Coordinates: 33°53′13″N 35°30′47″E / 33.88694°N 35.51306°E / 33.88694; 35.51306
Beirut (Arabic: بيروت Bayrūt, Greek: Βηρυττός, Latin: Berytus, French: Beyrouth, Hebrew: ביירות Beyrut) is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. As there has been no recent population census, the exact population is unknown; estimates in 2007 ranged from slightly less than 1 million to slightly more than 2 million. Located on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon's Mediterranean coast, it serves as the country's largest and main seaport. The Beirut metropolitan area consists of the city and its suburbs. The first mention of this metropolis is found in the ancient Egyptian Tell el Amarna letters, dating from the 15th century BC. The city has been inhabited continuously since then.
Beirut is Lebanon's seat of government and plays a central role in the Lebanese economy, with many banks and corporations based in its city centre, Hamra Street, Rue Verdun and Ashrafieh. The city is the focal point of the region's cultural life, renowned for its press, theatres, cultural activities and nightlife. After the destructive Lebanese Civil War, Beirut underwent major reconstruction,[2][3][4] and the redesigned historic city centre, marina, pubs and nightlife districts have once again made it a tourist attraction. Beirut was named the top place to visit by The New York Times in 2009,[5] and as one of the ten liveliest cities in the world by Lonely Planet in the same year.[6]
In 2011 MasterCard Index revealed that Beirut had the second-highest visitor spending levels in the Middle East and Africa. Dubai came in first with $7.8 billion, followed by Beirut with $6.5 billion, Tel Aviv with $3.8 billion, Cairo with $3.7 billion and Johannesburg with $3.3 billion.[7]
Several prehistoric archaeological sites were discovered within the urban area of Beirut, revealing flint tools of sequential periods dating from the Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic, and through the Neolithic to the Bronze Age.
Beirut I, or Minet el Hosn, was listed as "Beyrouth ville" by L. Burkhalter and said to be on the beach near the Orent and Bassoul Hotels on the Avenue des Français in central Beirut.[8][9] The site was discovered by Lortet in 1894 and discussed by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1900.[10] The flint industry from the site was described as Mousterian and is held by the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon.[11]
Beirut II, or Umm el Khatib, was suggested by L. Burkhalter to have been north of Tarik el Jedideh, where P.E. Gigues discovered a Copper Age flint industry at around one hundred meters above sea level. The site was built on and destroyed by 1948.[11]
Beirut III, Furn esh Shebbak or Plateau Tabet, was suggested to have been located on the left bank of the Beirut River. L. Burkhalter suggested that it was west of the Damascus road, although this determination has been criticized by Lorraine Copeland.[11] P. E. Gigues discovered a series of Neolithic flint tools on the surface along with the remains of a structure suggested to be a hut circle. Auguste Bergy discussed polished axes that were also found at this site, which has now completely disappeared as a result of construction and urbanization of the area.[12]
Beirut IV, or Furn esh Shebbak, river banks, was also on the left bank of the river and on either side of the road leading eastwards from the Furn esh Shebbak police station towards the river that marked the city limits. The area was covered in red sand that represented Quaternary river terraces. The site was found by Jesuit Father Dillenseger and published by fellow Jesuits Godefroy Zumoffen,[10] Raoul Describes[13] and Auguste Bergy.[12] Collections from the site were made by Bergy, Describes and another Jesuit, Paul Bovier-Lapierre. A large number of Middle Paleolithic flint tools were found on the surface and in side gullies that drain into the river. They included around 50 varied bifaces accredited to the Acheulean period, some with a lustrous sheen, now held at the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory. Henri Fleisch also found an Emireh point amongst material from the site, which has now disappeared beneath buildings.
Beirut V, or Nahr Beirut (Beirut River), was discovered by Dillenseger and said to be in an orchard of Mulberry trees on the left bank of the river, near the river mouth, and to be close to the railway station and bridge to Tripoli. Levallois flints and bones and similar surface material were found amongst brecciated deposits.[14] The area has now been built on.[15]
Beirut VI, or Patriarchate, was a site discovered while building on the property of the Lebanese Evangelical School for Girls in the Patriarchate area of Beirut. It was notable for the discovery of a finely styled Canaanean blade javelin suggested to date to the Néolithique Ancien or Néolithique Moyen periods of Byblos and held in the school library.[11]
Beirut VII, or Rivoli Cinema and Byblos Cinema sites near the Bourj in the Rue el Arz area, are two sites discovered by Lorraine Copeland and Peter Wescombe in 1964 and examined by Diana Kirkbride and Roger Saidah. One site was behind the parking lot of the Byblos Cinema and showed collapsed walls, pits, floors, charcoal, pottery and flints. The other, overlooking a cliff west of the Rivoli Cinema, was composed of three layers resting on limestone bedrock. Fragments of blades and broad flakes were recovered from the first layer of black soil, above which some Bronze Age pottery was recovered in a layer of grey soil. Pieces of Roman pottery and mosaics were found in the upper layer.[11] Middle Bronze Age tombs were found in this area, and the ancient tell of Beirut is thought to be in the Bourj area.[16]
Beirut's history goes back more than 5000 years.[17] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, its antiquity is indicated by its name, derived from the Canaanite be'erot ("wells"), referring to the underground water table that is still tapped by the local inhabitants for general use.[18][19] Excavations in the downtown area have unearthed layers of Phoenician, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader and Ottoman remains.[20] The first historical reference to Beirut dates from the 14th century BC, when it is mentioned in the cuneiform[19] tablets of the Amarna letters, three letters that Ammunira of Biruta[21] (Beirut) sent to the pharaoh of Egypt.[22] Biruta is also referenced in the letters from Rib-Hadda, king of Byblos. The oldest settlement was on an island in the river that progressively silted up. The city was known in antiquity as Berytus. This name was taken in 1934 for the archaeological journal published by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at the American University of Beirut.[23]
In 140 BC the city was destroyed by Diodotus Tryphon in his contest with Antiochus VII Sidetes for the throne of the Macedonian Seleucid monarchy. Beirut was soon rebuilt on a more conventional Hellenistic plan and renamed Laodicea in Phoenicia (Greek: Λαοδικεια ή του Φοινίκη) or Laodicea in Canaan in honor of a Seleucid Laodice. The modern city overlies the ancient one and little archaeology was carried out until after the end of the civil war in 1991. Large sites in the devastated city center have now been opened to archaeological exploration. A dig in 1994 established that one of Beirut's modern streets, Souk Tawile, still follows the lines of an ancient Greek and Roman one.
Mid first century coins from Berytus bear the head of Tyche, goddess of fortune; on the reverse, the city's symbol appears: a dolphin entwines an anchor. This symbol was taken up by the early printer Aldus Manutius in 15th century Venice. Beirut was conquered by Agrippa in 64 BC. The city was assimilated into the Roman empire, veteran soldiers were sent there, and large building projects were undertaken.[24][25][26] Beirut was considered the most Roman city in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire.[27]
In 14 BC, during the reign of Herod the Great, Berytus became a colonia and was named Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus. Its law school was widely known;[28] two of Rome's most famous jurists, Papinian and Ulpian, both natives of Phoenicia, taught there under the Severan emperors. When Justinian assembled his Pandects in the 6th century, a large part of the corpus of laws was derived from these two jurists, and in 533 Justinian recognized the school as one of the three official law schools of the empire. After the 551 Beirut earthquake[19][24][29] the students were transferred to Sidon.[30]
View of Beirut with snow-capped
Mount Sannine in the background – 19th century
Beirut passed into Arab control in 635[25][31] and was ruled by the Arslan Family, Arabs from Yemen descended from the Lakhmids,[citation needed] from 635 to 1110.[citation needed] Prince Arslan bin al-Mundhir founded the Principality of Sin-el-Fil in Beirut in 759 AD. From this Principality developed the later Principality of Mount Lebanon, which was the basis for the establishment of Greater Lebanon, today's Lebanon.[citation needed] As a trading centre of the eastern Mediterranean, Beirut was overshadowed by Acre during the Middle Ages. From 1110 to 1291 it was in the hands of the Crusaders' Kingdom of Jerusalem. John of Ibelin, the Old Lord of Beirut (1179–1236) rebuilt the city after the battles with Saladin and also built the Ibelin family palace in Beirut.[31]
Pine Forest of Beirut, 1914
Beirut was controlled by local Druze emirs throughout the Ottoman period.[32] One of them, Fakhr-al-Din II, fortified it early in the 17th century,[33] but the Ottomans reclaimed it in 1763.[33] With the help of Damascus, Beirut successfully broke Acre's monopoly on Syrian maritime trade and for a few years supplanted it as the main trading centre in the region. During the succeeding epoch of rebellion against Ottoman hegemony in Acre under Jezzar Pasha and Abdullah Pasha, Beirut declined to a small town with a population of about 10,000 and was an object of contention between the Ottomans, the local Druze, and the Mamluks. After Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt captured Acre in 1832,[34] Beirut began its revival.
By the second half of the nineteenth century, Beirut was developing close commercial and political ties with European imperial powers, particularly France. European interests in Lebanese silk and other export products transformed the city into a major port and commercial centre. Meanwhile, Ottoman power in the region continued to decline. Sectarian and religious conflicts, power vacuums, and changes in the political dynamics of the region culminated in the 1860 Lebanon conflict. Beirut became a destination for Maronite Christian refugees fleeing from the worst areas of the fighting on Mount Lebanon and in Damascus.[35] This in turn altered the ethnic composition of Beirut itself, sowing the seeds of future ethnic and religious troubles there and in greater Lebanon. However, Beirut was able to prosper in the meantime. This was again a product of European intervention, and also a general realization amongst the city's residents that commerce, trade, and prosperity depended on domestic stability.[36]
In 1888, Beirut was made capital of a vilayet (governorate) in Syria,[37] including the sanjaks (prefectures) Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut, Acre and Bekaa.[38] By this time, Beirut had grown into a very cosmopolitan city and had close links with Europe and the United States. It also became a centre of missionary activity that spawned impressive educational institutions, such as the American University of Beirut. Provided with water from a British company and gas from a French one, silk exports to Europe came to dominate the local economy. After French engineers established a modern harbor in 1894 and a rail link across Lebanon to Damascus and Aleppo in 1907, much of the trade was carried by French ships to Marseille. French influence in the area soon exceeded that of any other European power. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica reported a population consisting of 36,000 Muslims, 77,000 Christians, 2500 Jews, 400 Druze and 4100 foreigners.
An aerial
panoramic view of Beirut in the last third of the 19th century
The
Green Line that separated west and east Beirut, 1982
After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire following World War I, Beirut, along with the rest of Lebanon, was placed under the French Mandate. Lebanon achieved independence in 1943, and Beirut became its capital city. The city remained a regional intellectual capital, becoming a major tourist destination and a banking haven, especially for the Persian Gulf oil boom. This era of relative prosperity ended in 1975 when the Lebanese Civil War broke out throughout the country.[39][40] During most of the war, Beirut was divided between the Muslim west part and the Christian east.[41] The downtown area, previously the home of much of the city's commercial and cultural activity, became a no man's land known as the Green Line. Many inhabitants fled to other countries. About 60,000 people died in the first two years of the war (1975–1976), and much of the city was devastated. A particularly destructive period was the 1978 Syrian siege of Achrafiyeh, the main Christian district of Beirut. Syrian troops relentlessly bombed the eastern quarter of the city, but Christian militias defeated multiple attempts by Syria's elite forces to capture the strategic area in a three-month campaign later known as the Hundred Days' War. Another destructive chapter was the 1982 Lebanon War, during which most of West Beirut was under siege by Israeli troops. In 1983, French and US barracks were bombed, killing 241 American servicemen, 58 French servicemen, 6 civilians and the 2 suicide bombers.[42][43][44]
Since the end of the war in 1990, the people of Lebanon have been rebuilding Beirut, and by the start of the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict the city had somewhat regained its status as a tourist, cultural and intellectual center in the Middle East and as a centre for commerce, fashion, and media. The reconstruction of downtown Beirut has been largely driven by Solidere, a development company established in 1994 by Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri. The city has been host to the Asian Club Basketball Championship and the Asian Football Cup and has hosted the Miss Europe pageant eight times, 1960–1964, 1999, 2001–2002.
Former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri was assassinated in 2005 near the Saint George Bay in Beirut.[45][46] A month later about one million people gathered for an opposition rally in Beirut.[47][48] The Cedar Revolution was the largest rally in Lebanon's history at that time.[49] The last Syrian troops withdrew from Beirut on 26 April 2005,[50] and the two countries established diplomatic relations on 15 October 2008.[51]
During the 2006 Lebanon War, Israeli bombardments seeking Hezbollah targets caused damage in many parts of Beirut, especially the poorer and largely Shiite South Beirut, which is controlled by Hezbollah. In May 2008, after the government decided to disband Hezbollah's communications network (a decision it later rescinded), violent clashes broke out briefly between government allies and opposition forces, before control of the city was handed over to the Lebanese Army. After this a national dialogue conference was held in Doha at the invitation of the Prince of Qatar. The conference agreed to appoint a new president of Lebanon and to establish a new national government involving all the political adversaries. As a result of the Doha Agreement, the opposition's camp in the capital was removed.[clarification needed][citation needed]
Beirut seen from SPOT satellite
Beirut sits on a peninsula extending westward into the Mediterranean Sea[52] about 94 km (58 mi) north of the Lebanon-Israel border.[53] It is flanked by the Lebanon Mountains and has taken on a triangular shape, largely influenced by its situation between and atop two hills: Al-Ashrafieh and Al-Musaytibah. The Beirut Governorate occupies 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi), and the city's metropolitan area 67 square kilometres (26 sq mi).[52] The coast is rather diverse, with rocky beaches, sandy shores and cliffs situated beside one another.
Beirut has a Mediterranean climate characterized by a hot, humid yet rainless summer, a pleasant autumn and spring, and a cool, rainy winter. August is the hottest month, with a monthly average high temperature of 32 °C (90 °F), and January and February are the coldest months, with a monthly average low temperature of 10 °C (50 °F). The prevailing wind during the afternoon and evening is from the west (onshore, blowing in from the Mediterranean); at night it reverses to offshore, blowing from the land out to sea.
The average annual rainfall is 890 millimetres (35 in), with the majority falling in winter, autumn and spring. Much of the autumn and spring rain falls in heavy downpours on a limited number of days, but in winter it is spread more evenly over a large number of days. Summer receives very little rainfall, if any. Snow is rare and does not usually settle, but hail and sleet can occur quite often in winter. Large snowstorms, however, occurred in 1920, 1942 and 1950.
| Climate data for Beirut |
| Month |
Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
Year |
| Record high °C (°F) |
25
(77) |
31
(88) |
36
(97) |
37
(99) |
42
(108) |
40
(104) |
37
(99) |
37
(99) |
37
(99) |
38
(100) |
33
(91) |
29
(84) |
42
(108) |
| Average high °C (°F) |
17
(63) |
17
(63) |
19
(66) |
22
(72) |
26
(79) |
28
(82) |
31
(88) |
32
(90) |
30
(86) |
27
(81) |
23
(73) |
18
(64) |
24.2
(75.5) |
| Average low °C (°F) |
11
(52) |
11
(52) |
12
(54) |
14
(57) |
18
(64) |
21
(70) |
23
(73) |
23
(73) |
23
(73) |
21
(70) |
16
(61) |
13
(55) |
17.2
(62.9) |
| Record low °C (°F) |
−1
(30) |
−1
(30) |
2
(36) |
6
(43) |
10
(50) |
13
(55) |
18
(64) |
17
(63) |
16
(61) |
11
(52) |
5
(41) |
−1
(30) |
−1
(30) |
| Precipitation mm (inches) |
191
(7.52) |
158
(6.22) |
94
(3.7) |
56
(2.2) |
18
(0.71) |
3
(0.12) |
0
(0) |
0
(0) |
5
(0.2) |
51
(2.01) |
132
(5.2) |
185
(7.28) |
893
(35.16) |
| Avg. rainy days (≥ 0.25 mm) |
15 |
12 |
9 |
5 |
2 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
4 |
8 |
12 |
68 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours |
155 |
140 |
186 |
240 |
310 |
360 |
372 |
341 |
270 |
248 |
210 |
155 |
2,987 |
| Source: BBC News [54] |
Beirut is divided into 12 quarters (quartiers):[55]
These quarters are divided into sectors (secteurs).[56]
Two of the twelve official Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon are located in the southern suburbs of Beirut: Burj al-Barajneh, Shatila, and one within its municipal boundaries: Mar Elias camp.[57] Of the fifteen unregistered or unofficial refugee camps, Sabra, which lies adjacent to Shatila, is also located in southern Beirut.[58]
No population census has been taken in Lebanon since 1932,[59] and estimates of Beirut's population range from as low as 938,940 [60] through 1,303,129[61] to as high as 2,012,000.[62]
Beirut is one of the most cosmopolitan and religiously diverse cities of Lebanon and all of the Middle East.[63] The city boasts significant Christian and Muslim communities. There are nine major religious groups in Beirut: Maronite Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, Armenian Apostolic, Armenian Catholic, Protestant, Sunni Muslim, Shia Muslim and Druze. Family matters such as marriage, divorce and inheritance are still handled by the religious authorities representing a person's faith (the Ottoman "millet" system). Calls for civil marriage are unanimously rejected by the religious authorities, but civil marriages held in another country are recognized by Lebanese civil authorities. Until the mid-20th century, Beirut was also home to a Jewish community in the Bab Idriss sector of Zokak el-Blat. In the 2009 Lebanese general elections, 435,462 people voted in Beirut: 192,910 (45%) were Sunni Muslims, 60,202 (14%) Shia Muslims, 46,744 (11%) Armenian Orthodox, 42,728 (10%) Greek Orthodox, 24,800 (6%) Maronite Catholics, 18,923 (4%) Greek Catholics, 9,623 (2%) Armenian Catholics, 6,883 (1%) Protestants, 5,374 (1%) Jews, 5,251 (1%) Druze, 218 Alawis, and 21,806 other Christians.
Before the civil war the neighborhoods of Beirut were fairly heterogeneous, however became largely segregated by religion since the conflict. East Beirut has a mainly Christian population with a small Muslim minority, while West Beirut has a Sunni majority with small minorities of Christians, Druze and Shi'aas. Since the end of the civil war, East and West Beirut have begun to see an increase in Sunni Muslims and Christians moving into each half. The southern suburbs are populated largely by Shia Muslims, while the eastern and northern suburbs are largely Christian. Northern Beirut has also had a large Lebanese Protestant community since the 19th century.
The economy of Beirut is diverse, including publishing, banking, trade and various industries.
From the 1950s to the start of the conflict in 1975, Beirut was the region's financial services center. At the onset of the oil boom starting in the 1960s, Lebanon-based banks were the main recipients of the region's petrodollars.[64] Middle East Airlines has its head office in Beirut,[65] and the Banque du Liban, Lebanon's central bank, is headquartered there. The governor of the Central Bank of Lebanon is Riad Salameh.[66]
Beirut is the capital of Lebanon and its seat of government.[67] The Lebanese Parliament,[68] all the Ministries and most of the public administrations, embassies and consulates are there.[69] The Beirut Governorate is one of six mohafazat (plural of mohafazah, a state governorate). The others are Beqaa, North Lebanon, South Lebanon, Mount Lebanon and Nabatiye.[70]
|
|
|
Facade of the Beirut City Hall
|
|
|
|
United Nations Lebanon headquarters
|
|
Governors of Beirut[71]
|
Name |
Took office |
Left office |
| 1 |
Kamel Abbas Hamieh |
1936 |
1941 |
| 2 |
Nicolas Rizk |
1946 |
1952 |
| 3 |
George Assi |
1952 |
1956 |
| 4 |
Bachour Haddad |
1956 |
1958 |
| 5 |
Philip Boulos |
1959 |
1960 |
| 6 |
Emile Yanni |
1960 |
1967 |
| 7 |
Chafik Abou Haydar |
1967 |
1977 |
| 8 |
Mitri El Nammar |
1977 |
1987 |
| 9 |
George Smaha |
1987 |
1991 |
| 10 |
Nayef Al Maaloof |
1992 |
1995 |
| 11 |
Nicolas Saba |
1995 |
1999 |
| 12 |
Yaacoub Sarraf |
1999 |
2005 |
| 13 |
Nassif Kaloosh |
2005 |
|
The city is home to numerous international organizations. The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) is headquartered in downtown Beirut,[72][73] The Arab Air Carriers Organization (AACO),[74] the Union of Arab Banks[75] and the Union of Arab Stock Exchanges[76] are also headquartered in the city. The International Labour Organization (ILO)[77] and UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)[78] both have regional offices in Beirut covering the Arab world.
Higher education throughout Lebanon is provided by technical and vocational institutes, university colleges, university institutes and universities. The Lebanese University is the only public institution for higher education in Beirut.[79] The Directorate General of Higher Education is responsible for managing the university colleges, university Institutes and universities in Beirut and nationwide.[79]
Among the private schools in Beirut are the American Community School, the City International School, the Collège Notre-Dame de Jamhour, International College, the Carmel Saint-Joseph, the Collège Louise Wegmann, Rawdah High School, Saint Mary's Orthodox College,[80] the Collège Protestant Français, the Lycée Franco-Libanais Verdun, the Collège du Sacré-Coeur Gemmayzé, the Grand Lycée Franco-Libanais, the Collège Notre Dame de Nazareth, the Armenian Evangelical Central High School and the German School of Beirut.
The higher education system is based on the Lebanese Baccalaureate, but the French Baccalaureate is accepted as equivalent. Before being admitted to any higher education institution, one must pass the Baccalaureate examinations. Baccalaureate technique is an alternative to credentials.[79][Full citation needed][clarification needed]
Foreign students who wish to study in Lebanese higher education institutions must also meet Lebanese qualifications. Their examinations must be equivalent to the Baccalaureate system before they are granted admission. They are not subject to any special quota system, and scholarships are granted within the framework of bilateral agreements concluded with other countries.[79] Degrees obtained outside Lebanon must be certified by the Lebanese embassy abroad and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Lebanon. Candidates must then go in person to the Secretariat of the Equivalence Committee with required documents.[81]
The American University of Beirut is the oldest university in the country and the region. Conceived by American missionaries in 1862, it opened in 1866 as the Syrian Protestant College, with Dr. Daniel Bliss as its first president, and 16 students. It was renamed the American University of Beirut in 1920. The university and several of its programs and faculties are accredited by US bodies, and its degrees are recognized by the Lebanese government through the equivalence committees of the Ministry of Education and Higher Education.
Beirut is also home to the Lebanese American University (LAU), which is also, together with many of its programs, accredited by US bodies.[82][83][84][85][86] LAU also offers an architecture degree equivalent to the French DEA, allowing graduates to practice in the European Union.
Other universities in Beirut include the University of Balamand (Faculty of Health Sciences), Université Saint-Joseph, and École Supérieure des Affaires (business school).
The city's renovated airport is the Rafic Hariri International Airport, located in the southern suburbs. It can be reached by any means of transport, whether buses or taxis. The service taxis are cheaper than normal taxis, but to avoid misunderstandings, the price should be agreed before setting off on a journey.[87] The Port of Beirut, one of the largest and most commercial in the eastern Mediterranean, is another port of entry. As a final destination, Lebanon can be reached by ferry from Cyprus via the city of Jounieh or by road from Damascus via the Beqaa valley in the east.[87]
Beirut has frequent bus connections to other cities in Lebanon and major cities in Syria such as Homs and its capital Damascus. There are a handful brands of public transport in Lebanon. The publicly owned buses are managed by Office des Chemins de Fer et des Transports en Commun (OCFTC – "Railway and Public Transportation Authority"). Buses for northern destinations and Syria leave from Charles Helou Station.[88]
The ministry of transport and public works purchased an extra 250 intra and inter-buses in 2012 to better serve regions outside the capital as well as congested-chocked Beirut, hoping to lessen the use of private cars. Beirut is the most city in the world where vehicles enter and exit it on a daily basis, in ratio to its size and population.
The Garden Show & Spring Festival at the Beirut hippodrome
The culture of Beirut has evolved under the influence of many different peoples and civilizations, such as Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Ottoman Turks and French. The law school in downtown Beirut was one of the world's earliest and was considered to be a leading center of legal studies in the Eastern Roman Empire. The ruins of downtown Beirut have been found to contain seven layers of civilization.[citation needed]
Beirut hosted the Francophonie and Arab League summits in 2002, and in 2007 it hosted the ceremony for the Prix Albert Londres,[89][90] which rewards outstanding francophone journalists every year. The city also hosted the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009.[91][92] In the same year it was proclaimed World Book Capital by UNESCO.[93]
Beirut has also been called the "party capital of the Arab world".[94] Rue Monnot has an international reputation among clubbers,[95] and Rue Gouraud in districts such as Gemmayze and Mar Mikhael have emerged as new hotspots for bar patrons and clubbers.
The National Museum of Beirut
The National Museum of Beirut is the principal museum of archaeology in Lebanon. It has about 1,300 exhibits ranging in date from prehistoric times to the medieval Mamluk period.[96] The Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut is the third oldest museum in the Middle East, exhibiting a wide range of artifacts from Lebanon and neighboring countries.[97] Sursock Museum was built by the Sursock family at the end of the 19th century as a private villa and then donated to the Lebanese state. It now houses Beirut's most influential and popular art museum. The permanent collection shows a set of Japanese engravings and numerous works of Islamic art, and temporary exhibitions are shown throughout the year. The Robert Mouawad Private Museum near Beirut's Grand Serail exhibits Henri Pharaon's private collection of archaeology and antiques.[98] Planet Discovery is a children’s science museum with interactive experiments, exhibitions, performances, workshops and awareness competitions.[99] The Saint Joseph University opened the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory in 2000, the first prehistory museum in the Arabic Middle East, displaying bones, stone tools and neolithic pottery collected by Jesuits.[100]
Beirut is the main center in Lebanon for the television, newspaper, and book publishing industries. The television stations include Télé Liban, LBC, ÓTV (Orange TV), MTV Lebanon, New TV, Al-Manar, NBN, ANB and Future TV. Newspapers include An-Nahar, As-Safir, Al Mustaqbal, Al Akhbar, Al-Balad, Ad-Diyar, Al Anwar, Al Sharq, French language L'Orient Le Jour and the English language Daily Star. Together with Cairo and Dubai, Beirut is one of the main media hubs in the Arab world.
Beirut, with Sidon and Tripoli, hosted the 2000 AFC Asian Cup.[101][102] There are two stadiums in the city, Camille Chamoun Sports City Stadium and Beirut Municipal Stadium.
Basketball is the most popular sport in Lebanon. Currently,[when?] four Beirut teams play in Lebanese Basketball League Division 1: Hekmeh, Sporting Al Riyadi Beirut, Hoops Club and Antranik SC.
Other sports events in Beirut include the annual Beirut Marathon, hip ball, weekly horse racing at the Beirut Hippodrome, and golf and tennis tournaments that take place at Golf Club of Lebanon. Three out of the five teams in the Lebanese rugby league championship are based in Beirut.
There are hundreds of art galleries in Beirut and its suburbs. There are more than 5000 active artists[citation needed] and equal numbers are producing music, design, architecture, theatre, film, photography and other forms of art in Lebanon. Every year hundreds of fine art students graduate from universities and institutions. Artist workshops exist all over Lebanon. Recently,[when?] the inauguration of the Beirut Art Center in the Mkalles suburb of Beirut added to the number of exhibition spaces available in the city, with a screening and performance room, mediatheque, bookstore, cafe and terrace. Adjacent to the latter is the Ashkal Alwan Home Workspace, a venue hosting cultural events and educational programs.
A number of international fashion designers[who?] have displayed their work in big fashion shows.[103] Most major fashion labels have shops in Beirut's shopping districts, and the city is home to a number of local fashion designers, some of whom like Elie Saab, Reem Acra, Zuhair Murad, Georges Chakra, Georges Hobeika, Jean Faris, Nicolas Jebran, Rabih Kayrouz and Abed Mahfouz have achieved international fame.[103]
Beirut is a destination for tourists from both the Arab world and West.[104] In Travel + Leisure magazine's World Best Awards 2006, it was ranked 9th best city in the world.[105] That list was voted upon shortly before the 2006 Lebanon War broke out, but in 2008 The Guardian listed Beirut as one of its top ten cities in the world.[106] The New York Times ranked it at number one on its "44 places to go" list of 2009.[5] Many of the tourists are returning Lebanese expatriates, but many are from Western countries. Approximately 3 million visitors visited in 2010; the previous record was 1.4 million in 1974.[107] In 2012, San Diego television channel WealthTV will feature Beirut, its culture and its people as a part of the travel series Uncover.[108]
The ministry of tourism began an initiative in early 2012 to publicize Lebanon outside of the Middle East for the first time with the aim of attracting more tourists to the country. The "Only Lebanon" campaign, an enlargement of the original government-owned tourism publicity, has grown popularity among foreigners who knew little or nothing about Lebanon. The main tourist seasons in the country are the beach seasons in Summer and the skiing season in Winter. Beirut witnesses the largest number of tourists in the country with its luxurious hotels, refurbished central district and sea promenade, and its glitzy nightlife and shopping areas.
Beirut is twinned with:
- ↑ http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?q=city+population&d=POP&f=tableCode%3a240
- ↑ Reconstruction of Beirut, Macalester College
- ↑ Lebanon's Reconstruction: A Work in Progress, VOA News
- ↑ Beirut: Between Memory and Desire, Worldview
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Wise, Zach; Meek/, Miki (2009-01-11). "The 44 Places to Go in 2009 – Interactive Graphic". The New York Times (Beirut (Lebanon);Washington (DC);Galapagos Islands;Berlin (Germany);Las Vegas (Nev);Hawaii;Vienna (Austria);Doha (Qatar);Dakar (Senegal);Phuket (Thailand);Chicago (Ill);Dallas (Tex);Bhutan;Florida Keys;Rome (Italy);Cuba;Penang (Malaysia);Seychelles Islands;Florianopolis (Brazil);Copenhagen (Denmark);Monument Valley;Great Britain;Cologne (Germany);Reykjavik (Iceland);Red Sea;Egypt;Deauville (France);South Africa;India;Kazakhstan;Buffalo (NY);Madagascar;Tasmania (Australia);Stockholm (Sweden);Alaska;Pennsylvania;Zambia). http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2009/01/11/travel/20090111_DESTINATIONS.html. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ↑ "Beirut Travel Information and Travel Guide — Lebanon". Lonely Planet. 2009-03-24. http://www.lonelyplanet.com/lebanon/beirut. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ↑ http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Business/Lebanon/2011/Jun-20/Beirut-ranks-second-for-visitor-spending-in-region.ashx#axzz1qrXPMv2b
- ↑ Burkhalter, L., Bibliographie préhistorique (à suivre) (List of prehistoric sites, continuation and end), Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth. Tome VIII, 1946–1948, Beyrouth, in-4° br., 173 pages.
- ↑ Burkhalter L., Bibliographie préhistorique (suite et fin) (List of prehistoric sites, continuation and end), Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth. Tome IX, 1949–1950, Beyrouth, in-4° br., 117 pages.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Godefroy Zumoffen (1900). La Phénicie avant les phéniciens: l'âge de la pierre. Impr. catholique. http://books.google.com/books?id=0noLAQAAIAAJ. Retrieved 7 August 2011.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 Lorraine Copeland; P. Wescombe (1965). Inventory of Stone-Age sites in Lebanon, p. 73-75 and see fig. XVII on p. 163 for drawing by Peter. J. Wescombe of the javelin found at Beirut VI. Imprimerie Catholique. http://books.google.com/books?id=6YsRRwAACAAJ. Retrieved 21 July 2011.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Bergy, Auguste. "La paléolithique ancien stratifié à Ras Beyrouth". Mélanges de l'Université Saint Joseph, Volume 16, 5–6, 1932.
- ↑ Describes, Raoul. "Quelques ateliers paléolithiques des environs de Beyrouth", Mélanges de l'Université Saint-Joseph, Volume VII, 1921.
- ↑ Karge, P., Rephaim : Die Vorgeschichtliche Kultur Palästinas und Phöniziens, Paderborn (First edition), 1917–1918
- ↑ Zumoffen, Godefroy., L'âge de la Pierre en Phénicie, L'Anthropologie, Volume 8, page 272, 1898.
- ↑ Lauffray, J., Forums et monuments de Béryte, BULLETIN DU MUSEE DE BEYROUTH. Tome VII, 1944–1945, Beyrouth, in-4° br., 124 pages dont 4 de texte arabe, 29 planches hors-texte.
- ↑ Under Beirut's Rubble, Remnants of 5,000 Years of Civilization– NYTimes February 23, 1997
- ↑ The New Encyclopædia Britannica (1993) volume 14, macropaedia, 15th edition, Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Profile of Lebanon: History Lebanese Embassy of the U.S.
- ↑ Research Projects – History and Archeology, American University of Beirut (AUB)
- ↑ Phoenicia in Encyclopaedia Biblica, Case Western Reserve University
- ↑ Phoenicia, Jrank.org
- ↑ Berytus Archeological Studies, American University of Beirut (AUB)
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 About Beirut and Downtown Beirut, DownTownBeirut.com. Retrieved November 17, 2007.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 Beirut Travel Information[dead link], Lonely Planet
- ↑ Czech excavations in Beirut, Martyrs' Square, Institute for Classical Archaeology>
- ↑ Morgan, James F. The Prodigal Empire: The Fall of the Western Roman Empire, page 87
- ↑ Beirut, Britannica.com
- ↑ History of Phoenicia, fullbooks.com. Retrieved November 17, 2007.
- ↑ "Saida (Sidon)". Ikamalebanon.com. http://www.ikamalebanon.com/national_heritage/south_nh/sth_cities_nh/saida.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 Beirut, Britannica.com
- ↑ Druze History, DHF Druze Heritage Foundation
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 Beirut, Jrank.org
- ↑ Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum Palaestinae, by Moshe Sharon
- ↑ Fawaz, Leila. "The City and the Mountain", 'International Journal of Middle East Studies' 16 no. 4 (Nov. 1984), 493.
- ↑ Fawaz, Leila. "The City and the Mountain", 'International Journal of Middle East Studies' 16 no. 4 (Nov. 1984), 490.
- ↑ Modern Beirut, Macalester College
- ↑ History of Beirut, Lebanon Links
- ↑ An Alternate Alternative History, Foreign Policy
- ↑ Dancing in the street, The Independent
- ↑ Lebanon (Civil War 1975–1992, Global Security
- ↑ Terrorism – Terrorist Attacks Chronology, CDI Terrorism Project
- ↑ Frontline: Target America: Terrorist Attacks on Americans, 1979–1988, PBS.org
- ↑ Historical Fact: Bombing of marine barracks, October 23, 1983, lebaneseforces.com
- ↑ History of Lebanon (The Cedar Revolution), LGIC. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
- ↑ Watch – The Cedar Revolution, The Winds of Change. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
- ↑ 'Record' protest held in Beirut, BBC News
- ↑ From Hopeful To Helpless At a Protest In Lebanon, Washingtonpost.com
- ↑ Hariri sister calls for justice, CNN International
- ↑ On This Day – 26 April, BBC.co.uk
- ↑ "Syria, Lebanon Formally Launch Diplomatic Relations". Voanews.com. http://www.voanews.com/english/2008-10-15-voa44.cfm. Retrieved 2009-05-05. [dead link]
- ↑ 52.0 52.1 Beirut – The Pearl of the Middle East[dead link]
- ↑ "Howstuffworks "Geography of Beirut"". Geography.howstuffworks.com. http://geography.howstuffworks.com/middle-east/geography-of-beirut.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ↑ BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/weather/forecast/248?&search=beirut&itemsPerPage=10®ion=world.
- ↑ "Beirut's Official Webcite". http://www.beirut.gov.lb/www.beirut.gov.lb/MCMSAR/%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9+%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA/. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
- ↑ "Beirut's Official Website". Beirut.gov.lb. http://www.beirut.gov.lb/www.beirut.gov.lb/MCMSEN/Maps+of+Beirut/. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ↑ Southern suburban districts include: Chiyah, Ghobeiry (Bir Hassan, Jnah and Ouzai are part of the Ghobeiry municiplaity), Haret Hreik, Burj al Barajneh, Laylake-Mreijeh, Hay al Sillum and Hadath. Eastern suburbs include: Burj Hammoud, Sin el Fil, Dekwane and Mkalles. Hazmiyeh is also considered as an eastern suburb with its close proximity to the capital. "Lebanon refugee camp profiles". UNRWA. 31 December 2006. http://www.un.org/unrwa/refugees/lebanon.html. Retrieved 2008-04-18.
- ↑ Sherifa Shafie. "Palestinian Refugees in Lebanon" (PDF). Force Migration. http://www.forcedmigration.org/guides/fmo018/fmo018.pdf. Retrieved 2008-04-18.
- ↑ Lebanese Ministry of Environment: "Lebanon State of the Environment Report", Chapter 1, page 9, 2001.[dead link]
- ↑ "United Nations: "Demographic Yearbook 2003", page 53, 2003" (PDF). http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2003/Table08.pdf. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ↑ Lebanese Ministry of Environment: "Lebanon State of the Environment Report", Chapter 1, page 11, 2001.[dead link]
- ↑ "Encyclopedia of the Nations". Nationsencyclopedia.com. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Lebanon-POPULATION.html. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ↑ At Beirut Protest, a Reminder of Religious Diversity, The New York Times. Retrieved November 17, 2007.
- ↑ " It slowly however eventually regained its title as one of the region's largest economical hubs after massive reconstruction in its central district and infrastructure. [1].retrieved on 27 November 2010.
- ↑ "Contact Us." Middle East Airlines. Retrieved on 19 October 2009.
- ↑ Lebanon's financial sector has proven its resiliency and its ability to remain stable amid the global financial crisis which brought heavy negative impact on Europe, North America and some countries of the Persian Gulf. The World Bank lists Lebanon as an international standard banking nation. "Banque du Liban: Offices in Lebanon". retrieved on 2 september 2010.
- ↑ Monday, Jun. 07, 1926 (1926-06-07). "Great Lebanon — TIME". TIME. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,722011,00.html. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ↑ "Beirut from the sky, Parliament Square, Ryad el Solh square". Lebanonpanorama.com. http://www.lebanonpanorama.com/frame_src/english/beirut.html. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ↑ "Links". Web.archive.org. 2007-10-12. Archived from the original on 2007-10-12. http://web.archive.org/web/20071012050110/http://www.presidency.gov.lb/presidency/links/links.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-25.
- ↑ Beirut – The Pearl of the Middle East[dead link]
- ↑ "Beirut's official website". Beirut.gov.lb. http://www.beirut.gov.lb/www.beirut.gov.lb/MCMSARdir1/%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B8%D8%A9+%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA/. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ↑ ICPD+5 NEWS BULLETIN, United Nations General Assembly. Retrieved November 15, 2007.
- ↑ "United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia". Escwa.org.lb. http://www.escwa.org.lb/. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ↑ "Arab Air Carriers Organization". Aaco.org. http://www.aaco.org/contact.asp. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ↑ "Union of Arab Banks". uabonline.org. http://www.uabonline.org/contact.php. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
- ↑ "Union of Arab Stock Exchanges". arabstockexchanges.org. http://www.arabstockexchanges.org/uaseportal/portal/contactus.html?pageParam=contactus&menu=8. Retrieved 2011-02-12.
- ↑ "International Labour Organization (Lebanon)". Ilo.org.lb. http://www.ilo.org.lb/. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ↑ "UNESCO Beirut". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on 2007-09-10. http://web.archive.org/web/20070910202147/http://portal.unesco.org/beirut. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ↑ 79.0 79.1 79.2 79.3 Lebanon – Education system
RTF (26.5 KiB), Unesco.org
- ↑ "Educalys website". Educalys.edu.lb. http://www.educalys.edu.lb. Retrieved 2011-09-05.
- ↑ Education FAQs[dead link], informs.gov.lb
- ↑ "NCUSAR Study Abroad Opportunity". Ncusar.org. http://www.ncusar.org/programs/lau-sinarc.html. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
- ↑ "International Served By Pappas Consulting". Pappas-consulting.com. http://www.pappas-consulting.com/international.html. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
- ↑ "Blog Archive » About LAU". Universities of Lebanon. 2010-03-15. http://www.universitiesoflebanon.com/2010/03/15/about-lau/. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
- ↑ "International Colleagues, International Accreditation Activities, Canada, PDF, ACPE – Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education". Acpe-accredit.org. 2004-06-30. http://www.acpe-accredit.org/international/accredit.asp. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
- ↑ "About LAU | Charter and Accreditation". LAU. http://www.lau.edu.lb/about/charter_acc/index.php. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
- ↑ 87.0 87.1 "Transportation & Communication". Ikamalebanon.com. http://www.ikamalebanon.com/info/transportation.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ↑ Beirut Transport[dead link]
- ↑ Albert Londres Prizes, France Diplomatie
- ↑ Daily Press Briefing, Embassy of France in the U.S.
- ↑ (French) Les Jeux de la Francophonie au Liban Beyrouth 2009, Libanvision
- ↑ (French) Les Jeux de la Francophonie, Moldavie.fr
- ↑ 2009 World Book Capital, un.org
- ↑ Butters, Andrew Lee (2009-03-17). "Drugs in the Middle East". Times/CNN. http://mideast.blogs.time.com/2009/03/17/drugs-in-the-middle-east/. Retrieved 2010-03-02.
- ↑ Sergeant, Mike (2008-02-13). "Is party over for Beirut's clubbers?". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7241147.stm. Retrieved 2010-03-02.
- ↑ History, National Museum of Beirut
- ↑ "AUB Museum". Ddc.aub.edu.lb. http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/museum/. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ↑ "Welcome to Robert Mouawad Private museum". Rmpm.info. http://www.rmpm.info/. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ↑ "Beirut City Center Culture — Planet Discovery". Solidere. http://www.solidere.com/history/planet.html. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ↑ "UMAC Worldwide Database of University Museums & Collections". Publicus.culture.hu-berlin.de. http://publicus.culture.hu-berlin.de/collections/detail.php?dsn=549. Retrieved 2011-09-05.
- ↑ China Ready to Face Tough Task in Asian Cup Bidding, People's Daily
- ↑ Lebanese Football need to make their mark in Asia[dead link], Maxell
- ↑ 103.0 103.1 Reuters (2011 [last update]). "Lebanese fashion designers reign supreme | Reuters". reuters.com. http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/10/13/us-lebanon-fashion-idUSTRE69C3JP20101013. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ↑ "Born-again Beirut". Fairfax Media. 2005-01-08. http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2005/01/28/1106850092882.html. Retrieved 2010-03-02.
- ↑ Travel and Leisure: Top 10 Cities Overall
- ↑ Carrell, Severin (2008-10-15). "Lonely Planet guide rates Glasgow as one of the world's top 10 cities". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2008/oct/15/glasgow-scotland. Retrieved 2011-08-23.
- ↑ Lutz, Meris (2009-09-26). "Lebanon tourism is back from a holiday". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-lebanon-tourism26-2009sep26,0,746311.story. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
- ↑ [wealthtv.com "WealthTV"]. WealthTV Online. Herring Broadcasting. wealthtv.com. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
- ↑ 109.00 109.01 109.02 109.03 109.04 109.05 109.06 109.07 109.08 109.09 109.10 109.11 "Twinning the Cities". City of Beirut. http://www.beirut.gov.lb/MCMSTest/Menu-Pages/SisterCitiesEN.aspx?NRMODE=Published&NRORIGINALURL=%2fwww%2ebeirut%2egov%2elb%2fMCMSEN%2fTwinning%2bthe%2bCities%2f&NRNODEGUID=%7b18839037-0140-436E-A1AF-7F8F3693C3E6%7d&NRCACHEHINT=NoModifyGuest#. Retrieved 2008-01-13.
- ↑ "Isfahan, Beirut named sister cities". MNA. http://www.mehrnews.com/en/NewsDetail.aspx?NewsID=392389. Retrieved 2007-05-02.
- ↑ "Sister Cities of Istanbul". http://www.greatistanbul.com/sister_cities.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-08.
- ↑ "Beirut, Lebanon". Lacity.org. http://www.lacity.org/SisterCities/html/23.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
- ↑ "Yerevan Municipality – Sister Cities". © 2005–2009 www.yerevan.am. http://yerevan.am/main.php?lang=3&page_id=194. Retrieved 2009-06-22.
- Kassir, Samir. Beirut (University of California Press; 2010) a scholarly history
- Linda Jones Hall, Roman Berytus: Beirut in Late Antiquity, 2004.
- Samir Kassir, Histoire de Beyrouth, Fayard 2003.
- Richard Talbert, Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, (ISBN 0-691-03169-X), p. 69.
- Rabih Alameddine, "Koolaids: The Art of War", Abacus 1998, a novel
- Philip Mansel, Levant: Splendour and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean, London, John Murray, 11 November 2010, hardback, 480 pages, ISBN 978-0-7195-6707-0, New Haven, Yale University Press, 24 May 2011, hardback, 470 pages, ISBN 978-0-300-17264-5
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