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Brahmin (also called Brahman; from Sanskrit brāhmaṇa ब्राह्मण) is a name used to designate a member of one of the four varnas (castes) in the traditional Hindu societys of Nepal and India.

Brahman, Brahmin and Brahma have different meanings. Brahman refers to the Supreme Self. Brahmin or Brahmana refers to an individual, while the word Brahma refers to the creative aspect of the universal consciousness. The English word brahmin is an anglicised form of the Sanskrit word Brāhmana. In the Smriti view there are four "varnas", or classes: the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas, and Shudras. The Atreya smriti 141-142 enjoins that

"janmana jayate shudrah

One is a Shudra by birth
samskarad dvija ucyate
By observing Sanskara one becomes a Dvija
vedapathi bhaved viprah
By studying the Vedas one becomes a Vipra
brahma janati brahmanah

One who knows Brahman is a Brahmana

Traditionally Brahmin was the name given to persons who had attained the highest spiritual knowledge (brahmavidya) and who adhered to different branches (shakhas) of Vedas. This was described to be a difficult path of discipline of body, mind, and intellect. Irrespective of their birth or class,^{[citation needed]} people who were dedicated to such an austere life were recognized as Brahmins.^{[citation needed]} An example of this definition of Brahmin, that a person becomes a Brahmin, rather than being born as one, is the story of the sage Vishwamitra, who was a warrior, who became a Brahmin after attaining brahmavidya, and composed the Gayatri mantra. ^{[defunct example from period before dharmashastras So,[citation needed]} The belief that people born into the Brahmin caste, automatically become Brahmins, is a concept that emerged later in ancient India.^{[citation needed]}

Historically, the semantic^{[clarification needed]} change from a tribal state into the Hindu state of the jati-varna matrix saw the conversion and absorption of tribals into the Brahmin class, through adoption of the priestly occupation.^[1][2] In medieval and colonial India, people in mundane occupations also proselytized^{[clarification needed]} themselves into Brahmins, usually upon gaining positions of power or upon becoming wealthy.^[3][4]

The Smritis conferred upon the Brahmins the position of being the highest of the four Varnas. The priestly class is expected to practice self-abnegation and play the role of being the custodians of Dharma (as a Brāhman who is well versed in Vedic texts).^{[citation needed]} The fee paid to the Brahmana for performance of a sacrifice was considered as a return for the duties of the priest. Hopkins^[5] states: "As to the fees, the rules are precise, and the propounders of them are unblushing. The priest performs the sacrifice for the fee alone, and it must consist of valuable garments, kine, horses, or gold; – when each is to be given is carefully stated. Gold is coveted most, for ‘this is immortality, the seed of Agni'"

History[link]

Most sampradayas (sects) of modern Brahmins claim to take inspiration from the Vedas. According to orthodox Hindu tradition, the Vedas are apauruṣeya and anādi (beginning-less), and are revealed truths of eternal validity. The Vedas are considered Śruti ("that which is heard") and are the paramount source on which Brahmin tradition claims to be based. Śruti texts include the four Vedas (the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda), and their respective Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.

In 1931, Brahmins accounted for 4.32% of the total population of the subcontinent. Now it comprises 3% of the total population.^[6] .In West Bengal the figures stand at 5 %, whereas in Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar and Orissa the Brahmin population is quite near 10%.^{[citation needed]}

Practices[link]

Brahmins, basically adhere to the principles of the Vedas, related to the texts of the Śruti and Smriti which are the foundations of Hinduism, and practise Sanatana Dharma. Vedic Brāhmaṇas have six occupational duties, of which three are compulsory — studying the Vedas, performing Vedic rituals and practicing dharma. By teaching the insights of the Vedic literature which deals with all aspects of life including spirituality, philosophy, yoga,^{[citation needed]} religion, rituals, temples, arts and culture,^{[citation needed]} music, dance, grammar, pronunciation, metre, astrology^{[citation needed]}, astronomy,^{[citation needed]} logic, law, medicine,^{[citation needed]} surgery,^{[citation needed]} technology, martial arts,^{[citation needed]} military strategy, etc. By spreading its philosophy, and by accepting back from the community, the Brahmins receive the necessities of life.^{[citation needed]}

Brahmins practice vegetarianism or lacto-vegetarianism which has been a custom for centuries, dating back to the pre-Christian era.^{[citation needed]} However, some Brahmins inhabiting regions of Mithila, Punjab, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal and Nepal, are non-vegetarian.

Most Brahmin sects wear the Yagnopaveetham (or sacred thread) that is a symbol of initiation to the Gayatri recital. This ritual is often referred to as Upanayana. This marks the learning of the Gayatri hymn. Brahmin sects also generally identify themselves as belonging to a particular Gotra, a classification based on patrilineal descent, which is specific for each family and indicates their origin.

Brahmin communities[link]

The Brahmin castes may be broadly divided into two regional groups: Pancha-Gauda Brahmins from the Northern part of India (considered to be the region north of the Vindhya mountains) and Pancha-Dravida Brahmins from the region south of the Vindhya mountains as per the shloka asdof Kalhana. This shloka was composed only in the 11th century CE.^{[citation needed]}

Pancha-Gauda[link]

सारस्वताः कान्यकुब्जा गौडा उत्कलमैथिलाः, पञ्चगौडा इति ख्याता विन्ध्स्योत्तरवासिनः ||

Those from Uttarapatha (Aryavarta) (northern and eastern India) approximately ordered according to geographical regions.

Saankal Dvipiy Brahaman[link]

• Saryupareen Brahmins
• Assamese Brahmins
• Kamrupi Brahmins
• Kanyakubja Brahmins
• Sanadhya Brahmins
• Bhumihar Brahmins
• Bengali Brahmins
• Bahun

Gauda Brahmins[link]

Gaur brahmin

Saraswat Brahmins[link]

• Saraswat Brahmins
• Goud Saraswat Brahmins
• Chitrapur Saraswat Brahmins
• Rajapur Saraswat Brahmins

Assamese Brahmins[link]

Main article: Assamese Brahmins

See also: Kamrupi Brahmins

Assamese Brahmins are found mostly in Lower Assam, Upper Assam and throughout the entire Brahmaputra Valley. They are believed to have their origins in Kannauj, in ancient Magadha, and to have migrated during the Kamarupa period to Lower Assam and then to the rest of the Brahmaputra Valley. With respect to faith and customs, Brahmins in Assam are the same as other Brahmin communities across India. Each Brahmin family within the community identify themselves to a specific Gotra. Sarma/Sharma, Bhagawati, Goswami, Chakraborty are a few common Assamese Brahmin surnames.

Kamrupi kings were known to take regular advice from Brahmins for political and religious purposes^[7]. Kamrupi king Bhaskar Varman was known to regularly grant land, copper plates and cows to Brahmins^[8].

Utkala Brahmins (Orissa)[link]

• Utkala Brahmin

The Sanskrit text Brāhmaṇotpatti-Mārtaṇḍa by Pt. Harikrishna Śāstri mentions that a king named Utkala invited Brahmins from the Gangetic Valley to perform a yajna in Jagannath-Puri in Orissa. When the yajna ended, these Brahmins laid the foundation of Lord Jagannath there and settled around Orissa, Jharkhand and Medinipur. The Utkala Brahmins are of three classes 1) Shrautiya (vaidika), 2) Sevayata and 3) Halua Brahmins.

Maithil Brahmins (Mithila)[link]

• Maithil Brahmins

Maithil Brāhamaṇas, are a group of Brahmins typically originating from and living in and around Mithila, which is part of North Bihar. They are a community of highly cohesive, traditional Brahmins who strive to follow rites and rituals according to ancient Hindu canons^{[citation needed]}. They have a reputation for orthodoxy and interest in learning^{[citation needed]}. A large number of Maithil Brahmins migrated a few centuries ago to adjoining areas of South-east Bihar and Jharkhand, as well as to adjoining Terai regions of Nepal. Most of the Maithil Brahmins are Śāktas (worshippers of Śakti) . Maithili is their mother tongue, though many use Angika (a south-eastern dialect of Maithili) as their mother tongue.

Nepal[link]

See Nepal.

Kashmiri Pandits[link]

• Kashmiri Pandits

The Hindu caste system of the region was influenced by the influx of Buddhism from the time of Asoka, around the third century BCE, and in consequence the traditional lines of varna were blurred, with the exception of the Brahmins, who remained aloof from the changes.^{[citation needed]} Another notable feature of early Kashmiri society was the relatively high regard in which women were held, when compared to their position in other communities of the period.^{[citation needed]}

Pancha-Dravida[link]

कर्णाटकाश्च तैलंगा द्राविडा महाराष्ट्रकाः , गुर्जराश्चेति पञ्चैव द्राविडा विन्ध्यदक्षिणे ||

Rajasthan[link]

• Jangid Brahmin

Jangid Brahman are the followers of Angira Rishi. The sect of Jangid Brahmins are widely found in Rajasthan. Jangid Brahmins are now also found in Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Nepal.

• Bagra Brahmin

Bagra Brahmin (pronounced as Bagda) is a part of the Brahmin community mainly concentrated in and around Jaipur district of Rajasthan, India, although members of this community can be found throughout India and also in foreign countries.

Gujarat[link]

Gurjara Brāhmans refer to the Brahmins of Gujarāt, and are subdivided into many groups and subcastes. Many of them have origins in Rajasthan. Some of the sub-categories are:^[9]

Girinarayan Brahmin, Shrigod Brahmin, Sachora Brahmin, Anavil Brahmin, Sidhra-Rudhra Brahmins, Prashnora Brahmins, Vadadra Brahmin, Sree gauda Brahmin, Trivedi Mewada Brahmin, Palival Brahmin (Dasha and visha), Modh Brahmin, Tapodhan Brahmin, Audichya Brahmin, Sahastra Audichya Gorwal Brahmin, Nagar Brahmin, Pushkarna Brahmin, Saurashtra Bhatt Mewada Brahmin, Saurashtra Trivedi Mewad Brahmin, Chauriyasi Mewada Brahmin, Rajgor Brahmin (Gujarat Origin), Bajkhedawal Brahmins (origin Kheda in central Gujarat or Khedbrahma in north Gujarat), Jangid Brahmin, Rajgor Brahmin, Bhatt Mewada Brahmin, Shrimali Brahmins and Chvyan Brahmin (or bharah gaon Brahmin),Adhyagoud Brahmins (Rajasthan origin) and Jaiswal Brahmin (North-Indian origin),

Kanaujiya or Kanyakumbj Brahmins migrated from Kanauj and entered the Kutch area via Sindh along with the lohanas.^{[citation needed]} They are divided into the categories bhuvdiyas, vondhiyas and sandhliyas, according to their village temple. Others in Gujarat are mainly found in Jamnagar, Morbi, Junaghath and Rajkot. Surnames like Bhatt, Kaileyas, Bhaglani, Pingal, Lakhlani, Ghediya etc. are common among them.

Andhra Pradesh[link]

Brahmins of Andhra Pradesh known as Telugu Brahmins are broadly classified into four groups: Vaidiki Brahmins, Niyogi, Dravida Brahmins and Vaikhānasa.^[10]

Vaidiki Brahmins are further divided into the following sub-categories: Dravidlu (Aadi Saivulu, Saivulu), Vaidiki Velanadu, Vaidiki Venginadu, Vaidiki Kosalanadu or Kasalnadu, Vaidiki Mulakanadu, Vaidiki Murikinadu, Vaidiki Telaganya.^{[citation needed]}

Niyogis are further divided into the following subcategories: Nandavarika Niyogi, Pradhama Shakha Niyogi, Aaru Vela Niyogulu, Golkonda Vyapari, Karanaalu, Sistukaranalu, Karana kamma vyaparlu, Karanakammulu.^[11][12]

Another sub-section, known as Dravida Brahmins, is made up of a group of Saraswat Brahmins who migrated to Andhra Pradesh from Tamil Nadu.^{[citation needed]} They had originally migrated to Tamil Nadu from Saurashtra. Islamic invasions affected this group by forcing its slow migration from Kashmir to Andhra Pradesh via Gujarat and Tamil Nadu^{[citation needed]}. As a result of their migration from Tamil Nadu, this group of Brahmins is known as Dravida Brahmins or Dravidlu. They remain with the Vedic traditions.^{[citation needed]} This sect is also related to the Vadama Brahmins.^{[citation needed]}

Maharashtra[link]

They include the following : Goud Saraswat Brahmins, Chitpavan Brahmins (Konkanastha), Daivadnya Brahmins, Deshastha Brahmins, Karhade Brahmins and Devrukhe Brahmins.

Karnataka[link]

Karnāta Brāhmans(ಕನ್ನಡ ಬ್ರಾಹ್ಮಣ): The Brāhmans of the Carnatic, or the Canarese country. The Canarese area comprises Mysore State, and the British Districts of Canara, Dharwar and Belgaum.^[13]

• Kannada Brahmins :^{[citation needed]}

These are further subdivided into the following castes : Babbur Kamme Brahmins, Badaganadu Brahmins, Deshastha Brahmin, Hale naadu Karnataka Brahmins, Havyaka Brahmin, Hasan Iyengars, Hebbar Iyengars, Hoysala Karnataka Brahmins, Jangam Brahmins, Karhade Brahmin, Koota Brahmins, Madhva Brahmins, Mandyam Iyengars, Mysore Iyengars, Niyogi Brahmins, Panchagrama Brahmin, Sankethi Brahmins, Sattada vaishnava Brahmins, Shukla Yajurveda Brahmins, Smartha Brahmins, Srivaishnava Brahmins, Sthanika Brahmins, Ulucha Kamme Brahmins

• Mysore Iyers
• Ashtagrama Iyer
• Tuluva Brahmins,^[14] which consist of Kandavara Brahmins, Karhade Brahmins, Padia Brahmins, Saklapuri Brahmins, Shivalli Brahmins, Smartha Shivalli Brahmins, Sthanika Brahmins, Padarthi Brahmins

Tamil Nadu[link]

• Iyengar (sub-divided into Vadakalai and Thenkalai)
• Iyer (sub-divided further into Vadama, Vathima, Brahacharanam, Ashtasahasram, Gurukkal, Dikshitar, Kaniyalar, Prathamasaki)

Kerala[link]

Kerala Brahmins include the following categories of Brahmins: Namboothiri Brahmin, Kerala Iyers, Embranthiri, Pushpaka Brahmin (subdivided into Nambissans and Unnis), Sharada Brahmins.

Gotras and pravaras[link]

Brahmins classify themselves on the basis of their patrilineal descent from a notable ancestor.^{[citation needed]} These ancestors are either ancient Indian sages or kshatriyas (warriors), who chose to become Brahmins.^{[citation needed]} The major gotras that trace descent from sages are: Shri Vatsya, Kanva, Jamadagni, Bhrigu, Bharadvâja, Kaundinya, Gautama Maharishi, Sandilya,Bhrigu, Vashista,Parāshara, Atryasa, Harithasa, Kashyapa, and Agastya gotra. Other gotras are Mitra, Vishvamitra and Chaurasia gotra.^{[citation needed]}

In general, gotra denotes any person who traces descent in an unbroken male line from a common male ancestor. Pāṇini defines gotra for grammatical purposes as 'apatyam pautraprabhrti gotram' (IV. 1. 162), which means: "the word gotra denotes the progeny (of a sage) beginning with the son's son". When a person says, "I am Kashypasa-gotra", he means that he traces his descent from the ancient sage Kashyapa by unbroken male descent. This enumeration of eight primary gotras seems to have been known to Pāṇini. These gotras are not directly connected to Prajapathy or latter brama^{[clarification needed]}. The offspring (apatya) of these Eight are gotras; and others than these are called 'gotrâvayava'.^{[15]Provide Vepachedu's Sources[citation needed]}

The gotras are divided into three tiers of ganas, then into pakshas, and finally into individual gotras. According to the Âsvalâyana-srautasûtra, there are four subdivisions of the Vashista gana, viz. Upamanyu, Parāshara, Kundina and Vashista (other than the first three). The first has survived in the Bhrigu and Āngirasa gana. According to Baudh, the principal eight gotras were divided into pakshas. The pravara of Upamanyu is Vashista, Bharadvasu, Indrapramada; the pravara of the Parâshara gotra is Vashista, Shâktya, Pârâsharya; the pravara of the Kundina gotra is Vashista, Maitrâvaruna, Kaundinya and the pravara of Vashistas other than these three is simply Vashista. Therefore some define pravara as the group of sages that distinguishes the founder (lit. the starter) of one gotra from another.

There are two kinds of pravaras, 'sishya-prasishya-rishi-parampara' and 'putrparampara'. Gotrapravaras can be ekarsheya, dwarsheya, triarsheya, pancharsheya, saptarsheya, and up to 19 rishis. Kashyapasa gotra has at least two distinct pravaras in Andhra Pradesh: one with three sages (triarsheya pravara) and the other with seven sages (saptarsheya pravara). This pravara may be either sishya-prasishya-rishi-parampara or putraparampara. Similarly, Srivatsasa gotra has five sages or is called Pancharsheya and are the descendants of Jamadagni. For a sishya-prasishya-rishi-parampara marriage it is not acceptable if half, or more than half, of the rishis are the same in both bride and bridegroom gotras. If it is putraparampara, a marriage is totally unacceptable even if one rishi matches.^{[16]Provide Vepachedu's Sources-[citation needed]}

Sects and Rishis[link]

Due to the diversity in religious and cultural traditions and practices, and the Vedic schools to which they belong, Brahmins are further divided into various subcastes. During the sutra period, roughly between 1000 BCE to 200 BCE, Brahmins became divided into various Shakhas (branches), based on the adoption of different Vedas and different rescension Vedas. Sects for different denominations of the same branch of the Vedas were formed, under the leadership of distinguished teachers among the Brahmins.

There are several Brahmin law givers, such as Angiras, Apasthambha, Atri, Bhrigu, Brihaspati, Boudhayana, Daksha, Gautama, Harita, Katyayana, Likhita, Manu,^[17] Parasara, Samvarta, Shankha, Shatatapa, Ushanasa, Vashista, Vishnu, Vyasa, Yajnavalkya, and Yama. These twenty-one rishis were the propounders of the Smritis. The oldest among these smritis are Apastamba, Baudhayana, Gautama, and Vashista Sutras.^{[18]Provide Vepachedu's Sources[citation needed]}

Descendants of the Brahmins[link]

Many Indians and non-Indians claim descent from the Vedic Rishis of both Brahmin and non-Brahmin descent.^{[citation needed]} For example, the Dasharna and Nagas are said to be the descendants of Kashyapa Muni.^{[citation needed]} The descent of Brahmins is generally indicated by the gotra, which refers to his patrilineage. It is indicated by the name of the 'great sage' to whose descent the Brahmin is said to belong.

The Vishwakarmas are the descendants of Pancha Rishis or Brahmarishies. According to Yajurveda and Brahmanda purana, they are Sanaka, Sanatana, Abhuvanasa, Prajnasa, and Suparnasa.^{[citation needed]}

The Panchal movement to reclaim Brahminical rights claimed that the Panchals have Brahminic culture, or sacraments, and perform their ceremonies according to Vedic Rituals.^{[citation needed]}

The Kani tribe of South India claim to descend from Agastya Muni.^{[citation needed]}

The Gondhali, Kanet, Bhot, Lohar, Dagi, and Hessis claim to be from Renuka Devi.^{[citation needed]}

The Kasi Kapadi Sudras claim to originate from the Brahmin Sukradeva. Their duty was to transfer water to the sacred city of Kashi.^[19]

The Padmashalis claim they came from the Maharishi Markandeya, who wrote the Markandeya Purana.^{[citation needed]}

The Saini (gardener) community claim in one of their stories that they descended from a Brahmin and call themselves Parpadh Brahman, which in course of time became Phulmali.^[20]

Dadheech Brahmins/dayama Brahmin trace their roots from Dadhichi Rishi. Many Jat clans claim to descend from Dadhichi Rishi while the Dudi Jats claim to be in the lineage of Duda Rishi.^{[citation needed]}

Lord Buddha was a descendant of Angirasa through Gautama. There were Kshatriyas of other clans whose members descend from Angirasa, to fulfill a childless king's wish.^[21]

The (so-called) backward caste Matangs claim to descend from Matang Muni, who became a Brahmin through his karma.^{[citation needed]}

According to one legend, the nomadic tribe of Kerala, the Kakkarissi, were descendants of a Brahmin who came out of the mouth of Garuda, the vehicle of Lord Vishnu.^{[citation needed]}

The Roman Catholic Brahmin caste among the Goan Catholics and Mangalorean Catholics are descended from Konkani Brahmins who converted to Roman Catholicism during the Portuguese colonial rule in Goa.

Claimants of Brahmin Status[link]

In Haryana, the Tagas claim to be a Brahmins who had abandoned the priestly profession and taken to agriculture.^{[citation needed]}

In Punjab, the misari of the Multan Langrials claim descent from Brahmins of Bikanir.^[22] Both the Langrail and Golia claim that they were Brahmin Charans.^[23]

In Uttar Pradesh the Oudh Belwar also claim descent from the Sanadhya Brahmin caste^{[citation needed]}.

In undivided Bengal the Namasudras, now named as Namasudra (Namassej) also claimed Brahmin status. It is claimed^{[citation needed]} that King Ballal Sen expelled them from society and declared them as out-castes. A Vyavastha ^[24][25][26] was signed in 1901 by forty odd Brahmin pundits, headed by Chief Brahmin pundit (Nabadwip) of Bengal. This is supported by Dr. Nihar Ray in "The History Of Bengali People , Ancient Period", published in "Desh", The Famous Bengali Literary Magazine in 1951, and included in the special issue of "Articles of One Century"^[27]. It is claimed that the 1931 census of India shows that the two states of the Ganga River Valley basin, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, had a 10% Brahmin population and adjacent Orissa also had a 10% population, but Bengal had exactly half, 5%. Dr. N.R. Ray mentions in his book that Namasudra (Namassejas) are the Lost Tribe^[28].

Brahmins taking up other duties[link]

The Reciting Brahman Illustration from Sougandhika Parinaya, 19th Century

Brahmins have taken on many professions – from being priests, ascetics and scholars to warriors and business people, as is attested for example in Kalhana's Rajatarangini.^{[citation needed]} Brahmins with the qualities of Kshatriyas are known as 'Brahmakshatriyas'.^{[citation needed]} An example mentioned in mythology is the sage Parashurama who is considered an avatar of Vishnu. Sage Parashurama is portrayed as a powerful warrior who defeated the Haiheya kshatriyas twenty one times, was an expert in the use of weapons, and trained others to fight without weapons. He is said to have established the Bhumihar Brahmins as landowners once he destroyed the Kshatriya race.^[29] These Brahmins, after having mostly abandoned their priestly functions (although some still perform), took to land-owning (Zamindar) as a profession.^[30]

Brahmin sects that have taken up the profession of medicine include the Vaidya (or Baidya) Brahmins of Bengal, with surnames Gupta, Dasgupta and Senguptas.^{[citation needed]} They are considered descendants of Dhanvantari, the Hindu god of medicine and father of Ayurveda.^{[citation needed]}

Kshatriya Brahmin ^[31] and Brahma-kshatriya ^[32] are terms associated with people of both the Brahmin and Kshatriya caste components. Among the Royal Rajput households, Brahmins who became the personal teachers and protectors of the royal princes rose to the status of Rajpurohit and taught the princes everything, including martial arts.

They would also become the keepers of the Royal lineage and its history. They would also be the protectors of the throne in case the regent was orphaned and a minor. The well-known Brahmin Chanakya was a Rajpurohit for Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Mauryan empire, who helped Chandragupta get a grip on the well-established Nanda Empire and prevent Alexander the Great from invading India. The Pallava kings also claimed to be Brahmakshatriyas.^{[citation needed]} King Jayavarma I of Kambuja (Kampuchea) of 781 A.D. was a Brahma-kshatriya.^[32] King Lalitaditya Muktapida of Kashmir ruled all of India and even Central Asia.

King Rudravarma of Champa (Vietnam) of 657 A.D. was the son of a Brahmin father.^[32]

Hem Chandra Vikramaditya (Hemu), born into a family of Purohits, started the manufacture of cannons for the first time in North India, with Portuguese know-how and dealt in gunpowder supplies for Sher Shah Suri's army. Later he became Prime Minister and Chief of Army of the Suris and Emperor of North India in 1556, defeating Akbar's army at Agra and Delhi.^{[citation needed]}

Brahmins with the qualities of a Vaisya or merchant are known as 'Brahmvyasya'.^{[citation needed]} An example of such persons are people of the Ambastha^[33] caste, which exist in South India.^{[citation needed]} They perform medical work, and claim that from ancient times they have practised Ayurveda and have been Vaidyas (or doctors).^{[citation needed]} During British rule, when the government desired to promote caste mobility, they started bearing the sacred thread also, but neither the government nor the Hindu oligarchs supported any such sanction^{[disambiguation needed ]}.^{[citation needed]}

Many Pallis of South India claimed to be Brahmins in the Colonial Period (while others claimed to be Agnikula Kshatriyas.)^[34] Kulaman Pallis are referred to by outsiders as Kulaman Brahmans.^[34]

Sampradayas[link]

The three sampradayas (sects) of Brahmins, mostly in South India are the Smarta sampradaya, the Srivaishnava sampradaya and the Madhva sampradaya.

Smartism[link]

Smartism (or Smarta Sampradaya, Smarta Tradition, as it is termed in Sanskrit) is a liberal or nonsectarian denomination of the Hindu religion, who accept all the major Hindu deities as forms of the one Brahman in contrast to Shaivism and Shaktism, for example. The term Smarta refers to adherents who follow the Vedas and Shastras.^{[citation needed]}

Vaishnavism[link]

One form of Vaishnavism is Madhwa (Dwaita Sampradaya), and the other is Sri Vaishnava (Vishishtadvaita sampradaya). Madhwa Brahmins are mainly located in the Carnatic plains and some of them are seen in Andhra, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. They follow the teachings of Sri Madhvacharya, who was born in South Canara district of Karnataka in the 12th Century. He preached Dvaita, which says that God and atma (soul) are different entities, which is contradictory to the teachings of Sri Adi Sankaracharya, who preached Advaita vedanta (non-duality). In South India, Sri Vaishnava sampradayam was propagated by Srimad Ramanujacharya.

Shaivism[link]

Shaivism (sometimes called Shivaism) is a belief system where Lord Shiva is worshipped as the Supreme Lord. It is a derivative faith of the core Vedic tradition.^{[citation needed]} Saiva sects contains many subsects, such as Asdisaivas, Rudrasaivas, Veerasiavas, Paramasaivas, etc. Ravana, the ruler of Lanka in the Hindu epic Ramayana, was depicted to be a Shiva devotee, who was a son of a Brahmin and a Daitya.

Buddhism[link]

Brahmins were treated with great veneration in the time of the Buddha and there are countless references to Brahmins throughout the Buddhist scriptures.^{[citation needed]} Furthermore, most of the major Buddhist founders were Brahmins. They include Sariputra, Maudgalyayana, Mahakashyapa, Nagarjuna, Asvaghosha, Padmasambhava, Shantarakshita, Nagasena, Kumarajiva and Shantideva, all of whom were referred by their titles as Brahmins.^{[citation needed]} The word Brahmin, meaning "priest class", was not redefined by the Buddha and it continued to be used alongside Arahat in separate capacities.^{[citation needed]} Max Muller points out that in the Dhamapada, Buddha etymologizes the word "Bahama", the Prakrit form of "Brahmana", by playing off the Sanskrit/Prakrit etymon -bra.

In the Ambattha Sutra, we find the Buddha debated a Brahmin who was clearly not an Arahat. Also in many important dharanis, Brahmins are mentioned in an entirely different capacity from Arahats, and therefore there is a marked difference. The Buddha however insisted that Brahmins had to live up to their great legacy, and could not be by birth alone, but also had to have performed the meritorious acts.^{[citation needed]} In the Dhammapada, the Buddha mentions Brahmins and Arahats in very different capacities and dedicates an entire chapter to what it means to be a real Brahmin called the Brahmana-vagga.^[35]

The Buddha did not believe in caste discrimination but he did endorse a fair division of labour based on merit. According to him, Brahmins were not to discriminate against lower castes but were to serve them wholeheartedly. Many sutras indicate that the Buddha himself was a Brahmin in a previous life and, due to his good merit as a Brahmin, was re-born as the Buddha.^[36] Other experts believe the Buddha descended from Brahmin sage Angiras whose descendants like Dronacharya were Shatra Brahmins or warrior Brahmins that eventually became Kshatriya warriors.^{[citation needed]}

The notion of ritual purity provided a conceptual foundation for the caste system, by identifying occupations and duties associated with impure or taboo objects as being themselves impure. Regulations imposing such a system of ritual purity and taboos are absent from the Buddhist monastic code, and not generally regarded as being part of Buddhist teachings^[37] On the contrary, the early Buddhist scriptures defined purity as determined by one's state of mind, and refer to anyone who behaves unethically, of whatever caste, as "rotting within", or "a rubbish heap of impurity".^[38]

There are many places in which the Buddha explains his use of the word brahman. At Sutta Nipata 1.7, Vasala Sutta, verse 12, he states: "Not by birth is one an outcast; not by birth is one a brahman. By deed one becomes an outcast, by deed one becomes a brahman."^[39]

Jainism[link]

• The first convert of Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism was Indrabhuti (aka Gautamswami) the Brahmin, who headed a group of other Brahmins and converted them to Jainism. He was from the village Gobbar (also called Govarya) near Rajgriha. It is said that the Tapsas, who were competing with Gautama to reach the top of a hill, achieved moksha by seeing Gautama win.^[40]
• Sajjambhava was another born from Rajgriha and was elected the head of the Jain temple. He is famous for his composition of the "Dasavaikalika Sutra."
• Acharya Vidyanand is a Brahmin of the Dhigambar Jain sect and compiled in the Sanskrit language, "Ashta Shahastri" with eight thousand verses.
• Acharya Shushil Kumar, known better to Jains as "Guruji", was born a Vaidik in the Shakarpur village of the Haryana province. At the age of 15, he took Diksha (became a sanyassin) into the Sthanakvasi, a Swhetambara sub-sect.
• Reputedly a wealthy Brahmin named Dhangiri, in the town of Tumbhivan, lost his interest in wealth and decided to take Diksha, after hearing the sermons of the Jain Acharya Sinhgiri.
• Umasvati was a composer who was so loved by Jains that he is considered by the Dhigambar sect to be a Dhigambar member and the Svetambara sect to be a Svetambara member.
• Akalanka of the 8th century is said to the pioneer in the field of Jain logic.^[41]

Miscellaneous sects[link]

There are additional sampradayas, which are not as widely followed:

The Mahima Dharma or "Satya Mahima Alekha Dharma" was founded by the Brahmin Mukunda Das of present-day Orissa, popularly known by followers as Mahima Swami according to the Bhima Bhoi text.^[42] He was born in the last part of the 18th century, in the former state of Baudh, a son of Ananta Mishra. He was Brahmin by caste as mentioned in Mahima Vinod of Bhima Bhoi in Vol.11. This sampradaya is similar to Vaishnavism. Although the members of this sect do not worship Lord Vishnu as their Ishta-Deva, they believe that the Srimad Bhagavatam is sacred. The founder of this sect was a Vaishnavite before founding the new order.^[42] This sampradaya was founded in the latter part of the 18th century.^[42]

There is also the Avadhoot Panth, wherein Lord Dattatreya and his forms such as Narasimha Saraswati and Sai Baba of Shirdi are worshiped. Lord Dattatreya is worshiped by many as the Hindu trinity – Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva in one divine entity. Many even worship Dattatreya as an Avatar of Vishnu or of Shiva.

Nepal[link]

Bahun is a colloquial Nepali term for a member of the Pahari or "hill" Brahmin (ब्राह्मण) caste, who are traditionally educators, scholars and priests of Hinduism. They are also known as Barmu in Newari. Brahmins are the second largest caste group in Nepal (31% of the population), with the Chhetri (Kshatriya) being the first (42%).^{[citation needed]} Brahmins were inhabitants of Nepal in prehistoric times.^{[citation needed]} The Brahmin community is the major part of the indigenous Khas community of Nepal.^{[citation needed]} They moved eastward along Xinjiang province of China, Western Tibet, the Himalayan foothills from Kashmir and Kumao/Garwal. They settled first in the Karnali River basin, then the Gandaki and finally the Kosi basin and into Sikkim and Bhutan.^{[citation needed]}

Some Jaiswal Brahmins are Chaurasi Brahmins from Nepal or North India.^{[citation needed]} There are references about Brahmins of Nepal in bansawali and purans. By tradition—and by civil law until 1962—they represented the highest of the four Hindu varna or castes.^{[citation needed]} Bahuns from the "hills" have been represented disproportionately in Nepal's education system, political parties and civil service since the country was unified by Prithvi Narayan Shah and his heirs in the 18th century^{[citation needed]}. The top leaders of the all the major parties are also Bahuns: the Maoist opposition (Pushpa Kamal Dahal and Baburam Bhattarai), the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) Jhalanath Khanal, Madhav Kumar (Nepal), and the Nepali Congress (Sushil Koirla).

Very often, Khas Bahuns can be identified by their middle names being Dev (देव), Nath (नाथ), Mani (मणि), Raj (राज), Prasad (प्रसाद), Devi (देवी) or Kumari (कुमारी). They never use bahadur (बहादुर) in their names because it is associated mainly with Chhetris (Kshatriya) and "martial tribes".

The Brahman caste in Nepal includes numerous family names such as:

• A अ – Acharya (आचार्य), Adhikari (अधिकारी), Arjel (अर्जेल)/Arjyal (अर्ज्याल)/Aryal (अर्याल), Awasthi (अवस्थी)
• Ā आ – Atreya (आत्रेय),
• B ब – Badal (बडाल), Banskota (बास्कोटा), Baral (बराल), Bastakoti (बस्ताकोटी), Bastola (बास्तोला), Basyal/Bashyal/Basel (बस्याल/ बश्याल/ बसेल)
• Bh भ – Bhandari (भन्डारी), Bhatta (भट्ट), Bhattarai (भट्टराई), Bhetuwal (भेटुवाल), Bhurtel (भुर्तेल), Bhusal (भुसाल / भुषाल)
• Ch च – Chalise (चालिसे), Chapagain (चापगाईँ), Chataut (चटौत), Chaulagain (चौलागाई), Chiluwal (चिलुवाल)
• D द – Dahal (दहाल), Devkota (देवकोटा)
• D ड – Dallakoti (डल्लाकोटी), Dumre (डुम्रे)
• Dh ढ – Dhakal (ढकाल), Dhungel (ढुंगेल)
• G ग – Gajurel (गजुरेल), Gaudel (गौडेल), Gautam (गौतम), Gotame (गोतामे), Guragain/Gurangain (गुरागाईँ), Gyanwali (ज्ञवाली)
• Gh घ – Ghimire (घिमिरे)
• H ह – Humagain (हुमगाईँ)
• J ज – Jaisi(जैसी), Joshi (जोशी)
• K क – Kafle (कफ्ले/काफ्ले), Kalakheti (कलाखेती), Kandel (कंडेल)/Kadel (कडेल), Koirala (कोइराला)
• Kh ख – Khanal (खनाल), Kharel (खरेल), Khatiwada (खतिवडा)
• L – Lamsal(लम्साल), Lekhak (लेखक), Lohani (लोहनी)
• M म – Mainali (मैनाली), Maratha (मराठा), Mishra (मिश्र)
• N – Nepal (नेपाल), Neupane (नेउपाने), Niraula (निरौला), Nyaupane (न्यौपाने)
• O ओ – Ojha (ओझा), Oli (ऑळी)
• P प – Prasai(n) (प्रसाईं), Parajuli(पराजुली), Pageni (पंगेनी), Pandey (पाँडे), Pandit (पण्डित), Pant (पन्त), Pathak (पाठक), Pokhrel/Pokharel (पोखरेल), Paudyal (पौड्याल)/Poudyal/Paudel (पौडेल), Pudasiani (पुडासैनी), Pyakurel (प्याकुरेल)Pukar
• Ph फ – Phuyal (फुयाल)
• R र – Regmi (रेग्मी), Rijal (रिजाल), Rimal (रिमाल), Rishal (रिशाल)
• Sh श – Sharma (शर्मा), Shivakoti (शिवाकोटी)
• S स – Sangraula (संग्रौला), Sapkota (सापकोटा), Satyal (सत्याल), Sedhain (सेढाई), Sigdel (सिग्देल), Simkhada (सिम्खडा),Subedi (सुवेदी),
• T त – Timilsina (तिमल्सेना), Tiwari (तिवारी), Tripathi (त्रिपाठी)
• Th थ – Thapaliya (थपलिया)
• W व – Wagle (वाग्ले)
• U उ – Upadhyaya (उपाध्याय), Upreti/Uprety (उप्रेती)

The Audichya Brahmin community is connected with Parashurama (Bhargava-Gotra), and are said to have earned a good deal of confidence and respect among kings.^{[citation needed]}

Burma (Myanmar)[link]

This article contains Burmese script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Burmese script.

Manipuri astrologers and Brahmins in Burma, 1900

Historically, Brahmins, known as ponna (ပုဏ္ဏား) in modern-day Burmese, formed an influential group in Burma prior to British colonialism. Until the 1900s, ponna referred to Indians who had arrived prior to colonial rule, distinct from kala, Indians who arrived during British rule. During the Konbaung dynasty, court Brahmins were consulted by kings before moving royal capitals, waging wars, making offerings to Buddhist sites like the Mahamuni Buddha, and for astrology.^[43] Burmese Brahmins can be divided into four general groups, depending on their origins:

• Manipur Brahmins (Burmese: မုနိပူရဗြာဟ္မဏ): Brahmins who were sent to Burma after Manipur became a Burmese vassal state in the 1700s and ambassadors from Manipur
• Arakanese Brahmins (Burmese: ရခိုင်ဗြာဟ္မဏ): Brahmins brought to Burma from Arakan after it was conquered by the Konbaung king Bodawpaya
• Sagaing Brahmins: the oldest Brahmins in Burmese society, who consulted the Pyu, Burman^{[disambiguation needed ]} and Mon kingdoms prior to the Konbaung dynasty
• Indian Brahmins: Brahmins who arrived with British colonial rule when Burma became a part of the British Raj

According to Burmese chronicles, Brahmins in Burma were subject to the four-caste system, which included brahmanas (ဗြာဟ္မဏ), kshatriyas (ခတ္တိယ), vaishya (ဝေဿ), and shudra (သုဒ္ဒ). Because the Burmese monarchy enforced the caste system for Indians, Brahmins who broke caste traditions and laws were subject to punishment. In the Arakanese kingdom, punished Brahmins often became kyun ponna (ကျွန်ပုဏ္ဏား), literally 'slave Brahmins', who made flower offerings to Buddha images and performed menial tasks. During the Konbaung dynasty, caste was indicated by the number of salwe (threads) worn; Brahmins wore nine, while the lowest caste wore none. Brahmins are also fundamental in the Nine-God cult, called the Nine Divinities (Phaya Ko Su ဘုရားကိုးစု) which is essentially a Burmese puja (puzaw in Burmese) for appeasing nine divinities, Buddha and the eight arahats, or a group of nine deities, five Hindu gods and four nat spirits.^[43] This practice continues to be practiced in modern-day Burma.

Notes[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Swami Sahajanand Saraswati Rachnawali (Selected works of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati), Prakashan Sansthan, Delhi, 2003.
• Baldev Upadhyaya, Kashi Ki Panditya Parampara, Sharda Sansthan, Varanasi, 1985.
• M.A. Sherring, Hindu Tribes and Castes as Reproduced in Benaras, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, First ed 1872, new ed 2008.
• Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, Hindu Castes and Sects, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, first edition 1896, new edition 1995.
• E. A. H. Blunt, The Caste System of North India, S. Chand Publishers, 1969.
• Christopher Alan Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen, and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion, 1770–1870, Cambridge University Press, 1983.
• Anand A. Yang, Bazaar India: Markets, Society, and the Colonial State in Bihar, University of California Press, 1999.
• Acharya Hazari Prasad Dwivedi Rachnawali, Rajkamal Prakashan, Delhi.
• Bibha Jha, Bhumihar Brahmins: A Sociological Study, PhD thesis submitted to the Patna University.
• M. N. Srinivas, Social Change in Modern India, Orient Longman, Delhi, 1995.
• Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi essays.
• Apte (1965) (Fourth Revised and Enlarged ed.). New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass .
• Apte (1966) (Reprint 1997 ed.). New Delhi .
• Macdonell (1924) (1966 ed.). New Delhi .
• Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). Delhi .
• Sontakke, N. S., ed. (1972). (First ed.). Pune:  .

External links[link]

• Daily duties of Brahmins
• Brahmin Information Portal at Hindubrahmin.com
• List of Brahmin Castes and Sub-castes at Kamat.com

Jesus
Jesus as Good Shepherd (stained glass at St John's Ashfield)
Born	7–2 BC/BCE[1] Judaea[2]
Died	30–36 AD/CE[3][4][5][6][7] Judaea
Cause of death	Crucifixion[8]
Ethnicity	Jewish[9]
Home town	Nazareth, Galilee[10]

Jesus ( /ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς; 7–2 BC/BCE to 30–36 AD/CE), also referred to as Jesus Christ or simply Christ, is the central figure of Christianity and most Christian denominations venerate him as God the Son incarnated. In Islam, Jesus (in Arabic: عيسى‎ in Islamic usage, commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets.^[11][12]

Most modern historians agree that Jesus existed and was a Jewish teacher from Galilee in Roman Judaea, who was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman Prefect, Pontius Pilate.^{[13][14][15][16][8]} Scholars have offered competing descriptions and portraits of Jesus, which at times share a number of overlapping attributes, such as a rabbi, a charismatic healer, the leader of an apocalyptic movement, a self-described Messiah, a sage and philosopher, or a social reformer who preached of the "Kingdom of God" as a means for personal and egalitarian social transformation.^{[17][18][19][20]} Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology of Jesus' life.^{[3][5][21][22][23][24][25][26][27]}

Christians traditionally believe that Jesus was born of a virgin, performed miracles, founded the Church, died sacrificially by crucifixion to achieve atonement, rose from the dead, and ascended into heaven, from which he will return.^[28] The majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, and the Second Person of the Holy Trinity.^[29] A few Christian groups, however, reject Trinitarianism, wholly or partly, believing it to be non-scriptural.^[29][30] Most Christian scholars today present Jesus as the awaited Messiah promised in the Old Testament and as God,^[31] arguing that he fulfilled many Messianic prophecies of the Old Testament.^[32]

In Islam, Jesus is a bringer of scripture, and the product of a virgin birth, but not the victim of crucifixion.^[33] Judaism rejects the belief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh.^[34] Islam and the Bahá'í Faith use the title "Messiah" for Jesus,^[35][36] but do not teach that he was God incarnate.

Etymology of name[link]

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"Jesus" is a transliteration, occurring in a number of languages and based on the Latin Iesus, of the Greek Ἰησοῦς (Iēsoûs), itself a hellenization of the Hebrew יְהוֹשֻׁעַ (Yĕhōšuă‘, Joshua) or Hebrew-Aramaic יֵשׁוּעַ (Yēšûă‘), both meaning "Yahweh delivers" or "Yahweh rescues". In Arabic, it is عيسى‎.^[37][38]

The etymology of the name Jesus in the context of the New Testament is generally expressed as "Yahweh saves",^[39][40][41] "Yahweh is salvation"^[42][43] and at times as "Jehovah is salvation".^[44] The name Jesus appears to have been in use in Judaea at the time of the birth of Jesus.^[44][45] Philo's reference (Mutatione Nominum item 121) indicates that the etymology of Joshua was known outside Judaea at the time.^[46]

In the New Testament, in Luke 1:26-33, the angel Gabriel tells Mary to name her child "Jesus", and in Matthew 1:21 an angel tells Joseph to name the child "Jesus". The statement in Matthew 1:21 "you are to give him the name Jesus, because he will save his people from their sins" associates salvific attributes to the name Jesus in Christian theology.^[47][48]

"Christ" ( /ˈkraɪst/) is derived from the Greek Χριστός (Khrīstos), meaning "the anointed" or "the anointed one", a translation of the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ (Māšîaḥ), usually transliterated into English as "Messiah" ( /mɨˈsaɪ.ə/).^[49][50] In the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Bible (written well over a century before the time of Jesus), the word "Christ" (Χριστός) was used to translate the Hebrew word "Messiah" (מָשִׁיחַ) into Greek.^[51] In Matthew 16:16, the apostle Peter's profession "You are the Christ" identifies Jesus as the Messiah.^[52] In postbiblical usage, "Christ" became viewed as a name, one part of "Jesus Christ", but originally it was a title ("Jesus the Anointed").^[53][54][55]

Chronology[link]

Judaea and Galilee at the time of Jesus.

Although a few scholars have questioned the existence of Jesus as an actual historical figure,^[56], and some early Christian sects denied that Jesus existed as a physical being (see below), most scholars involved with historical Jesus research believe his existence, but that the supernatural claims associated with him cannot be established using documentary and other evidence.^{[57][58][59][16][60][61]} As discussed in the sections immediately below, the estimation of the year of death of Jesus places his lifespan around the beginning of the 1st century AD/CE, in the geographic region of Roman Judaea.^{[62][63][64][65][66]}

Roman involvement in Judaea began around 63 BC/BCE and by 6 AD/CE Judaea had become a Roman province.^[67] From 26-37 AD/CE Pontius Pilate was the governor of Roman Judaea.^[68] In this time period, although Roman Judaea was strategically positioned in the Near East, close to Arabia and North Africa, it was not viewed as a critically important province by the Romans.^[69][70] At the time the Romans were highly tolerant of other religions and allowed the local populations such as the Jews to practice their own faiths.^[67]

Year of birth[link]

Two independent approaches have been used to estimate the year of the birth of Jesus, one by analyzing the Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew along with other historical data, the other by working backwards from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus, as also discussed in the next section.^[5][22]

In its Nativity account, the Gospel of Matthew associates the birth of Jesus with the reign of Herod the Great, who is generally believed to have died around 4 BC/BCE.^[22][71] Matthew 2:1 states that: "Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king" and Luke 1:5 mentions the reign of Herod shortly before the birth of Jesus.^[22] Matthew also suggests that Jesus may have been as much as two years old at the time of the visit of the Magi and hence even older at the time of Herod's death.^[72] But the author of Luke also describes the birth as taking place during the first census of the Roman provinces of Syria and Iudaea, which is generally believed to have occurred in 6 AD/CE.^[73] Most scholars generally assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC/BCE.^[74] Other scholars assume that Jesus was born sometime between 7–2 BC/BCE.^[75]

The year of birth of Jesus has also been estimated in a manner that is independent of the Nativity accounts, by using information in the Gospel of John to work backwards from the statement in Luke 3:23 that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry.^[3][5] As discussed in the section below, by combining information from John 2:13 and John 2:20 with the writings of Flavius Josephus, it has been estimated that around 27-29 AD/CE, Jesus was "about thirty years of age".^[76][77] Some scholars thus estimate the year 28 AD/CE to be roughly the 32nd birthday of Jesus and the birth year of Jesus to be around 6-4 BC/BCE.^[3][5][78]

However, the common Gregorian calendar method for numbering years, in which the current year is 2012, is based on the decision of a monk Dionysius in the sixth century, to count the years from a point of reference (namely, Jesus’ birth) which he placed sometime between 2 BC and 1 AD.^[79] Although Christian feasts related to the Nativity have had specific dates (e.g. December 25 for Christmas) there is no historical evidence for the exact day or month of the birth of Jesus.^[80][81][82]

Years of ministry[link]

Israel Museum model of Herod's Temple, referred to in John 2:13.

There have been different approaches to estimating the date of the start of the ministry of Jesus.^{[3][76][77][83]} One approach, based on combining information from the Gospel of Luke with historical data about Emperor Tiberius yields a date around 28-29 AD/CE, while a second independent approach based on statements in the Gospel of John along with historical information from Josephus about the Temple in Jerusalem leads to a date around 27-29 AD/CE.^{[5][76][77][84][85][86]} A third method uses the date of the death of John the Baptist and the marriage of Herod Antipas to Herodias based on the writings of Josephus, and correlates it to Matthew 14:4.^[87][88][89]

The estimation of the date based on the Gospel of Luke relies on the statement in Luke 3:1-2 that the ministry of John the Baptist which preceded that of Jesus began "in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar".^[76] Given that Tiberius began his reign in 14 AD/CE, this yields a date about 28-29 AD/CE.^{[3][76][78][90][91]}

The estimation of the date based on the Gospel of John uses the statements in John 2:13 that Jesus went to the Temple in Jerusalem around the start of his ministry and in John 2:20 that "Forty and six years was this temple in building" at that time.^[5][76] According to Josephus (Ant 15.380) the temple reconstruction was started by Herod the Great in the 15th-18th year of his reign at about the time that Augustus arrived in Syria (Ant 15.354).^{[3][76][92][93]} Temple expansion and reconstruction was ongoing, and it was in constant reconstruction until it was destroyed in 70 AD/CE by the Romans.^[94] Given that it took 46 years of construction, the Temple visit in the Gospel of John has been estimated at around 27-29 AD/CE.^{[5][76][84][85][86][95]}

Although both the gospels and Josephus refer to Herod Antipas killing John the Baptist, they differ on the details, e.g. whether this act was a consequence of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias, as indicated in Matthew 14:4, or a pre-emptive measure by Herod which possibly took place before the marriage, as Josephus suggests in Ant 18.5.2.^{[96][97][98][99]} The exact year of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias is subject to debate among scholars.^[88] In his analysis of Herod's life, Harold Hoehner estimates that John the Baptist's imprisonment probably occurred around AD 30-31.^[100] The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia estimates the death of the Baptist to have occurred about AD 31-32.^[89] The death of John the Baptist relates to the end of the major Galilean ministry of Jesus, just before the half way point in the gospel narratives, before the start of Jesus' final journey to Jerusalem through Judea.^{[101][102][102][103]}

Luke 3:23 states that at the start of his ministry Jesus was "about 30 years of age", but the other gospels do not mention a specific age. However, in John 8:57 the Jews exclaimed to Jesus: "Thou art not yet fifty years old, and hast thou seen Abraham?" suggesting that he was much less than 50 years old during his ministry.^[5] The length of the ministry is subject to debate, based on the fact that the synoptic gospels mention only one passover during Jesus' ministry, often interpreted as implying that the ministry lasted approximately one year, whereas the Gospel of John records multiple passovers, implying that his ministry may have lasted at least three years.^{[3][5][104][105]}

Year of death[link]

A 1466 copy of Antiquities of the Jews.

A number of approaches have been used to estimate the year of the death of Jesus, including information from the canonical gospels, the chronology of the life of Paul the Apostle in the New Testament correlated with historical events, as well as different astronomical models, as discussed below.

All four canonical gospels report that Jesus was crucified at Calvary during the prefecture of Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect who governed Judaea from 26 to 36 AD/CE. The late 1st century Jewish historian Josephus,^[62] writing in Antiquities of the Jews (c. 93 AD/CE), and the early 2nd century Roman historian Tacitus,^[63] writing in The Annals (c. 116 AD/CE), also state that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus, though both writers use the title "procurator" instead of "prefect".^[64]

The estimation of the date of the conversion of Paul places the death of Jesus before this conversion, which is estimated at around 33-36 AD/CE.^{[4][106][107]} (Also see the estimation of the start of Jesus' ministry as a few years before this date above). The estimation of the year of Paul's conversion relies on a series of calculations working backwards from the well established date of his trial before Gallio in Achaea Greece (Acts 18:12-17) around 51-52 AD/CE, the meeting of Priscilla and Aquila which were expelled from Rome about 49 AD/CE and the 14-year period before returning to Jerusalem in Galatians 2:1.^{[4][106][107]} The remaining period is generally accounted for by Paul's missions (at times with Barnabas) such as those in Acts 11:25-26 and 2 Corinthians 11:23-33, resulting in the 33-36 AD/CE estimate.^{[4][106][107]}

For centuries, astronomers and scientists have used diverse computational methods to estimate the date of crucifixion, Isaac Newton being one of the first cases.^[65] Newton's method relied on the relative visibility of the crescent of the new moon and he suggested the date as Friday, April 23, 34 AD/CE.^[108] In 1990 astronomer Bradley E. Schaefer computed the date as Friday, April 3, 33 AD/CE.^[109] In 1991, John Pratt stated that Newton's method was sound, but included a minor error at the end. Pratt suggested the year 33 AD/CE as the answer.^[65] Using the completely different approach of a lunar eclipse model, Humphreys and Waddington arrived at the conclusion that Friday, April 3, 33 AD/CE was the date of the crucifixion.^{[66][110][111]}

Life and teachings in the New Testament[link]

Although the four canonical gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, are the main sources for the biography of Jesus’ life, other parts of the New Testament, such as the Pauline epistles which were likely written decades before them, also include references to key episodes in his life such as the Last Supper, as in 1 Corinthians 11:23-26.^{[112][113][114]} The Acts of the Apostles (10:37-38 and 19:4) refers to the early ministry of Jesus and its anticipation by John the Baptist.^[115][116] And Acts 1:1-11 says more about the Ascension episode (also mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16) than the canonical gospels.^[117][118]

According to the majority viewpoint, the Synoptic Gospels are the primary sources of historical information about Jesus.^[6][7][119] and of the religious movement he founded, but not everything contained in the gospels is considered to be historically reliable.^{[120][121][122][123][124]} Elements whose historical authenticity are disputed include the two accounts of the Nativity of Jesus, as well as the resurrection and certain details about the crucifixion.^{[125][126][127][128][129][130]} On one extreme, some Christian scholars maintain that the gospels are inerrant descriptions of the life of Jesus.^[131] On the other extreme, some scholars have concluded that the gospels provide no historical information about Jesus' life.^[132]

Canonical gospel accounts[link]

A 3rd century Greek papyrus of Luke.

Three of the four canonical gospels, namely Matthew, Mark, and Luke, are known as the synoptic Gospels, from the Greek σύν (syn "together") and ὄψις (opsis "view"), given that they display a high degree of similarity in content, narrative arrangement, language and paragraph structure.^{[133][134][135]} The presentation in the fourth canonical gospel, i.e. John, differs from these three in that it has more of a thematic nature rather than a narrative format.^[136][137] Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the synoptic gospels and the Gospel of John.^[136]

However, in general, the authors of the New Testament showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.^[138] The gospels were primarily written as theological documents in the context of early Christianity with the chronological timelines as a secondary consideration.^[139] One manifestation of the gospels being theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem.^[140]

Although the gospels do not provide enough details to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates, it is possible to draw from them a general picture of the life story of Jesus.^{[138][139][141]} However, as stated in John 21:25 the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus.^[142]

Gospel sources, similarities and differences[link]

Scholars have debated the sources for the gospels for millennia, and have proposed various hypotheses of how the synoptic gospels were written and how they influenced each other, going back to the Augustinian hypothesis in the 5th century.^[143] In the 20th and 21st centuries hypotheses such as the two-source, four-source, Farrer or the Markan priority hypothesis have been debated.^{[143][144][145]} Each hypothesis assumes a specific order in which the gospels were written, or that other as yet unknown and hypothetical documents such as the Q source or the M source influenced various gospels in various ways. Each hypotheses has had support among some scholars, while problems with and weaknesses in it have been pointed out by opponents.^{[143][144][145][146]}

Since the 2nd century attempts have been made to harmonize the gospel accounts into a single narrative; Tatian's Diatesseron perhaps being the first harmony and other works such as Augustine' book Harmony of the Gospels followed.^[147][148] A number of different approaches to gospel harmony have been proposed in the 20th century, but no single and unique harmony can be constructed.^[149] While some scholars argue that combining the four gospel stories into one story is tantamount to creating a fifth story different from each original, others see the gospels as blending together to give an overall and comprehensive picture of Jesus' teaching and ministry.^{[148][150][151][152]} Although there are differences in specific temporal sequences, and in the parables and miracles listed in each gospel, the flow of the key events such as Baptism, Transfiguration and Crucifixion and interactions with people such as the Apostles are shared among the gospel narratives.^{[138][139][153][154]}

Key elements and the five major milestones[link]

The five major milestones in the gospel narrative of the life of Jesus are his Baptism, Transfiguration, Crucifixion, Resurrection and Ascension.^{[155][156][157]} These are usually bracketed by two other episodes: his Nativity at the beginning and the sending of the Holy Spirit at the end.^[155][157] The gospel accounts of the teachings of Jesus are often presented in terms of specific categories involving his "works and words", e.g. his ministry, parables and miracles.^[158][159]

The gospels include a number discourses by Jesus on specific occasions, e.g. the Sermon on the Mount or the Farewell Discourse, and also include over 30 parables, spread throughout the narrative, often with themes that relate to the sermons.^[160] Parables represent a major component of the teachings of Jesus in the gospels, forming approximately one third of his recorded teachings, and John 14:10 positions them as the revelations of God the Father.^[161][162] The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracle of Jesus also often include teachings, providing an intertwining of his "words and works" in the gospels.^[159][163]

• 

  Nativity

• 

  Baptism

• 

  Temptation

• 

  Disciples and Apostles

• 

  Ministry

• 

  Teachings and Sermons

• 

  Parables

• 

  Miracles

• 

  Last Supper and Betrayal

• Decani.jpg

  Passion and Crucifixion

• 

  Resurrection and Appearances

• 

  Ascension

Genealogy and Nativity[link]

The accounts of the genealogy and Nativity of Jesus in the New Testament appear only in the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of Matthew. While there are documents outside of the New Testament which are more or less contemporary with Jesus and the gospels, many shed no light on the more biographical aspects of his life and these two gospel accounts remain the main sources of information on the genealogy and Nativity.^[141]

Genealogy[link]

Matthew begins his gospel in 1:1 with the genealogy of Jesus, and presents it before the account of the birth of Jesus, while Luke discusses the genealogy in chapter 3, after the Baptism of Jesus in Luke 3:22 when the voice from Heaven addresses Jesus and identifies him as the Son of God.^[164] At that point Luke traces Jesus' ancestry through Adam to God.^[164]

While Luke traces the genealogy upwards towards Adam and God, Matthew traces it downwards towards Jesus.^[165] Both gospels state that Jesus was begotten not by Joseph, but by God.^[166] Both accounts trace Joseph back to King David and from there to Abraham. These lists are identical between Abraham and David (except for one), but they differ almost completely between David and Joseph.^[167][168] Matthew gives Jacob as Joseph’s father and Luke says Joseph was the son of Heli. Attempts at explaining the differences between the genealogies have varied in nature, e.g. that Luke traces the genealogy through Mary while Matthew traces it through Joseph; or that Jacob and Heli were both fathers of Joseph, one being the legal father, after the death of Joseph's actual father—but there is no scholarly agreement on a resolution for the differences.^{[169][170][171]}

Nativity[link]

The Nativity is a prominent element in the Gospel of Luke, comprises over 10% of the text, and is three times the length of the nativity text in Matthew.^[172] Luke's account takes place mostly before the birth of Jesus and centers on Mary, while Matthew's takes place mostly after the birth of Jesus and centers on Joseph.^{[173][174][175]} According to Luke and Matthew, Jesus was born to Joseph and Mary, his betrothed, in Bethlehem. Both support the doctrine of the Virgin Birth in which Jesus was miraculously conceived in his mother's womb by the Holy Spirit, when his mother was still a virgin.^{[176][177][178][179]}

Luke is the only gospel to provide an account of the birth of John the Baptist, and uses it to draw parallels between the births of John and Jesus.^[180] Luke relates the two births in the visitation of Mary to Elizabeth^[172] and further connects the two births by stating that Mary and Elizabeth are cousins.^[181] In Luke 1:31-38 Mary learns from the angel Gabriel that she will conceive and bear a child called Jesus through the action of the Holy Spirit. When Mary is due to give birth, she and Joseph travel from Nazareth to Joseph's ancestral home in Bethlehem to register in the census of Quirinius. In Luke 2:1-7. Mary gives birth to Jesus and, having found no place in the inn, places the newborn in a manger. An angel visits the shepherds and sends them to adore the child in Luke 2:22. After presenting Jesus at the Temple, Joseph and Mary return home to Nazareth.^[174][182]

The nativity account in chapters 1 and 2 of the Gospel of Matthew appears to differ from Luke in implying that Jesus and his family are already living in Bethlehem.^[183] However, Matthew does not state that Joseph lived in Bethlehem prior to the birth of Jesus.^[184] Following his betrothal to Mary, Joseph is troubled in Matthew 1:19-20 because Mary is pregnant, but in the first of Joseph's three dreams an angel assures him not be afraid to take Mary as his wife, because her child was conceived by the Holy Spirit.^[185] In Matthew 1:1-12, the Wise Men or Magi bring gifts to the young Jesus after following a star which they believe was a sign that the King of the Jews had been born. King Herod hears of Jesus' birth from the Wise Men and tries to kill him by massacring all the male children in Bethlehem under the age of two (the Massacre of the Innocents).^[186] Before the massacre, Joseph is warned by an angel in his dream and the family flees to Egypt and remains there until Herod's death, after which they leave Egypt and settle in Nazareth to avoid living under the authority of Herod's son and successor Archelaus.^[185][187]

Early life and profession[link]

In the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, Jesus’ childhood home is identified as the town of Nazareth in Galilee. Joseph, husband of Mary, appears in descriptions of Jesus’ childhood and no mention is made of him thereafter.^[188] The New Testament books of Matthew, Mark, and Galatians mention Jesus’ brothers and sisters, but the Greek word adelphos in these verses, has also been translated as brother or kinsman.^[189]

Luke 2:41–52 includes an incident in the childhood of Jesus, where he was found teaching in the temple by his parents after being lost. The Finding in the Temple is the sole event between Jesus’ infancy and baptism mentioned in any of the canonical gospels.

In Mark 6:3 Jesus is called a tekton (τέκτων in Greek), usually understood to mean carpenter. Matthew 13:55 says he was the son of a tekton.^[50]:170 Tekton has been traditionally translated into English as "carpenter", but it is a rather general word (from the same root that leads to "technical" and "technology") that could cover makers of objects in various materials, even builders.^[190][191]

Beyond the New Testament accounts, the specific association of the profession of Jesus with woodworking is a constant in the traditions of the 1st and 2nd centuries and Justin Martyr (d. ca. 165) wrote that Jesus made yokes and ploughs.^[192]

Baptism and temptation[link]

Trevisani's depiction of the typical baptismal scene with the sky opening and the Holy Spirit descending as a dove, 1723.^[193]

In the gospels, the accounts of the Baptism of Jesus are always preceded by information about John the Baptist and his ministry.^{[153][194][195]} In these accounts, John was preaching for penance and repentance for the remission of sins and encouraged the giving of alms to the poor (as in Luke 3:11) as he baptized people in the area of the River Jordan around Perea about the time of the commencement of the ministry of Jesus. The Gospel of John (1:28) specifies "Bethany beyond the Jordan", i.e. Bethabara in Perea, when it initially refers to it and later John 3:23 refers to further baptisms in Ænon "because there was much water there".^[196][197]

The four gospels are not the only references to John's ministry around the River Jordan. In Acts 10:37-38, Peter refers to how the ministry of Jesus followed "the baptism which John preached".^[116] In the Antiquities of the Jews (18.5.2) 1st century historian Josephus also wrote about John the Baptist and his eventual death in Perea.^[198][199]

In the gospels, John had been foretelling (as in Luke 3:16) of the arrival of a someone "mightier than I".^[200][201] Apostle Paul also refers to this anticipation by John in Acts 19:4.^[115] In Matthew 3:14, upon meeting Jesus, the Baptist states: "I need to be baptized by you." However, Jesus persuades John to baptize him nonetheless.^[202] In the baptismal scene, after Jesus emerges from the water, the sky opens and a voice from Heaven states: "This is my beloved Son with whom I am well pleased". The Holy Spirit then descends upon Jesus as a dove in Matthew 3:13-17, Mark 1:9-11, Luke 3:21-23.^{[200][201][202]} In John 1:29-33 rather than a direct narrative, the Baptist bears witness to the episode.^[201][203] This is one of two cases in the gospels where a voice from Heaven calls Jesus "Son", the other being in the Transfiguration of Jesus episode.^[204][205]

After the baptism, the synoptic gospels proceed to describe the Temptation of Jesus, but John 1:35-37 narrates the first encounter between Jesus and two of his future disciples, who were then disciples of John the Baptist.^[206][207] In this narrative, the next day the Baptist sees Jesus again and calls him the Lamb of God and the "two disciples heard him speak, and they followed Jesus".^{[208][209][210]} One of the disciples is named Andrew, but the other remains unnamed, and Raymond E. Brown raises the question of his being the author of the Gospel of John himself.^[203][211] In the Gospel of John, the disciples follow Jesus thereafter, and bring other disciples to him, and Acts 18:24-19:6 portrays the disciples of John as eventually merging with the followers of Jesus.^[203][206]