Georgian (, ) is the
native language of the
Georgians and the
official language of
Georgia, a country in the
Caucasus.
Georgian is the primary language of about 4 million people in Georgia itself, and of another 500,000 abroad. It is the literary language for all regional subgroups of the Georgian ethnos, including those who speak other Kartvelian (South Caucasian) languages: Svans, Mingrelians, and the Laz. Judaeo-Georgian, sometimes considered a separate Jewish language, though some just consider it Georgian, is spoken by an additional 20,000 in Georgia and 65,000 elsewhere (primarily 60,000 in Israel).
Classification
Georgian is the most pervasive of the
South Caucasian languages, a family that also includes
Svan and
Megrelian (chiefly spoken in Northwest Georgia) and
Laz (chiefly spoken along the Black Sea coast of Turkey, from Melyat,
Rize to the Georgian frontier).
Dialects
Dialects of Georgian include
Imeretian,
Racha-
Lechkhumian,
Gurian,
Adjarian,
Imerkhevian (in Turkey),
Kartlian,
Kakhetian,
Ingilo (in Azerbaijan),
Tush,
Khevsur,
Mokhevian,
Pshavian,
Fereydan dialect in Iran in
Fereydunshahr and
Fereydan,
Mtiuletian,
Meskhetian.
History
Georgian shared a
common ancestral language with and is believed to have separated from
Svan and
Mingrelian/
Laz in the first millennium BC. Based on the degree of change, linguists (e.g.
Klimov, T. Gamkrelidze, G. Machavariani) conjecture that the earliest split occurred in the second millennium BC or earlier, separating
Svan from the other languages. Megrelian and Laz separated from Georgian roughly a thousand years later.
The earliest allusion to spoken Georgian may be a passage of the Roman grammarian Marcus Cornelius Fronto in the 2nd century AD: Fronto imagines the Iberians addressing the emperor Marcus Aurelius in their incomprehensible tongue.
The evolution of Georgian into a written language was a consequence of the conversion of the Georgian elite to Christianity in the mid-4th century. The new literary language was constructed on an already well-established cultural infrastructure, appropriating the functions, conventions, and status of Aramaic, the literary language of pagan Georgia, and the new national religion. The first Georgian texts are inscriptions and palimpsests dating to the 5th century. Georgian has a rich literary tradition. The oldest surviving literary work in Georgian is the "Martyrdom of the Holy Queen Shushanik" (''Tsamebay tsmidisa Shushanikisi dedoplisay'') by Iakob Tsurtaveli, from the 5th century AD. The Georgian national epic, "The Knight in the Panther's Skin" (''Vepkhistqaosani''), by Shota Rustaveli, dates from the 12th century.
The history of Georgian can conventionally be divided into:
Early Old Georgian: 5th-8th centuries
Classical Old Georgian: 9th-11th centuries
Middle Georgian: 12th-18th centuries
Modern Georgian: 18th-21st centuries
Sounds
Consonants
Symbols on the left are those of the
IPA and those on the right are of the
Georgian alphabet.
+Georgian consonants
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Labial consonant>Labial
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Dental consonant>Dental/Alveolar
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Postalveolar consonant>Post-alveolar
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Velar consonant>Velar
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Uvular consonant>Uvular
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Glottal consonant>Glottal
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მ
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ნ
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aspiration (phonetics)>aspirated
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ფ
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თ
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ქ
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voiced consonant>voiced
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ბ
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დ
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გ
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ejective consonant>ejective
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პ
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ტ
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კ
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ყ
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!plain
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ც
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ჩ
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voiced consonant>voiced
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ძ
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ჯ
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ejective consonant>ejective
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წ
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ჭ
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!voiceless
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ს
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შ
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ჰ
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!voiced
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ვ
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ზ
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ჟ
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რ
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ლ
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# Opinions differ on how to classify and ; classifies them as post-velar, argues that they range from velar to uvular according to context, and many other scholars treat the phonemes as purely velar.
Vowels
{| class="wikitable"
|+Vowels
!
!
Front
!
Back
|- align="center"
!
Close
| ი
| უ
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!
Mid
| ე
| ო
|- align="center"
!
Open
|colspan="2"| ა
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Prosody
Prosody in Georgian involves stress, intonation, and rhythm. Stress is very weak, and linguists disagree as to where stress occurs in words. Jun, Vicenik, and Lofstedt have proposed that Georgian stress and intonation are the result of
pitch accents on the first syllable of a word and near the end of a phrase. The rhythm of Georgian speech is
syllable-timed.
Phonotactics
Georgian contains many "harmonic clusters" involving two consonants of a similar type (voiced, aspirated, or ejective) which are pronounced with only a single release; e.g.,
ბგერა ''bgera'' (sound),
ცხოვრება ''cxovreba'' (life), and
წყალი ''c'q'ali'' (water). There are also frequent
consonant clusters, sometimes involving more than six consonants in a row, as may be seen in words like გვფრცქვნი ''gvprckvni'' ("You peel us") and მწვრთნელი ''mc'vrtneli'' ("trainer").
Vicenik has observed that Georgian vowels following ejective stops have creaky voice and suggests this may be one cue distinguishing ejectives from their aspirated and voiced counterparts.
Writing system
Georgian has been written in a variety of scripts over its history. Currently one alphabet, mkhedruli ("military"), is almost completely dominant; the others are mostly of interest to scholars reading historical documents.
Mkhedruli has 33 letters in common use; a half dozen more are now obsolete. The letters of mkhedruli correspond to the sounds of the Georgian language.
According to the traditional accounts written down by Leonti Mroveli in the 11th century, the first Georgian alphabet was created by the first King of Caucasian Iberia (also called Kartli), Pharnavaz in the 3rd century BC. However, the first examples of that alphabet, or its modified version, date from the 5th century AD. Over many centuries, the alphabet was modernized. There are now three completely different Georgian alphabets. These alphabets are called asomtavruli (capitals), nuskhuri (small letters) and mkhedruli. The first two are used together as capital and small letters and they form a single alphabet used in the Georgian Orthodox Church and called khutsuri (priests' [alphabet]).
In mkhedruli, there are no separate forms for capital letters. Sometimes, however, a capital-like effect, called mtavruli (title or heading), is achieved by scaling and positioning the ordinary letters so that their vertical sizes are identical and they rest on the baseline with no descenders. These capital-like letters are often used in page headings, chapter titles, monumental inscriptions, and the like.
Grammar
Morphology
Georgian is an agglutinative language. There are certain prefixes and suffixes that are joined together in order to build a verb. In some cases, there can be up to 8 different morphemes in one verb at the same time. An example can be ''ageshenebinat'' ("you (pl) had built"). The verb can be broken down to parts: ''a-g-e-shen-eb-in-a-t''. Each morpheme here contributes to the meaning of the verb tense or the person who has performed the verb. The verb conjugation also exhibits polypersonalism; a verb may potentially include morphemes representing both the subject and the object.
Morphophonology
In Georgian morphophonology, syncope is a common phenomenon. When a suffix (especially the plural suffix -''eb''-) is attached to a word which has either of the vowels ''a'' or ''e'' in the last syllable, this vowel is, in most words, lost. For example, ''megobari'' means "friend." To say "friends," one says, ''megobØrebi'' (''megobrebi''), with the loss of ''a'' in the last syllable of the word root.
Inflection
Georgian has seven noun cases: nominative, ergative, dative, genitive, instrumental, adverbial and vocative. An interesting feature of Georgian is that, while the subject of a sentence is generally in the nominative case, and the object is in the accusative case (or dative), in Georgian, one can find this reversed in many situations (this depends mainly on the character of the verb). This is called the dative construction. In the past tense of the transitive verbs, and in the present tense of the verb "to know", the subject is in the ergative case.
Syntax
Georgian is a left-branching language, in which adjectives precede nouns, possessors precede possessions, objects normally precede verbs, and postpositions are used instead of prepositions.
Each postposition (whether a suffix or a separate word) requires the modified noun to be in a specific case. (This is similar to the way prepositions govern specific cases in many Indo-European languages such as German, Latin, or Russian.)
Georgian is a pro-drop language: both subject and object pronouns are frequently omitted except for emphasis or to resolve ambiguity.
A study by Skopeteas ''et al.'' concluded that Georgian word order tends to place the focus of a sentence immediately before the verb, and the topic before the focus. A subject–object–verb (SOV) word order is common in idiomatic expressions and when the focus of a sentence is on the object. A subject–verb–object (SVO) word order is common when the focus is on the subject, or in longer sentences. Object-initial word orders (OSV or OVS) are also possible, but less common. Verb-initial word orders including both subject and object (VSO or VOS) are extremely rare.
Georgian has no grammatical gender; even the pronouns are gender-neutral.
Georgian has no articles. Therefore, for example, "guest", "a guest" and "the guest" are said in the same way. In relative clauses, however, it is possible to establish the meaning of the definite article through use of some particles.
Vocabulary
Georgian has a rich
word-derivation system. By using a root, and adding some definite prefixes and suffixes, one can derive many nouns and adjectives from the root. For example, from the root -''Kart''-, the following words can be derived: ''Kart
veli'' (a Georgian person), ''Kart
uli'' (the Georgian language) and
''Sakart
velo'' (Georgia).
Most Georgian surnames end in -''dze'' ("son") (Western Georgia), -''shvili'' ("child") (Eastern Georgia), -''ia'' (Western Georgia, Samegrelo), -''ani'' (Western Georgia, Svaneti), -''uri'' (Eastern Georgia), etc. The ending -''eli'' is a particle of nobility, equivalent to French ''de'', German ''von'' or Polish -''ski''.
Georgian has a vigesimal number system, based on the counting system of 20, like Basque or French. In order to express a number greater than 20 and less than 100, first the number of 20s in the number is stated and the remaining number is added. For example, 93 is expressed as ოთხმოცდაცამეტი - ''otkh-m-ots-da-tsamet'i'' (lit. four-times-twenty-and-thirteen).
Examples
Word formations
Georgian has a word derivation system, which allows the derivation of nouns from verb roots both with prefixes and suffixes. For example:
From the root -''ts'er''- ("write"), the words ''ts'erili'' ("letter") and ''mts'erali'' ("writer") are derived.
From the root -''tsa''- ("give"), the word ''gadatsema'' ("broadcast") is derived.
From the root -''tsda''- ("try"), the word ''gamotsda'' ("exam") is derived.
From the root -''gav''- ("resemble"), the words ''msgavsi'' ("similar") and ''msgavseba'' ("similarity") are derived.
From the root -''šen''- ("build"), the word ''šenoba'' ("building") is derived.
From the root -''tskh''- ("bake"), the word ''namtskhvari'' ("cake") is derived.
From the root -''tsiv''- ("cold"), the word ''matsivari'' ("refrigerator") is derived.
From the root -''pr''- ("fly"), the words ''tvitmprinavi'' ("plane") and ''aprena'' ("take-off") are derived.
It is also possible to derive verbs from nouns:
From the noun -''omi''- ("war"), the verb ''omob'' ("wage war") is derived.
From the noun -''sadili''- ("lunch"), the verb ''sadilob'' ("eat lunch") is derived.
From the noun -''sauzme'' ("breakfast"), the verb ''ts'asauzmeba'' ("eat a little breakfast") is derived; the preverb ''ts'a''- in Georgian could add the meaning "''VERB''ing ''a little''."
From the noun -''sakhli''- ("home"), the verb ''gadasakhleba'' (the infinite form of the verb "to relocate, to move") is derived.
Likewise, verbs can be derived from adjectives:
From the adjective -''ts'iteli''- ("red"), the verb ''gats'itleba'' (the infinite form of both "to blush" and "to make one blush") is derived. This kind of derivation can be done with many adjectives in Georgian. Other examples can be:
From the adjective -''brma'' ("blind"), the verbs ''dabrmaveba'' (the infinite form of both "to become blind" and "to blind someone") are derived.
From the adjective -''lamazi''- ("beautiful"), the verb ''galamazeba'' (the infinite form of the verb "to become beautiful") is derived.
Words that begin with multiple consonants
In Georgian many nouns and adjectives begin with two or more contiguous consonants.
Some linguists assert that almost half of the words in Georgian begin with double consonants. This is because most syllables in the language begin with certain two consonants. Some examples of words that begin with double consonants are:
, (''ts'q'ali''), "water"
* სწორი, (''sts'ori''), "correct"
* რძე , (''rdze''), "milk"
* თმა, (''tma''), "hair"
* მთა, (''mta''), "mountain"
* ცხენი, (''tskheni''), "horse"
There are also many words that begin with three contiguous consonants:
* თქვენ, (''tkven''), "you (plural)"
* მწვანე, (''mts'vane''), "green"
* ცხვირი, (''tskhviri''), "nose"
* ტკბილი, (''t'k'bili''), "sweet"
* მტკივნეული, (''mt'k'ivneuli''), "painful"
* ჩრდილოეთი, (''črdiloeti''), "north"
There are also a few words in Georgian that begin with four contiguous consonants. Examples are:
* მკვლელი, (''mk'vleli''), "murderer"
* მკვდარი, (''mk'vdari''), "dead"
* მთვრალი, (''mtvrali''), "drunk"
* მწკრივი; (''mts'k'rivi''), "row"
There can also be some extreme cases in Georgian. For example, the following word begins with ''six'' contiguous consonants:
* მწვრთნელი, (''mts'vrtneli''), "trainer"
And the following words begin with ''eight'' consonants:
* გვფრცქვნი (''gvprtskvni''), "you peel us"
* გვბრდღვნი (''gvbrdgvni''), "you tear us"
Language example
Article 1 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Georgian:
ყველა ადამიანი იბადება თავისუფალი და თანასწორი თავისი ღირსებითა და უფლებებით. მათ მინიჭებული აქვთ გონება და სინდისი და ერთმანეთის მიმართ უნდა იქცეოდნენ ძმობის სულისკვეთებით.
Transliteration:
Qvela adamiani ibadeba t'avisup'ali da t'anascori tavisi ġirsebit'a da uplebebit'. Mat miničebuli ak'vt' goneba da sindisi da ert'manet'is mimart' unda ik'c'eodnen żmobis suliskvet'ebit'.
Translation:
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
See also
Culture of Georgia
Georgian in Iran
1978 Tbilisi Demonstrations
Georgians in Turkey
References
Bibliography
Zaza Aleksidze. ''Epistoleta Tsigni'', Tbilisi, 1968, 150 pp (in Georgian)
Korneli Danelia, Zurab Sarjveladze. ''Questions of Georgian Paleography'', Tbilisi, 1997, 150 pp (in Georgian, English summary)
Pavle Ingorokva. Georgian inscriptions of antique.- Bulletin of ENIMK, vol. X, Tbilisi, 1941, pp. 411–427 (in Georgian)
Ivane Javakhishvili. ''Georgian Paleography'', Tbilisi, 1949, 500 pp (in Georgian)
Elene Machavariani. ''The graphical basis of the Georgian Alphabet'', Tbilisi, 1982, 107 pp (in Georgian, French summary)
Ramaz Pataridze. ''The Georgian Asomtavruli'', Tbilisi, 1980, 600 pp (in Georgian)
"Great discovery" (about the expedition of Academician Levan Chilashvili).- Newspaper ''Kviris Palitra'', Tbilisi, April 21–27, 2003 (in Georgian)
External links
Grammars
Reference grammar of Georgian by Howard Aronson (SEELRC, Duke University)
Online Georgian Grammar by P. J. Hillery
Dictionaries
Georgian English, English Georgian online dictionary
English-Georgian, German-Georgian and Russian-Georgian dictionaries
English-Georgian HTML Dictionary
Georgian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)
Software
Georgian fonts, compliant with Unicode 4.0, also available for MAC OS 9 or X
A keyboard for typing georgian characters for firefox
Literature and culture
About Georgia - Language and Alphabet
Summer School of Georgian at Tbilisi State University
Learn how to write Georgian hand-written letters correctly
Category:Kartvelian languages
Category:Languages of Georgia (country)
Category:Languages of Abkhazia
Category:Languages of Russia
Category:Languages of Turkey
Category:Languages of Azerbaijan
Category:Languages of Iran
Category:Agglutinative languages
xmf:ქორთული ნინა
af:Georgies
ab:Ақырҭ бызшәа
ar:لغة جورجية
arc:ܠܫܢܐ ܓܘܪܓܝܐ
az:Gürcü dili
zh-min-nan:Gruzia-gí
be:Грузінская мова
be-x-old:Грузінская мова
bs:Gruzijski jezik
br:Jorjieg
bg:Грузински език
ca:Georgià
cv:Грузин чĕлхи
ceb:Pinulongang Heyorhiyano
cs:Gruzínština
da:Georgisk (sprog)
de:Georgische Sprache
et:Gruusia keel
el:Γεωργιανή γλώσσα
es:Idioma georgiano
eo:Kartvela lingvo
eu:Georgiera
fa:زبان گرجی
fr:Géorgien
ga:Seoirsis
gl:Lingua xeorxiana
ko:조지아어
hy:Վրացերեն
hr:Gruzijski jezik
id:Bahasa Georgia
os:Гуырдзиаг æвзаг
is:Georgíska
it:Lingua georgiana
he:גאורגית
jv:Basa Georgia
ka:ქართული ენა
ky:Грузин тили
sw:Kigeorgia
ku:Zimanê gurcî
la:Lingua Georgiana
lv:Gruzīnu valoda
lt:Gruzinų kalba
li:Georgisch
hu:Grúz nyelv
mk:Грузиски јазик
mr:जॉर्जियन भाषा
mzn:گورجی زوون
ms:Bahasa Georgia
nl:Georgisch
ja:グルジア語
no:Georgisk
nn:Georgisk
mhr:Грузин йылме
pnb:جارجیائی
pl:Język gruziński
pt:Língua georgiana
crh:Gürci tili
ro:Limba georgiană
qu:Kartul simi
ru:Грузинский язык
sco:Georgian leid
simple:Georgian language
sk:Gruzínčina
sl:Gruzinščina
sr:Грузијски језик
sh:Грузијски језик
fi:Georgian kieli
sv:Georgiska
tl:Wikang Heyorhiyano
ta:சியார்சிய மொழி
th:ภาษาจอร์เจีย
tg:Забони гурҷӣ
tr:Gürcüce
udm:Грузин кыл
uk:Грузинська мова
ug:گرۇزىن تىلى
vi:Tiếng Gruzia
diq:Gurciki
bat-smg:Grozėnu kalba
zh:格鲁吉亚语