied to the newly emerging academic field of esotericism.” Secondly, Hanegraaff follows a distinction between an “emic” and an “etic” approach to religious studies. The emic approach is that of the alchemist or theosopher as an alchemist or theosopher. The etic approach is that of the scholar as an historian, a researcher, with a critical look. An empirical study of esotericism needs “emic material and etic interpretation”. :“The principal theoretical tool to safeguard scientific legitimity in this situation is the distinction between ''emic'' and ''etic''. Emic denotes the believer’s point of view. On the part of the researcher, the reconstruction of this emic perspective requires an attitude of empathy which excludes personel biases as far as possible. Scholarly discourse about religion, on the other hand, is not emic but etic. Scholars may introduce their own terminology and make theoretical distinctions which are different from those of the believers themselves.”

Pierre A. Riffard (Ph.D., University of the French West Indies) studies the method used by esotericists themselves (alchemists, magicians, Rosicrucians, Anthroposophists...). He examines some of their procedures. 1) Mythological origins. The esotericists trace the origins of their doctrine or practice to an extremely distant past. They situate the life of Hermes in times immemorial. 2) Cosmic cycles. For Gaston Georgel, “history is governed by cycles of 540, 1080 and 2160 years”. 3) The chains of initiation. Some Rosicrucians include Francis Bacon among their masters and trace their origins back to the time of Thutmosis III. 4) The secret books. Esotericists prefer to base their beliefs on secret writings, unknown to the majority of people and inaccessible to the uninitiated: for instance, among the Theosophists, ''The Book of Dzyan''. 5) Spiritual interpretations. The esotericists are able to endow the most profane texts with an occult meaning. The alchemists discover within the Greek and Roman myths the Great Work of alchemy. 6) Magical uses. A book can be used as a talisman, a divinatory machine... The ''Sortes Sanctorum'' (Lots of the saints) were, in early Christianity, a divination which consists in taking passages of the Bible at chance, and drawing conclusions from them concerning future.

Arthur Versluis (Professor, Ph.D., Michigan State University) proposes the term “sympathetic empiricism” as the approach that he finds most amenable in the study of Western Esotericism.  :“While I am convinced of the critical importance of historiography in the study of esotericism (and for this reason all of my academic books are firmly grounded in historical method) I do not believe that historiography is adequate in itself to convey the complex, multivalent nature of esoteric thought, traditions, or most of all, experience.  Esotericism, given all its varied forms and its inherently multidimensional nature, cannot be conveyed without going beyond purely historical information: at minimum, the study of esotericism, and in particular mysticism, requires some degree of imaginative participation in what one is studying.”

See also

Archeosophy

Behmenism

Clairvoyance

Esoteric Buddhism

Esoteric Christianity

Esoteric cosmology

Esoteric healing

Esotericism in Germany and Austria

Freemasonry

Huna

Illuminati

Karma

List of Buddhist topics

List of spirituality-related topics

List of religious, esoteric, metaphysical and mystical symbols

Magic and religion

Martinism

Merkabah

Mysticism

New World Order

Numerology

Obscurantism

Occult

Odic force

Plane (esotericism) (Planes of existence)

Qigong

Reincarnation

Scientology

Spiritual evolution

Spirituality

Telepathy

Western Esotericism (academia)

Western mystery tradition

References

Further reading

''Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism'', Leiden: Brill, since 2001.

''Aries Book Series: Texts and Studies in Western Esotericism'', Leiden: Brill, since 2006.

''Esoterica'', East Lansing, Michigan State University (MSU). An online resource since 1999 . I (1999) ; VIII (2006) ; IX (2007)

Antoine Faivre, ''Access to Western Esotericism'' (1986), Albany: State University of New York Press (“SUNY Séries in Western Esoteric Traditions”), 1994, X-369 p.

Antoine Faivre, ''Theosophy, Imagination, Tradition: Studies in Western Esotericism'' (1996), Albany: SUNY Press (“SUNY Séries in Western Esoteric Traditions”), 2000, XXXV-269 p.

René Guénon, ''Perspectives on initiation'' (1946), New York: Sophia perennis, 2004, 320 p.

Wouter J. Hanegraaff, “The Study of Western Esotericism: New Approaches to Christian and Secular Culture”, in Peter Antes, Armin W. Geertz and Randi R. Warne, ''New Approaches to the Study of Religion'', vol. I: ''Regional, Critical, and Historical Approaches'', Berlin / New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2004, 497 p.

Wouter J. Hanegraaff (ed.), in collaboration with Antoine Faivre, Roelof van den Broek, Jean-Pierre Brach, ''Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism'', Leiden / Bristol: Brill, 2005, 2 vols., 1228 p. ISBN 90-04-14187-1.

Édouard Schuré, ''The Great Initiates: A Study of the Secret History of Religions'' (1889), Blauvelt (N.Y.): Garber Books, 1992, 480 p. “Rama, Krishna, Hermes, Moses, Orpheus, Pythagoras, Plato, and Jesus.”

Kocku von Stuckrad, ''Western Esotericism: A Brief History of Secret Knowledge'' (2004), London / Oakville: Equinox Publishing, 2005, XVII-167 p.

Arthur Versluis, ''Magic and Mysticism: An Introduction to Western Esotericism'', Plymouth: Rowman and Littlefield, 2007, 208 pages.

Benjamin Walker, ''Encyclopedia of Esoteric Man: The Hidden Side of the Human Entity'', London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977, 353 p. ISBN 0-7100-8479-X. New title: ''Body Magic'', London: Granada Publishing, “Paladin Books”, 1979, 478 p. ISBN 0-586-08323-5. Arranged alphabetically.

Benjamin Walker, ''Man and the Beasts Within: The Encyclopedia of the Occult, the Esoteric, and the Supernatural'', New York: Stein and Day, 1978, 343 p. ISBN 0-8128-1900-4

External links

The Esoteric Buddhist School in Europe

The Irish Hanmi Buddhist School

University of Amsterdam Center for Study of Western Esotericism Research & BA/MA programs in Western esotericism.

University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO)

ESSWE European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism, with many links to associated organizations, libraries, scholars etc.

Association for the Study of Esotericism

Esoterism and Exoterism (René Guénon)

What is understood by “Western Esotericism”? (Prof. Wouter Hanegraaff)

What is Esotericism ? (Prof. Kocku von Stuckrad)

What is Esoteric? (Prof. Arthur Versluis)

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country	England
fullname	Colin Leonard Price
living	true
dayofbirth	24
monthofbirth	10
yearofbirth	1943
placeofbirth	Birmingham, Warwickshire
countryofbirth	England
batting	Right-handed
club1	Staffordshire
year1	1966–1976
deliveries	balls
columns	1
column1	List A
matches1	2
runs1	64
bat avg1	32.00
100s/50s1	–/1
top score1	52
deliveries1	–
wickets1	–
bowl avg1	–
fivefor1	–
tenfor1	–
best bowling1	–
catches/stumpings1	–/–
date	20 June
year	2011
source	http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/19117.html Cricinfo }}

Colin Leonard Price (born 24 October 1943) is a former English cricketer. Price was a right-handed batsman. He was born in Birmingham, Warwickshire.

Price made his debut for Staffordshire in the 1966 Minor Counties Championship against Norfolk. Price played Minor counties cricket for Staffordshire from 1966 to 1976, which included 24 Minor Counties Championship matches. In 1973, he made his List A debut against Dorset in the Gillette Cup. In this match, Price scored 12 runs before being dismissed by Derek Shackleton, with Staffordshire going on to win the match by 79 runs. He made his second and last List A appearance in the following round against Lancashire. Price scored 52 runs in this match, before being dismissed by Peter Lee.

References

External links

Colin Price at ESPNcricinfo

Colin Price at CricketArchive

Category:1943 births Category:Living people Category:People from Birmingham, West Midlands Category:English cricketers Category:Staffordshire cricketers

name	Carl Gustav Jung
birth date	July 26, 1875
birth place	Kesswil, Thurgau, Switzerland
death date	June 06, 1961
death place	Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
residence	Switzerland
citizenship	Swiss
field	Psychiatry, Psychology, Psychotherapy, Analytical psychology
work institutions	Burghölzli, Swiss Army (as a commissioned officer in World War I)
doctoral advisor	Eugen Bleuler, Sigmund Freud
known for	Analytical psychology
religion	Christian
signature	Carl Jung signature.svg }}

Carl Gustav Jung (; 1875–1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist, an influential thinker and the founder of Analytical Psychology. Jung is considered the first modern psychiatrist to view the human psyche as "by nature religious" and make it the focus of exploration. Though not the first to analyze dreams, he is one of the best known pioneers in the field of dream analysis. While he was a fully involved and practicing clinician, much of his life's work was spent exploring tangential areas, including Eastern and Western philosophy, alchemy, astrology, and sociology, as well as literature and the arts; all of which were extremely productive in regard to the symbols and processes of the human psyche, found in dreams and other entries to the unconscious.

He considered the process of individuation necessary for a person to become whole. This is a psychological process of integrating the opposites including the conscious with the unconscious while still maintaining their relative autonomy. Individuation was the central concept of analytical psychology.

Many pioneering psychological concepts were originally proposed by Jung, including the Archetype, the Collective Unconscious, the Complex, and synchronicity. A popular psychometric instrument, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), has been principally developed from Jung's theories.

Early years

Carl Jung was born Karl Gustav II Jung in Kesswil, in the Swiss canton of Thurgau, as the fourth but only surviving child of Paul Achilles Jung and Emilie Preiswerk. Emilie Preiswerk was the youngest child of Samuel Preiswerk, Paul Achilles Jung's professor of Hebrew. His father was a poor rural pastor in the Swiss Reformed Church, while his mother came from a wealthy and established Swiss family.

When Jung was six months old his father was appointed to a more prosperous parish in Laufen. Meanwhile, the tension between his parents was growing. An eccentric and depressed woman, Emilie Jung spent much of the time in her own separate bedroom, enthralled by the spirits that she said visited her at night. Jung had a better relationship with his father because he thought him to be predictable and thought his mother to be very problematic. Although during the day he also saw her as predictable, at night he felt some frightening influences from her room. At night his mother became strange and mysterious. Jung claimed that one night he saw a faintly luminous and indefinite figure coming from her room, with a head detached from the neck and floating in the air in front of the body. and that resulted in his sometimes patriarchal views of women. After three years of living in Laufen, Paul Jung requested a transfer and was called to Kleinhüningen in 1879. The relocation brought Emilie Jung in closer contact to her family and lifted her melancholy and despondent mood.

A solitary and introverted child, Jung was convinced from childhood that he had two personalities — a modern Swiss citizen and a personality more at home in the eighteenth century. "Personality Number 1," as he termed it, was a typical schoolboy living in the era of the time, while "Personality Number 2" was a dignified, authoritative and influential man from the past. Although Jung was close to both parents he was rather disappointed in his father's academic approach to faith.

A number of childhood memories had made a life-long impression on him. As a boy he carved a tiny mannequin into the end of the wooden ruler from his pupil's pencil case and placed it inside the case. He then added a stone which he had painted into upper and lower halves and hid the case in the attic. Periodically he would come back to the mannequin, often bringing tiny sheets of paper with messages inscribed on them in his own secret language. This ceremonial act, he later reflected, brought him a feeling of inner peace and security. In later years he discovered that similarities existed in this memory and the totems of native peoples like the collection of soul-stones near Arlesheim, or the ''tjurungas'' of Australia. This, he concluded, was an unconscious ritual that he did not question or understand at the time, but which was practiced in a strikingly similar way in faraway locations that he as a young boy had no way of consciously knowing about. His findings on psychological archetypes and the collective unconscious were inspired in part by these experiences.

Shortly before the end of his first year at the Humanistisches Gymnasium in Basel, at the age of twelve, he was pushed to the ground by another boy so hard that he was for a moment unconscious (Jung later recognized that the incident was his fault, indirectly). A thought then came to him that "now you won't have to go to school any more." From then on, whenever he started off to school or began homework, he fainted. He remained at home for the next six months until he overheard his father speaking worriedly to a visitor of his future ability to support himself, as they suspected he had epilepsy. With little money in the family, this brought the boy to reality and he realized the need for academic excellence. He immediately went into his father's study and began poring over Latin grammar. He fainted three more times, but eventually he overcame the urge and did not faint again. This event, Jung later recalled, "was when I learned what a neurosis is."

Jung had no plans to study psychiatry, because it was held in contempt in those days. But as he started studying his psychiatric textbook, he became very excited when he read that psychoses are personality diseases. Immediately he understood this was the field that interested him the most. It combined both biological and spiritual facts and this was what he was searching for.

In 1895, Jung studied medicine at the University of Basel. In 1900, he worked in the Burghölzli, a psychiatric hospital in Zurich, with Eugen Bleuler. His dissertation, published in 1903, was titled "On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena." In 1906, he published ''Studies in Word Association'' and later sent a copy of this book to Sigmund Freud, after which a close friendship between these two men followed for some six years (see section on Relationship with Freud). In 1912 Jung published ''Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido'' (known in English as ''Psychology of the Unconscious'') resulting in a theoretical divergence between him and Freud and consequently a break in their friendship, both stating that the other was unable to admit he could possibly be wrong. After this falling-out, Jung went through a pivotal and difficult psychological transformation, which was exacerbated by news of the First World War. Henri Ellenberger called Jung's experience a "creative illness" and compared it to Freud's period of what he called neurasthenia and hysteria.

During World War I Jung was drafted as an army doctor and soon made commandant of an internment camp for British officers and soldiers. (Swiss neutrality obliged the Swiss to intern personnel from either side of the conflict who crossed their frontier to evade capture.) Jung worked to improve the conditions for these soldiers stranded in neutral territory; he encouraged them to attend university courses.

Later life

In 1903, Jung married Emma Rauschenbach, who came from a wealthy family in Switzerland. They had five children: Agathe, Gret, Franz, Marianne, and Helene. The marriage lasted until Emma's death in 1955, but he had more-or-less open relationships with other women. The most well-known women with whom Jung is believed to have had extramarital relationships were patient and friend Sabina Spielrein and Toni Wolff.

Jung continued to publish books until the end of his life, including ''Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies'', which analyzed the archetypal meaning and possible psychological significance of the reported observations of UFOs. He also enjoyed a friendship with an English Roman Catholic priest, Father Victor White, who corresponded with Jung after he had published his controversial ''Answer to Job''.

Jung's work on himself and his patients convinced him that life has a spiritual purpose beyond material goals. Our main task, he believed, is to discover and fulfill our deep innate potential, much as the acorn contains the potential to become the oak, or the caterpillar to become the butterfly. Based on his study of Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Gnosticism, Taoism, and other traditions, Jung perceived that this journey of transformation, which he called individuation, is at the mystical heart of all religions. It is a journey to meet the self and at the same time to meet the Divine. Unlike Sigmund Freud, Jung thought spiritual experience was essential to our well-being.

In 1944 Jung published ''Psychology and Alchemy,'' where he analyzed the alchemical symbols and showed a direct relationship to the psychoanalytical process. He argued that the alchemical process was the transformation of the impure soul (lead) to perfected soul (gold), and a metaphor for the individuation process.

Jung died in 1961 at Küsnacht, after a short illness.

Relationship with Freud

Jung was thirty when he sent his ''Studies in Word Association'' to Sigmund Freud in Vienna in 1906. The two men met for the first time the following year, and Jung recalled the discussion between himself and Freud as interminable. They talked, he remembered, for thirteen hours, virtually without stopping'. Six months later, the then 50-year-old Freud sent a collection of his latest published essays to Jung in Zurich, which marked the beginning of an intense correspondence and collaboration that lasted six years and ended in May 1910. At this time Jung resigned as the chairman of the International Psychoanalytical Association, where he had been elected with Freud's support.

Today Jung's and Freud's theories have diverged. Nevertheless, they influenced each other during the intellectually formative years of Jung's life. As Freud was already fifty years old at their meeting, he was well beyond the formative years. In 1906 psychology as a science was still in its early stages. Jung, who had become interested in psychiatry as a student by reading ''Psychopathia Sexualis'' by Richard von Krafft-Ebing, professor in Vienna, now worked as a doctor under the psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in Burghölzli and became familiar with Freud's idea of the unconscious through Freud's ''The Interpretation of Dreams'' (1900) and was a proponent of the new "psycho-analysis." At the time, Freud needed collaborators and pupils to validate and spread his ideas. Burghölzli was a renowned psychiatric clinic in Zurich at which Jung was a young doctor whose research had already given him international recognition.

In 1908, Jung became an editor of the newly founded ''Yearbook for Psychoanalytical and Psychopathological Research.'' The following year, Jung traveled with Freud and Sándor Ferenczi to the U.S. to spread the news of psychoanalysis and in 1910, Jung became Chairman for Life of the International Psychoanalytical Association. While Jung worked on his ''Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido (Psychology of the Unconscious),'' tensions grew between Freud and Jung, mostly due to their disagreements over the nature of libido and religion. In 1912 these tensions came to a peak because Jung felt severely slighted after Freud visited his colleague Ludwig Binswanger in Kreuzlingen without paying him a visit in nearby Zurich, an incident Jung referred to as "the Kreuzlingen gesture." Shortly thereafter, Jung again traveled to the United States and gave the ''Fordham lectures,'' which were published as ''The Theory of Psychoanalysis.'' While they contain some remarks on Jung's dissenting view on the nature of libido, they represent largely a "psychoanalytical Jung" and not the theory Jung became famous for in the following decades.

In November 1912, Jung and Freud met in Munich for a meeting among prominent colleagues to discuss psychoanalytical journals. At a talk about a new psychoanalytic essay on Amenhotep IV, Jung expressed his views on how it related to actual conflicts in the psychoanalytic movement. While Jung spoke, Freud suddenly fainted and Jung carried him to a couch.

Jung and Freud personally met for the last time in September 1913 for the ''Fourth International Psychoanalytical Congress,'' also in Munich. Jung gave a talk on psychological types, the introverted and the extraverted type, in analytical psychology. This constituted the introduction of some of the key concepts which came to distinguish Jung's work from Freud's in the next half century.

In the following years Jung experienced considerable isolation in his professional life, exacerbated through World War I. His ''Seven Sermons to the Dead'' (1917) reprinted in his autobiography ''Memories, Dreams, Reflections'' (see bibliography) can also be read as expression of the psychological conflicts which beset Jung around the age of forty after the break with Freud.

Jung's primary disagreement with Freud stemmed from their differing concepts of the unconscious. Jung saw Freud's theory of the unconscious as incomplete and unnecessarily negative. According to Jung (though not according to Freud), Freud conceived the unconscious solely as a repository of repressed emotions and desires. Jung agreed with Freud's model of the unconscious, what Jung called the "personal unconscious", but he also proposed the existence of a second, far deeper form of the unconscious underlying the personal one. This was the collective unconscious, where the archetypes themselves resided, represented in mythology by a lake or other body of water, and in some cases a jug or other container. Freud had actually mentioned a collective level of psychic functioning but saw it primarily as an appendix to the rest of the psyche.

Travels

Jung's first trip outside of Europe was the 1909 conference at Clark University. The event was planned by psychologist G. Stanley Hall and included twenty-seven distinguished psychiatrists, neurologists and psychologists. It represented a watershed in the acceptance of psychoanalysis in North America. This forged welcome links between Jung and influential Americans. Jung returned to the United States the next year for a brief visit, and again for a six-week lecture series at Fordham University in 1912. He made a more extensive trip westward in the winter of 1924–5, financed and organized by Fowler McCormick and George Porter. Of particular value to Jung was a visit with chieftain Mountain Lake at the Taos Pueblo in New Mexico.

Jung spoke at meetings of the Psycho-Medical Society in London in 1913 and 1914. His travels were soon interrupted by the war, but his ideas continued to receive attention in England primarily through the efforts of Constance Long. She translated and published the first English volume of his collected writings and arranged for him to give a seminar in Cornwall in 1920. Another seminar was held in 1923, this one organized by Helton Godwin Baynes (known as Peter), and another in 1925.

In October 1925, Jung embarked on his most ambitious expedition, the "Bugishu Psychological Expedition" to East Africa. He was accompanied by Peter Baynes and an American associate, George Beckwith. On the voyage to Africa, they became acquainted with an English woman named Ruth Bailey, who joined their safari a few weeks later. The group traveled through Kenya and Uganda to the slopes of Mount Elgon, where Jung hoped to increase his understanding of "primitive psychology" through conversations with the culturally isolated residents of that area. Later he concluded that the major insights he had gleaned, had to do with himself and the European psychology in which he had been raised.

Jung made another trip to America in 1936, giving lectures in New York and New England for his growing group of American followers. He returned in 1937 to deliver the Terry Lectures, ''Psychology and Religion'', at Yale University. In December 1937, Jung left Zurich again for an extensive tour of India with Fowler McCormick. In India, he felt himself "under the direct influence of a foreign culture" for the first time. In Africa, his conversations had been strictly limited by the language barrier, but in India he was able to converse extensively. Hindu philosophy became an important element in his understanding of the role of symbolism and the life of the unconscious. Unfortunately, Jung became seriously ill on this trip and endured two weeks of delirium in a Calcutta hospital. After 1938, his travels were confined to Europe.

Political views

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Jung stressed the importance of individual rights in a person's relation to the state and society. He saw that the state was treated as "a quasi-animate personality from whom everything is expected" but that this personality was "only camouflage for those individuals who know how to manipulate it", and referred to the state as a form of slavery. He also thought that the state "swallowed up [people's] religious forces", and therefore that the state had "taken the place of God"—making it comparable to a religion in which "state slavery is a form of worship". From Jung's perspective, this replacement of God with the state in a mass society led to the dislocation of the religious drive and resulted in the same fanaticism of the church-states of the Dark Ages—wherein the more the state is 'worshiped', the more freedom and morality are suppressed; this ultimately leaves the individual psychically undeveloped with extreme feelings of marginalization.

Works

Jung was a prolific writer. His collected works fill 19 volumes. Many of his works were not translated into English until after his death. His best known works are ''Psychology of the Unconscious'' (1912) and ''Psychological Types'' (1921).

Red Book

In 1913 at the age of thirty-eight, Jung experienced a horrible "confrontation with the unconscious". He saw visions and heard voices. He worried at times that he was "menaced by a psychosis" or was "doing a schizophrenia." He decided that it was valuable experience, and in private, he induced hallucinations, or, in his words, "active imaginations." He recorded everything he felt in small journals. Jung began to transcribe his notes into a large, red leather-bound book, on which he worked intermittently for sixteen years.

Jung left no posthumous instructions about the final disposition of what he called the "Red Book". His family eventually moved it into a bank vault in 1984. Sonu Shamdasani, a historian from London, for three years tried to persuade Jung's heirs to have it published, to which they declined every hint of inquiry. As of mid-September 2009, fewer than two dozen people had seen it. But Ulrich Hoerni, Jung's grandson who manages the Jung archives, decided to publish it. To raise the additional funds needed, the Philemon Foundation was founded.

In 2007, two technicians for DigitalFusion, working with the publisher, W. W. Norton & Company, painstakingly scanned one-tenth of a millimeter at a time with a 10,200-pixel scanner. It was published on October 7, 2009 (ISBN 978-0-393-06567-1) in German with "separate English translation along with Shamdasani's introduction and footnotes" at the back of the book, according to Sara Corbett for ''The New York Times''. She wrote, "The book is bombastic, baroque and like so much else about Carl Jung, a willful oddity, synched with an antediluvian and mystical reality."

The Rubin Museum of Art in New York City displayed the original Red Book journal, as well as some of Jung's original small journals, from October 7, 2009 to January 25, 2010. According to them, "During the period in which he worked on this book Jung developed his principal theories of archetypes, collective unconscious, and the process of individuation." Two-thirds of the pages bear Jung's illuminations of the text.

Response to Nazism

Jung had many friends and respected colleagues who were Jewish and he maintained relations with them through the 1930s when anti-semitism in Germany and other European nations was on the rise. However, until 1939, he also maintained professional relations with psychotherapists in Germany who had declared their support for the Nazi regime and there were allegations that he himself was a Nazi sympathizer. In his work ''Civilisation in Transition, Collected Works Volume X'', however, Jung wrote of "... the Aryan bird of prey with his insatiable lust to lord it in every land, even those that concern him not at all."

There are writings showing that Jung's sympathies were against, rather than for, Nazism. In his 1936 essay ''Wotan'', Jung described Germany as "infected" by "one man who is obviously 'possessed'...", and as "rolling towards perdition", and wrote "...what a so-called Führer does with a mass movement can plainly be seen if we turn our eyes to the north or south of our country." The essay does, however, speak in more positive terms of Jakob Wilhelm Hauer and his German Faith Movement which was loyal to Hitler. In April 1939, the Bishop of Southwark asked Jung if he had any specific views on what was likely to be the next step in religious development. Jung's reply was:

Jung would later say that: "Hitler seemed like the 'double' of a real person, as if Hitler the man might be hiding inside like an appendix, and deliberately so concealed in order not to disturb the mechanism ... You know you could never talk to this man; because there is nobody there ... It is not an individual; it is an entire nation." In 1943, Jung aided the United States Office of Strategic Services by analyzing the psychology of Nazi leaders.

In an interview with Carol Baumann in 1948, Jung denied rumors regarding any sympathy for the Nazi movement, saying:

A full response from Jung discounting the rumors can be found in ''C.G Jung Speaking, Interviews and Encounters'', Princeton University Press, 1977.

Jung and professional organizations in Germany, 1933 to 1939

In 1933, after the Nazis gained power in Germany, Jung took part in restructuring of the General Medical Society for Psychotherapy (''Allgemeine Ärztliche Gesellschaft für Psychotherapie''), a German-based professional body with an international membership. The society was reorganized into two distinct bodies: # A strictly German body, the ''Deutsche Allgemeine Ärztliche Gesellschaft für Psychotherapie'', led by Matthias Göring, an Adlerian psychotherapist and a cousin of the prominent Nazi Hermann Göring; # International General Medical Society for Psychotherapy, led by Jung. The German body was to be affiliated to the international society, as were new national societies being set up in Switzerland and elsewhere.

The International Society's constitution permitted individual doctors to join it directly, rather than through one of the national affiliated societies, a provision to which Jung drew attention in a circular in 1934. This implied that German Jewish doctors could maintain their professional status as individual members of the international body, even though they were excluded from the German affiliate, as well as from other German medical societies operating under the Nazis.

As leader of the international body, Jung assumed overall responsibility for its publication, the ''Zentralblatt für Psychotherapie''. In 1933, this journal published a statement endorsing Nazi positions and Hitler's book ''Mein Kampf''. In 1934, Jung wrote in a Swiss publication, the ''Neue Zürcher Zeitung'', that he experienced "great surprise and disappointment" when the ''Zentralblatt'' associated his name with the pro-Nazi statement.

Jung went on to say "the main point is to get a young and insecure science into a place of safety during an earthquake". He did not end his relationship with the ''Zentralblatt'' at this time, but he did arrange the appointment of a new managing editor, Carl Alfred Meier of Switzerland. For the next few years, the ''Zentralblatt'' under Jung and Meier maintained a position distinct from that of the Nazis, in that it continued to acknowledge contributions of Jewish doctors to psychotherapy.

In the face of energetic German attempts to Nazify the international body, Jung resigned from its presidency in 1939, the year the Second World War started.

Influence

Jung has had an enduring influence on psychology as well as wider society. He founded a new school of psychotherapy, called analytical psychology or Jungian psychology. His theories include:

The concept of introversion and extraversion.

The concept of the complex.

The concept of collective unconscious, which is shared by all people. It includes the archetypes.

Synchronicity as a mode of relationship that is not causal, an idea which has influenced Wolfgang Pauli (with whom he developed the notion of Unus mundus in connection with the notion of non-locality) and some other physicists.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and Socionics were both inspired by Jung's psychological types theory.

Spirituality as a cure for alcoholism

Jung recommended spirituality as a cure for alcoholism and he is considered to have had an indirect role in establishing Alcoholics Anonymous. Jung once treated an American patient (Rowland Hazard III), suffering from chronic alcoholism. After working with the patient for some time and achieving no significant progress, Jung told the man that his alcoholic condition was near to hopeless, save only the possibility of a spiritual experience. Jung noted that occasionally such experiences had been known to reform alcoholics where all else had failed.

Rowland took Jung's advice seriously and set about seeking a personal spiritual experience. He returned home to the United States and joined a First-Century Christian evangelical movement known as the Oxford Group (later known as Moral Re-Armament). He also told other alcoholics what Jung had told him about the importance of a spiritual experience. One of the alcoholics he brought into the Oxford Group was Ebby Thacher, a long-time friend and drinking buddy of Bill Wilson, later co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). Thacher told Wilson about the Oxford Group, and through them Wilson became aware of Hazard's experience with Jung. The influence of Jung thus indirectly found its way into the formation of Alcoholics Anonymous, the original twelve-step program, and from there into the whole twelve-step recovery movement, although AA as a whole is not Jungian and Jung had no role in the formation of that approach or the twelve steps.

The above claims are documented in the letters of Jung and Bill W., excerpts of which can be found in ''Pass It On'', published by Alcoholics Anonymous. Although the detail of this story is disputed by some historians, Jung himself discussed an Oxford Group member, who may have been the same person, in talks given around 1940. The remarks were distributed privately in transcript form, from shorthand taken by an attender (Jung reportedly approved the transcript), and later recorded in Volume 18 of his Collected Works, ''The Symbolic Life'' ("For instance, when a member of the Oxford Group comes to me in order to get treatment, I say, 'You are in the Oxford Group; so long as you are there, you settle your affair with the Oxford Group. I can't do it better than Jesus.'" Jung goes on to state that he has seen similar cures among Roman Catholics).

Art therapy

Jung proposed that Art can be used to alleviate or contain feelings of trauma, fear, or anxiety and also to repair, restore and heal. In his work with patients and in his own personal explorations, Jung wrote that art expression and images found in dreams could be helpful in recovering from trauma and emotional distress. Jung often drew, painted, or made objects and constructions at times of emotional distress, which he recognized as recreational.

Influences on culture

Literature

Laurens van der Post claimed to have had a 16-year-long friendship with Jung, from which a number of books and a film were created about Jung's life. The accuracy of van der Post's claims about the closeness of his relationship to Jung have been questioned. Hermann Hesse, author of works such as ''Siddhartha'' and ''Der Steppenwolf'', was treated by Dr. Joseph Lang, a student of Jung. This began for Hesse a long preoccupation with psychoanalysis, through which he came to know Jung personally. Joyce's ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'' can be read as an ironic parody of Jung's "four stages of eroticism". Jung appears as a character in the novel ''Possessing the Secret of Joy'' by Alice Walker. He appears as the therapist of Tashi, the novel's protagonist. He is usually called "Mzee" but is identified by Alice Walker in the afterword. Jung appears as a character in Timothy Findley's novel ''Pilgrim.'' During the title character's stay at the Burghölzli Psychiatric Clinic in Zürich, Switzerland, Carl Gustav Jung is his therapist.

Robertson Davies' novel ''The Manticore'' is told from the perspective of a man undergoing Jungian psychoanalysis.

Alchemy

The work and writings of Jung from the 1940s onwards focused on alchemy. In 1963 ''Mysterium Coniunctionis'' was first published in the ''Collected Works of C.G. Jung''. ''Mysterium Coniunctionis'' was Jung's last book and focused on the "Mysterium Coniunctionis" archetype, known as the sacred marriage between sun and moon. Jung argued that the stages of the alchemists, the blackening, the whitening, the reddening and the yellowing, could be taken as symbolic of individuation - his favourite term for personal growth (75).

Art

The visionary Swiss painter Peter Birkhäuser was treated by a student of Jung, Marie-Louise von Franz, and corresponded with Jung regarding the translation of dream symbolism into works of art. American Abstract Expressionist Jackson Pollock underwent Jungian psychotherapy in 1939 with Dr. Joseph Henderson. His therapist made the decision to engage him through his art, and had Pollock make drawings, which led to the appearance of many Jungian concepts in his paintings. Contrary to some sources, Jung did not visit Liverpool but recorded a dream in which he had, and of which he wrote "Liverpool is the pool of life, it makes to live." As a result a statue of Jung was erected in Mathew Street in 1987 but, being made of plaster, was vandalised and replaced by a more durable version in 1993.

Television and film

Federico Fellini brought to the screen an exuberant imagery shaped by his encounter with the ideas of Carl Jung, especially Jungian dream interpretation. Fellini preferred Jung to Freud because Jungian analysis defined the dream not as a symptom of a disease that required a cure but rather as a link to archetypal images shared by all of humanity.

Niles Crane from popular TV show Frasier is an adherent of Jung, while his brother Frasier is a Freudian.

BBC interview with John Freeman at Jung's home in Zurich. 1959.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/radio4/2011/02/face_to_face_john_freeman_and_his_remarkable_guests.html

Music

Peter Gabriel's song "Rhythm of the Heat" from the 1982 album ''Security'', tells about Jung's visit to Africa, during which he joined a group of tribal drummers and dancers and became overwhelmed by the fear of losing control of himself. At the time, Jung was exploring the concept of the collective unconscious and was afraid he would come under control of the music. Gabriel learned about Jung's journey to Africa from the essay ''Symbols and the Interpretation of Dreams'' (ISBN 0-691-09968-5). In the song, Gabriel tries to capture the powerful feelings the African tribal music evoked in Jung by means of intense use of tribal drumbeats. The original song title was "Jung in Africa". On the cover of The Police's final album, ''Synchronicity'', which was named after Carl Jung's theory, Sting is seen reading a book called ''Synchronicity'' by Carl Jung.

MGMT's song "Metanoia" features various references to Jung, addressing him as the "mystic referee". Jung is also featured on the single cover in a referee's uniform.

Tool's song "Forty Six & 2" makes references to a wish to experience change through the "Shadow (psychology)" one of the three most recognizable Jungian archetypes.

Video games

The Persona series, a spin-off series of the Megami Tensei series of games, draws from many elements of Jungian psychology as well as various Jungian archetypes.

The PSX game Xenogears and the PS2 series Xenosaga draws from many elements of Jungian psychology, such as the concept of Anima, Animus and the Collective Unconscious.

See also

;Topics

Active imagination

Analytical psychology

Anima and animus

Answer to Job

Archetypal cosmology

Archetypal literary criticism

Archetypal pedagogy

Archetypal psychology

Bollingen Tower

Collective unconscious

Dream interpretation

Individuation

Jungian archetypes

Jungian interpretation of religion

Jungian Type Index

Jung Type Indicator

Keirsey Temperament Sorter

Logos

Logotherapy

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Neo-Freudian

Nekyia

Personality test

Psychodynamics

Wounded healer

;People

Alfred Adler

Jean Shinoda Bolen

Martin Buber – see the Buber-Jung disputations

Joseph Campbell – popularizer of Jungian ideas

Clarissa Pinkola Estés

Erich Neumann – developer of matriarchal mythological adaptations of Jungian thought

Joel Ryce-Menuhin - proponent of sandplay therapy

Herbert Silberer

D. T. Suzuki – see An Introduction to Zen Buddhism, for which C.G. Jung wrote a preface

Marie Louise von Franz – Founder of the C. G. Jung Institute in Zurich

Richard Wilhelm – Translator of the I Ching

Bill W. (Bill Wilson) founder of Alcoholics Anonymous

Victor White (Dominican) - Father Victor White, OP, correspondent and friend,"My white raven".

;Organizations

International Association of Analytical Psychologists

International Association for Jungian Studies

Philemon Foundation

OPUS Archives and Research Center

Notes and references

Further reading

;Introductory texts

Carl Gustav Jung, ''Analytical Psychology: Its Theory and Practice (The Tavistock Lectures)'', (Ark Paperbacks), 1990, ISBN 0-7448-0056-0

Anthony Stevens, ''Jung. A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1994, ISBN 0-19-285458-5

Anthony Stevens, ''On Jung'', Princeton University Press, 1990 (1999).

''The Basic Writings of C.G. Jung'', edited by V.S. de Laszlo (The Modern Library, 1959)

''The Portable Jung'', edited by Joseph Campbell (Viking Portable), ISBN 0-14-015070-6

Edward F Edinger, ''Ego and Archetype'', (Shambhala Publications), ISBN 0-87773-576-X

Another recommended tool for navigating Jung's works is Robert Hopcke's book, ''A Guided Tour of the Collected Works of C.G. Jung'', ISBN 1-57062-405-4. He offers short, lucid summaries of all of Jung's major ideas and suggests readings from Jung's and others' work that best present that idea.

Edward C. Whitmont, ''The Symbolic Quest: Basic Concepts of Analytical Psychology'', Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1969, 1979, ISBN 0-691-02454-5

''The Cambridge Companion to Jung, second edition'', edited by Polly Young-Eisendrath and Terence Dawson, published in 2008 by Cambridge University Press.

;Texts in various areas of Jungian thought

Robert Aziz, ''C.G. Jung’s Psychology of Religion and Synchronicity'' (1990), currently in its 10th printing, is a refereed publication of State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0166-9.

Robert Aziz, ''Synchronicity and the Transformation of the Ethical in Jungian Psychology'' in Carl B. Becker, ed. ''Asian and Jungian Views of Ethics''. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999. ISBN 0-313-30452-1.

Robert Aziz, ''The Syndetic Paradigm:The Untrodden Path Beyond Freud and Jung'' (2007), a refereed publication of The State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6982-8.

Robert Aziz, Foreword in Lance Storm, ed. Synchronicity: Multiple Perspectives on Meaningful Coincidence. Pari, Italy: Pari Publishing, 2008. ISBN 978-88-95604-02-2

Wallace Clift, Jung and Christianity: The Challenge of Reconciliation. New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1982. ISBN 0-8245-0409-7

Edward F. Edinger, ''The Mystery of The Coniunctio'', ISBN 0-919123-67-8. A good explanation of Jung's foray into the symbolism of alchemy as it relates to individuation and individual religious experience. Many of the alchemical symbols recur in contemporary dreams (with creative additions from the unconscious e.g. space travel, internet, computers)

Wolfgang Giegerich, ''The Soul's Logical Life'', ISBN 3-631-38225-1. A critique and extension of Jungian Theory.

James A Hall M.D., ''Jungian Dream Interpretation'', ISBN 0-919123-12-0. A brief, well structured overview of the use of dreams in therapy.

James Hillman, "Healing Fiction", ISBN 0-88214-363-8. Covers Jung, Adler, and Freud and their various contributions to understanding the soul.

Andrew Samuels, ''Critical Dictionary of Jungian Analysis'', ISBN 0-415-05910-0

June Singer, ''Boundaries of the Soul'', ISBN 0-385-47529-2. On psychotherapy

Marion Woodman, ''The Pregnant Virgin: A Process of Psychological Transformation'' ISBN 0-919123-20-1. The recovery of feminine values in women (and men). There are many examples of clients' dreams, by an experienced analyst.

;Academic texts

Andrew Samuels, ''The Political Psyche'' (Routledge), ISBN 0-415-08102-5.

Lucy Huskinson, ''Nietzsche and Jung: The Whole Self in the Union of Opposites'' (Routledge), ISBN 1583918337 Excellent analysis of the highly significant anticipation and influence of the philosophy of Nietzsche on Jung.

;Jung-Freud relationship

Kerr, John. ''A Most Dangerous Method : The Story of Jung, Freud, and Sabina Spielrein.'' Knopf 1993. ISBN 0-679-40412-0.

;Other people's recollections of Jung

van der Post, Laurens, "Jung and the story of our time", New York : Pantheon Books, 1975. ISBN 0-394-49207-2

Hannah, Barbara, "Jung, his life and work; a biographical memoir", New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1976. SBN: 399-50383-8

;Critical scholarship on Jung by historians

Richard Noll, The Jung Cult: Origins of a Charismatic Movement (Princeton University Press, 1994); and

Richard Noll, The Aryan Christ: The Secret Life of Carl Jung (Random House, 1997)

Anthony Stevens, ''On Jung'' (second edition) includes an appendix where Noll's derogatory claims are refuted.

Sonu Shamdasani, ''Cult Fictions'', ISBN 0-415-18614-5. Critique of the above works by Noll.

Sonu Shamdasani, ''Jung and the Making of Modern Psychology : The Dream of a Science'', ISBN 0-521-53909-9. A comprehensive study of the origins of Jung's psychology which places it in a historical and philosophical context. The author calls this a "Cubist history".

Sonu Shamdasani, ''Jung Stripped Bare'', ISBN 1-85575-317-0. Critique of Jung biographies.

Bair, Deirdre. ''Jung: A Biography''. Boston: Little, Brown and Co, 2003.

;Works in the public domain

Carl Jung: ''Forward to the I Ching''

The Association Method Full text article from 1916. Originally Published in the Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology.

On The Psychology & Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena Full text article from 1916. Originally Published in the Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology.

Category:1875 births Category:1961 deaths Category:People from Arbon District Category:ETH Zurich faculty Category:German-language philosophers Category:History of mental health Category:People associated with the University of Zurich Category:Psychodynamics Category:Psychologists of religion Category:Psychology writers Category:Swiss astrologers Category:Swiss autobiographers Category:Swiss Christians Category:Swiss philosophers Category:Swiss psychiatrists Category:Swiss psychologists Category:Symbologists Category:Western mystics Category:University of Basel alumni Category:History of psychiatry Category:People from Rapperswil-Jona Category:20th-century philosophers

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