Hindi-Urdu grammar

Hindi is the national, union-level and one of the official languages of India. Urdu is the national language of Pakistan as well as a scheduled language in India. The two are often held as separate languages on the bases of comprehensibility, vocabulary choice, and cultural orientation; however, on a linguistic basis they are two standardized registers of a single subdialect, that being the Khari boli dialect of Delhi. Their grammatical differences are minimal, and keeping in line with such a linguistic analysis, Hindi and Urdu (or Khari boli; also see "Hindustani") occupy a single grammar page.

Script

In matters of script, Hindi uses Devanagari while Urdu uses an extended form of the Persian script, typically in the Nasta`liq style. On this grammar page Hindi-Urdu is written in "standard orientalist" transcription as outlined in . Being "primarily a system of transliteration from the Indian scripts, [and] based in turn upon Sanskrit" (cf. IAST), these are its salient features: subscript dots for retroflex consonants; macrons for etymologically, contrastively long vowels; h denoting aspirated stops. Tildes denote nasalized vowels.

Vowels are the following: , , , , , , , , , ; consonants are outlined in the table below. Hovering the mouse cursor over them will reveal the appropriate IPA symbol, while in the rest of the article hovering the mouse cursor over forms will reveal the appropriate English translation. See Hindi-Urdu phonology for further clarification.

:::{|class="wikitable IPA" border="2" ! ! colspan="2" | Bilabial ! Labio-dental ! colspan="2" |  Dental  ! colspan="2" | Alveolar ! colspan="2" | Retroflex ! colspan="2" | Post-alv./
Palatal ! colspan="2" |  Velar   ! Uvular ! colspan="2" | Glottal |- align=center ! Stop | | | | | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | | | | colspan="2" | |-align=center ! Affricate | colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | |- align=center ! Nasal | colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | |- align=center ! Fricative | colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | | | | |- align=center ! Tap or Flap | colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | |- align=center ! Approximant | colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | |- align=center ! Lateralapproximant | colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | |- align=center |}

Morphology

Nouns

Hindi-Urdu distinguishes two genders, two numbers, and three cases of direct, oblique, and vocative. Nouns may be further divided into declensional subtypes, type-I and type-II, with the basic difference being that the former has characteristic terminations in the direct singular while the latter does not. An alternative assessment of this division would be that of respectively "marked and unmarked" nouns.

The below table displays the suffix paradigms. A hyphen symbol (for the marked) denotes change amongst terminations, whereas a plus sign (for the unmarked) denotes termination addition.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! rowspan="2" colspan="2"| !! colspan="2"| Sg. !! colspan="3"| Pl. |- ! Dir. !! Obl. !! Dir. !! Obl. !! Voc. |- ! rowspan="2"| Masc. !! I | -ā||colspan="2"|-e||-õ||-o |- ! II |colspan="3"| ||+õ||+o |- ! rowspan="2"| Fem. !! I |colspan="2"|-ī, -i, -iyā||-iyā̃||-iyõ||-iyo |- ! II |colspan="2"| ||+ẽ||+õ||+o |}

The next table of noun declensions, mostly adapted from , shows the above suffix paradigms in action. Words: laṛkā "boy", kuā̃ "well", seb "apple", vālid "father", chāqū "penknife", ādmī "man", mitra "friend", laṛkī "girl"kitāb "book", aurat "woman".

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! rowspan="2" colspan="2"| !! colspan="2"| Sg. !! colspan="3"| Pl. |- ! Dir. !! Obl. !! Dir. !! Obl. !! Voc. |- ! rowspan="2"| Masc. !! I |laṛkākuā̃ |colspan="2"|laṛke kuẽ |laṛkõkuõ |laṛko |- ! II |colspan="3"|sebvālid chāqūādmī |sebõvālidõcākuõ ādmiyõ |pitāoādmiyo |- ! rowspan="2"| Fem. !! I |colspan="2"|laṛkīciṛiyā |laṛkiyā̃ciṛiyā̃ |laṛkiyõciṛiyõ |laṛkiyo |- ! II |colspan="2"|kitābaurat |kitābẽbhāṣāẽaurtẽ |kitābõbhāṣāõaurtõ |aurto |}

A lot of urdu pluralizations are exceptions, and are done by arabic plurals if they are of arabic origin Also the voc. sg. A small number of marked masculines display nasalization of all terminations. Some masculines ending in ā don't change in the direct plural and fall in the unmarked category. i.e. vālid "father", cācā "uncle", rājā "king". Unmarked nouns ending in ū and ī generally shorten this to u and i before the oblique (and vocative) plural termination(s), with the latter also inserting the semivowel y. Many feminine Sanskrit loanwords end in ā. Hence bacca(h) → baccā. The former is the Urdu spelling, the latter the Hindi.

Some Perso-Arabic loans may use their original dual and plural markings. i.e. vālid "father" → vālidain "parents".

Adjectives

Adjectives may be divided into declinable and indeclinable categories. Declinables are marked, through termination, for the gender, number, case of the nouns they qualify. The set of declinable adjective terminations is similar but greatly simplified in comparison to that of noun terminations —

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! colspan="2"| !! Dir. sg. !! All else |- ! rowspan="2" | Decl. !! Masc. | -ā||-e |- ! Fem. |colspan="2"|-ī |- ! colspan="2"| Indecl. |colspan="2"| |}

Indeclinable adjectives are completely invariable, and can end in either consonants or vowels (including ā and ī ). A number of declinables display nasalization of all terminations.

Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparisons are made by using "than" (the postposition se; see below), "more" (aur, zyādā), and "less" (kam). The word for "more" is optional, while "less" is required, denoting that in the absence of either "more" will be inferred.

{|class="wikitable" ! Hindi-Urdu !! Literal !! Meaning |- |Gītā Gautam se lambī hai||Gita is tall than Gautam||rowspan="2"|Gita is taller than Gautam |- |Gītā Gautam se aur lambī hai||Gita is more tall than Gautam |- |Gītā Gautam se kam lambī hai||colspan="2" style="text-align:center"|Gita is less tall than Gautam |}

In the absence of an object of comparison ("more" of course is now no longer optional):

{|class="wikitable" ! Hindi-Urdu !! Literal !! Meaning |- |zyādā baṛā chokrā||The more big lad||The bigger lad |- |chokrā zyādā baṛā hai||The lad is more big||The lad is bigger |}

Superlatives are made through comparisons with "all" (sab).

{|class="wikitable" ! Hindi-Urdu !! Literal !! Meaning |- |sabse sāf kamrā||The clean than all room||The cleanest room |- |kamrā sabse sāf hai||The room is clean than all||The room is the cleanest |}

In Sanskritized and Persianized registers of Hindi-Urdu, comparative and superlative adjectival forms using suffixes derived from those languages can be found.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! !! Sanskrit !! Persian |- |Comp. ("-er")||colspan="2"|-tar |- |Sup. ("-est")||-tam||-tarīn |}

Postpositions

The aforementioned inflectional case system only goes so far on its own, and rather serves as that upon which is built a system of agglutinative suffixes or particles known as postpositions, which parallel English's prepositions. It is their use with a noun or verb that necessitates the noun or verb taking the oblique case (though the bare oblique is also minorly used adverbially), and it is with them that the locus of grammatical function or "case-marking" then lies. There are six such one-word primary postpositions:

kā – genitive marker; variably declinable in the manner of an adjective. X kā/ke/kī Y has the sense "X's Y", with kā/ke/kī agreeing with Y.

ne – ergative marker; applied to subjects of transitive perfective verbs.

se – ablative marker; has a very wide range of uses and meanings:

*"from"; dillī se "from Delhi".

"from, of"; "to fear of you".

*"since"; itvār se "since Sunday".

*"by, with"; instrumental marker.

*"by, with, -ly"; adverbial marker.

*"than"; for comparatives.

*a minority of verbs use se rather than ko to mark their patients.

mẽ – "in".

par – "on".

tak – "until, up to".

Beyond these are a large range of compound postpositions, composed of the genitive primary postposition kā in the oblique form (ke, kī) plus an adverb.

kī taraf "towards", ke andar "inside", ke āge "in front of, ahead of", ke ūpar "on top of, above", ke nīche "beneath, below", ke pīche "behind", ke bād "after", ke bāre mẽ "about", ke bāhar "outside", ke liye "for", ke sāmne "facing, opposite", etc.

Pronouns

Personal

Hindi-Urdu has personal pronouns for the first and second persons, while for the third person demonstratives are used, which can be categorized deictically as proximate and non-proximate. Pronouns distinguish cases of direct, oblique, and dative. The lattermost, often called a set of "contracted" forms, is in free variation with the oblique case plus dative postposition. Pronouns do not distinguish gender.

Also displayed in the below table are the genitive pronominal forms to show that the 1st and 2nd pronouns have their own distinctive forms of merā, hamārā, terā, tumhārā apart from the regular formula of OBL. + kā; as well as the ergative pronominal forms to show that the postposition ne does not straightforwardly suffix the oblique bases: rather than *mujh ne and *tujh ne, direct bases are used giving mai ne and tū ne, and rather than in ne and un ne, it's inhõ ne and unhõ ne.

tū, tum, and āp are the three second person pronouns ("you"), constituting a threefold scale of sociolinguistic formality: respectively "intimate", "familiar", and "polite". The "intimate" is grammatically singular while the "familiar" and "polite" are grammatically plural. The following table is adapted from .

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" !rowspan="4"| !colspan="5"|Personal !colspan="4"|Demonstrative !colspan="2" rowspan="3"|Relative !colspan="2" rowspan="3"|Interrogative |- !colspan="2"|1st pn. !colspan="3"|2nd pn. !colspan="4"|3rd pn. |- !rowspan="2"|Sg. !rowspan="2"|Pl. !Sg. !colspan="2"|Pl. !colspan="2"|Prox. !colspan="2"|Non-prox. |- !Int. !Fam. !Pol. !Sg. !Pl./Pol. !Sg. !Pl./Pol. !Sg. !Pl. !Sg. !Pl. |- !Direct | |rowspan="2"| | |rowspan="2"| |rowspan="2"| |colspan="2"|||colspan="2"| |colspan="2"| |colspan="2"|, |- !Oblique ||||||||||||||||||| |- !Dative ||||||||||||||||| ||||||| |- !Genitive ||||| ||| ||||||| ||||||| |- !Ergative ||||||||||||| ||||||||||| |}

Postpositions are treated as bound morphemes after pronouns in Hindi, but as separate words in Urdu. Followed here is the example of Urdu, for easier reference.

The varying forms for the 3rd pn. dir. constitute one of the small number of grammatical differences between Hindi and Urdu. yah "this" / ye "these" / vah "that" / ve "those" is the literary set for Hindi while ye "this, these" / vo "that, those" is the set for Urdu and spoken (and also often written) Hindi.

The above section on postpositions noted that ko (the dative case) marks direct objects if definite. As "the most specific thing of all is an individual", persons (or their pronouns) nearly always take the dative case or postposition. Some speakers prefer plural ham over singular mãĩ. This is not quite the same as the "royal we"; it is rather colloquial. koī and kuch are indefinite pronouns/quantifiers. As pronouns koī is used for animates ("someone") and kuch for inanimates ("something"). As quantifiers/adjectives koī is used for singular count nouns and kuch for mass nouns and plural count nouns. koī takes the form kisī in the oblique. The form kaī "several" is partially a plural equivalent to koī. kuch can also act as an adverb, qualifying an adjective, meaning "rather". koī preceding a number takes the meaning of "about, approximately". In this usage it does not oblique to kisī. apnā is a (genitive) reflexive pronoun: "my/your/etc. (own)". Using non-reflexive and reflexive together gives emphasis; e.g. merā apnā "my (very) own". xud, āp, and svayam are some (direct; non-genitive) others: "my/your/etc.-self". Bases for oblique usage are usually apne or apne āp. The latter alone can also mean "of one's own accord"; āpas mẽ means "among/between themselves".

Derivates

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! rowspan="2"| !! rowspan="2"|Interrogative !! rowspan="2"|Relative !! colspan="2"|Demonstrative |- ! Prox. !! Non-prox. |- !Time ||| ||| |- !rowspan="2"|Place ||| ||| |- ||| ||| |- !Quantity ||| ||| |- !Quality |kaisā||jaisā||aisā||vaisā |- !Manner |kaise||jaise||aise||vaise |}

Adverbs

Hindi-Urdu has few underived forms. Adverbs may be derived in ways such as the following —

Simply obliquing some nouns and adjectives: nīcā "low" → nīce "down", sīdhā "straight" → sīdhe "straight", dhīrā "slow" → dhīre "slowly", saverā "morning" → savere "in the morning", ye taraf "this direction" → is taraf "in this direction", kalkattā "Calcutta" → kalkatte "to Calcutta".

Nouns using a postposition such as se "by, with, -ly": zor "force" → zor se "forcefully" (lit. "with force"), dhyān "attention" → dhyān se "attentively" (lit. "with attention").

Adjectives using postpositional phrases involving "way, manner": acchā "good" → acchī tarah se "well" (lit. "by/in a good way"), xās "special" → xās taur par "especially" (lit. "on a special way").

Verbs in conjunctive form: hãs- "laugh" → hãs kar "laughingly" (lit. "having laughed"), mehrbānī kar- "do kindness" → mehrbānī kar ke "kindly, please" (lit. "having done kindness"). Formative suffixes from Sanskrit or Perso-Arabic in higher registers of Hindi or Urdu. Skt. sambhava "possible" + → "possibly; Ar. ittifāq "chance" + -an → ittifāqan "by chance".

Hindi-Urdu has 3 aspects: perfective, habitual, and continuous, each having overt morphological correlates. |- !Intimate ||*||dauṛ |- !Familiar ||*-o||dauṛo |- !Polite ||*-iye||dauṛiye |- !Deferred ||*-nā||dauṛnā |- !Deferential ||*-iye gā||dauṛiye gā |} | {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" |+Aspectuals plotted against copulas. ! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| !! Perfective !! Habitual !! Continuous |- |*-^A |*-t-^A |* rah-^A |- !Present |h-? | | | |- !Past | | | | |- !Subjunctive |ho-^P | | | |- !Presumptive | | | | |- !Contrafactual |ho-t-^A | | | |- !Unspecified | | |dauṛtā | |} |}

Notes Much of the above chart information derives from . The future tense is formed by adding the suffix gā (~ ge ~ gī) to the subjunctive, which is a contraction of gaā (= gayā, perfective participle of jānā "to go"). The future suffix, conjunctive participle, and suffix vālā are treated as bound morphemes in written Hindi, but as separate words in written Urdu. The clusters are a + ā, ā + ā, o + ā, and ī + ā, resulting in āyā, ayā, oyā, iyā.

Is this regard, there are a small number of verbs that while perhaps logically transitive still do not take ne and continue to agree with the subject, in the perfective. e.g. lānā "to bring", bhūlnā "to forget", milnā "to meet", etc.

Besides supplying the copulas, honā "to be" can be used aspectually: huā "happened, became"; hotā "happens, becomes, is"; ho rahā "happening, being".

-ke can be used as a colloquial alternative to -kar for the conjunctive participle of any verb. But for karnā it is the only possible form; karke, not *karkar.

Hindi-Urdu displays a very small number of irregular forms, spelled out in the cells below.

:{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! rowspan="2"|Root !! rowspan="2"| Perf.Stem !! colspan="2"| Imperative ! rowspan="2"|Subj.Stem |- !Fam. !!Pol. |- |ho- "be"||hu-|| || || |- |jā- "go"||ga-|| || || |- |kar- "do"||ki-|| ||kījie || |- |de- "give"||di-||do||dījie||d- |- |le- "take"||li-||lo||lījie||l- |- |pī- "drink"|| || ||pījie |} However, it is jā- that is used as the perfective stem in the rare instance of an intransitive verb like jānā being expressed passively, such as in a passivized imperative/subjunctive construction: ghar jāyā jāe? "Shall [we] go home?" (lit. "Shall home be gone to [by us]?").

Causatives

Transitives or causatives are morphologically contrastive in Hindi-Urdu, leading to the existence of related verb sets divisible along such lines. While the derivation of such forms shows patterns, they do reach a level of variegation so as to make it somewhat difficult to outline all-encompassing rules. Furthermore, some sets may have as many as four to five distinct members; also, the meaning of certain members of given sets may be idiosyncratic.

Starting from intransitive or transitive verb stems further transitive/causative stems are produced according to these assorted rules — :1a. Root vowel change: a → ā, u/ū → o, i/ī → e. Sometimes accompanied by root final consonant change: k → c, → , l → Ø. :1b. Suffixation of -ā. Often accompanied by: ::Root vowel change: ū/o → u, e/ai/ā/ī → i. ::Insertion of semivowel l between such vowel-terminating stems. :2. Suffixation of -vā (in place of -ā if and where it'd occur) for a "causitive".

The following are sets culled from and . The lack of third members displayed for the ghūmnā to dhulnā sets does not imply that they do not exist but that they were simply not listed in the source literature . Intransitive verbs are coloured brown while transitives remain the usual black.

girnā "to fall", girānā "to fell", girvānā "to cause to be felled".

banna "to become", banānā "to make", banvānā "to cause to be made".

khulnā "to open", kholnā "to open", khulvānā "to caused to be opened".

sīkhnā "to learn", sikhānā "to teach", sikhvānā "to cause to be taught".

khānā "to eat", khilānā "to feed", khilvānā "to cause to be fed".

biknā "to sell", becnā "to sell", bikvānā "to cause to be sold".

dikhnā/dīkhnā "to seem", dekhnā "to see", dikhānā "to show", dikhvānā "to cause to be shown".

kahnā "to say", kahlānā "to be called".

ghūmnā "to go round", ghumānā "to make go round".

"to lie down", "to lay down". "to sit", "to seat".

sonā "to sleep", sulānā "to make sleep".

dhulnā "to wash", dhonā "to wash".

"to break", "to break", "to cause to be broken".

In the causative model of "to cause to be Xed", the agent takes the postposition se. Thus Y se Z banvānā "to cause Z to be made by Y" = "to cause Y to make Z" = "to have Z made by Y" = "to have Y make Z", etc.

Compounds

Compound verbs, a highly visible feature of Hindi–Urdu grammar, consist of a verbal stem plus an auxiliary verb. The auxiliary (variously called "subsidiary", "explicator verb", and "vector") loses its own independent meaning and instead "lends a certain shade of meaning" to the main/stem verb, which "comprises the lexical core of the compound". Shown below are prominent such auxiliaries, with their independent meaning first outlined, followed by their semantic contribution as auxiliaries.

jānā "to go"; gives a sense of completeness, finality, or change of state. e.g. ānā "to come" → ā jānā "to come, arrive"; khānā "to eat" → khā jānā "to eat up"; pīnā "to drink" → pī jānā "to drink up"; "to sit" → "to sit down"; samajhnā "to understand" → samajh jānā "to realise"; sonā "to sleep" → so jānā "to go to sleep"; honā "to be" → ho jānā "to become". lenā "to take"; suggests that the benefit of the action flows towards the doer. e.g. "to read (to/for oneself)". denā "to give"; suggests that the benefit of the action flows away from the doer. e.g. "to read (out)". The nuance laden by an auxiliary can often be very subtle and as well is not necessarily grounds for a rendering in different words upon translation to English as the examples here might conveniently show. lenā and denā, transitive verbs, occur with transitives, while intransitive jānā occurs mostly with intransitives; a compound of a transitive and jānā will be grammatically intransitive as jānā is.

"to throw, pour"; indicates an action done vigorously, decisively, violently or recklessly; it is an intensifier, showing intensity, urgency, completeness, or violence. e.g. mārnā "to strike" → "to kill", pīnā "to drink" → "to drink down". "to sit"; implies an action done foolishly or stubbornly; shows speaker disapproval or an implusive or involuntary action. suggests inception of action or feeling, with its independent/literal meaning sometimes showing through in a sense of upward movement. e.g. jalnā "to burn" → "to burst into flames", nacnā "to dance" → "to break into dance". occurs with lenā and denā, meaning "to give/take (as a loan)", and with other appropriate verbs, showing an action performed beforehand.

Finally, having to do with the manner of an occurrence, compounds verbs are mostly used with completed actions and imperatives, and much less with negatives, conjunctives, and contexts continuous or speculative. This is because non-occurrences cannot be described to have occurred in a particular manner.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! Noun !! Conjunct !! Conjunct + patient !! Literal !! Meaning |- |intazār wait||intazār karnā||kisī kā intazār karnā||to do somebody's wait||to wait for somebody |- |istemāl use||istemāl karnā||fon kā istemāl karnā||to do a phone's use||to use a phone |- |bāt talk||bāt karnā||Samīr kī bāt karnā||to do Sameer's talk||to talk about Sameer |- | installation||||||to do an idol's installation||to install an idol |- |gālī curse||gālī khānā||sanam kī gālī khānā||to eat a lover's curse||to be cussed out by one's lover |}

With English it is the verb stems themselves that are used.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! Verb stem !! Conjunct !! Meaning |- |caik check||caik karnā||to check |- |bor bore||bor honā||to be bored |}

Passive

The passive construction is periphrastic. It is formed from the perfective participle by addition of the auxiliary jānā "to go"; i.e. likhnā "to write" → likhā jānā "to be written". The agent is marked by the postposition se. Furthermore, both intransitive and transitive verbs may be grammatically passivized to show physical/psychological incapacity, usually in negative sentences. Lastly, intransitives often have a passive sense, or convey unintentional action.

Syntax

With regards to word order, Hindi-Urdu is an SOV language. In terms of branching, it is neither purely left- or right-branching, and phenomena of both types can be found. The order of constituents in sentences as a whole lacks governing "hard and fast rules", and frequent deviations can be found from normative word position, describable in terms of a small number of rules, accounting for facts beyond the pale of the label of "SOV".

# Indirect objects precede direct objects. # Attributive adjectives precede the noun they qualify. # Adverbs precede the adjectives they qualify. # Negative markers (nahī̃, na, mat) and interrogatives precede the verb. # Interrogatives precede negative markers if both are present. # kyā ("what?") as the yes-no question marker occurs at the beginning of a clause.

Possession

Possession, reflecting what many other languages indicate via the verb to have, is reflected in Hindi-Urdu by the genitive kā (inflected appropriately) or the postposition ke pās and the verb honā. Possible objects of possession (nouns) fall into two main categories in Hindi-Urdu: one for persons such as family members, or body parts, and the other for most inanimate objects, animals, most abstract ideas, and some persons such as servants.

For indicating possession with objects of the first category, kā appears after the subject of the possession, followed by the object. With personal pronouns, this requires the use of the possessive pronoun (inflected appropriately). Examples: Merī mātā he ("I have a mother"), Shiv kī tīn ā̃khẽ hain ("Shiva has three eyes").

For indicating possession with objects of the second category, the compound postposition ke pās is used. For example: Mohan ke pās ek bukkarī he ("Mohan has one goat").

Differences between Hindi and Urdu

At morphological level, the differences between Hindi and Urdu are mostly in the area of vocubalary. But there are few other differences also, which are:

In the indirect constructions employing chaahiye, Urdu also uses plural form chaahiye'n.

In another indirect construction, Hindi usually has the infinitive, functioning as a complement, agreeing with the grammatical subject of the verb; Urdu however has two additional possibilities.

In sentences in which a conjunctive participle is used to refer to the first act in a series of two, if the first act is in some sense a 'cause' for the second act, Hindi prefers the conjunctive suffix -kar be dropped and only the root of the first verb used. In Urdu, on the other hand, the use of conjunctive suffix is always required.

Many nouns which are masculine in Urdu are feminine in Hindi, the opposite also being true.

There are any number of derivational suffixes and prefixes in Urdu, as well as numerous adverbial words and phrases, which are not found in Hindi.

Urdu extensively uses Izafat, a morphological device borrowed from Persian, to make nominal compounds. Izafat is not used in Hindi.

References

Bibliography

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Category:Grammars of specific languages Category:Hindustani Category:Hindi Category:Urdu