WebCite is a service that archives web pages on demand. Authors can subsequently cite the archived web pages through WebCite, in addition to citing the original URL of the web page. Readers are able to retrieve the archived web pages indefinitely, without regard to whether the original web page is revised or removed (so-called link rot). Such archiving is especially important in the academic context. WebCite is a non-profit consortium supported by publishers and editors, and it can be used by individual authors and readers without charge. It is a member of International Internet Preservation Consortium.

Rather than relying on a web crawler which archives pages in a "random" fashion, WebCite users who want to cite web pages in a scholarly article can initiate the archiving process. They then cite—instead of or in addition to the original URL—a WebCite address, with an identifier that specifies a snapshot of the contents of the particular page they meant to cite.

One may archive all types of web content, including HTML web pages, PDF files, style sheets, JavaScript and digital images. WebCite also archives metadata about the collected resources such as access time, MIME type, and content length. This metadata is useful in establishing the authenticity and provenance of the archived collection.

History[link]

Conceived in 1997 by Gunther Eysenbach, WebCite was publicly described the following year when an article on Internet quality control declared that such a service could also measure the citation impact of web pages.^[2] In the same year, a pilot service was set up at the address webcite.net (see archived screenshots of that service at the Wayback Machine (archived February 3, 1999)). Shortly thereafter, Google and the Internet Archive entered the market, seemingly reducing the need for a service like WebCite.

The WebCite idea was revived in 2003, when a study published in the journal Science concluded that no appropriate and agreed-on archiving solution yet existed for publishing.^[3] Neither the Internet Archive nor Google allows for “on-demand” archiving by authors, and they do not have interfaces to scholarly journals and publishers to automate the archiving of cited links. By 2008, over 200 journals had begun routinely using WebCite.^[4]

WebCite is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium.^[5] It "feeds its content" to other digital preservation projects, including the Internet Archive.^[5] Lawrence Lessig, an American academic who writes extensively on copyright and technology, used WebCite in his amicus brief in the United States Supreme Court case of MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.^[6]

Copyright issues[link]

WebCite maintains the legal position that its archiving activities^[4] are allowed by the copyright doctrines of fair use and implied license.^[5] To support the fair use argument, WebCite notes that its archived copies are transformative, socially valuable for academic research, and not harmful to the market value of any copyrighted work.^[5] WebCite argues that caching and archiving web pages is not considered a copyright infringement when the archiver offers the copyright owner an opportunity to "opt-out" of the archive system, thus creating an implied license.^[5] To that end, WebCite will not archive Web sites in violation of "do-not-cache" and "no-archive" metadata, as well as robot exclusion standards, the absence of which creates an "implied license" for web archive services to preserve the content.^[5]

In a similar case involving Google's web caching activities, on January 19, 2006, the United States District Court for the District of Nevada agreed with that argument in the case of Field v. Google (CV-S-04-0413-RCJ-LRL), holding that fair use and an "implied license" meant that Google's caching of Web pages did not constitute copyright violation.^[5] The "implied license" referred to general Internet standards.^[5]

Process[link]

WebCite allows on-demand prospective archiving. It is not crawler-based; pages are only archived if the citing author or publisher requests it. No cached copy will appear in a WebCite search unless the author or another person has specifically cached it beforehand.

To initiate the caching and archiving of a page, an author may use WebCite's "archive" menu option or create a WebCite bookmarklet that will allow web surfers to cache pages just by clicking a button in their bookmarks folder.

One can retrieve or cite archived pages through a transparent format such as

http://webcitation.org/query?url=URL&date=DATE

where URL is the URL that was archived, and DATE indicates the caching date. For example,

http://webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMain_Page&date=2008-03-04

or the alternate short form http://webcitation.org/5W56XTY5h retrieves an archived copy of the URL http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page that is closest to the date of March 4, 2008.

It is important to note that Webcite does not work for pages which contain a no-cache tag. WebCite respects the author's request to not have their web page cached.

You can archive a page simply loading a link like this in your browser:

http://webcitation.org/archive?url=urltoarchive&email=youremail

replacing urltoarchive with the full URL of the page to be archived, and youremail with your e-mail address.

Outages[link]

June–July 2009 outages[link]

In June 2009, attempts to create new citations failed. The project's creator wrote on June 19 that increased server load generated by Wikipedia's WebCiteBOT prompted migration of the service to a new server.^[7] By the end of June 2009, attempts to access the project's website returned a message that it was "undergoing maintenance", and previously archived links became inaccessible. The archiving service resumed operation by the second week of July 2009, and previously archived links became accessible again.^[8]

September 2011 outage[link]

On September 4, 2011 Gunther Eysenbach, owner of the "webcitation.org" domain, was notified that not only were new citation requests producing errors, but previous citations were failing as well. Subsequently the following message appeared on various WebCite pages:

Sep 6, 2011 - On Sep 3rd (just before the long labor day weekend), WebCite went down due to a hardware failure. While we are restoring the database from our backups, no new snapshots can be made, and old snapshots may be temporarily unavailable. We apologize for any inconvenience caused.

On September 11, 2011 at 7:38pm EST, WebCite appeared to be up-and-running again:

Sep 11, 2011 - We apologize for the recent outage following the week of Sep 3rd, 2011. WebCite went down due to a hardware failure, and restoring our huge database took a couple of days. Everything should be back to normal. We apologize for any inconvenience caused.

Business model[link]

The term WebCite is a registered trademark.^[9] WebCite does not charge individual users, journal editors and publishers^[10] any fee to use their service. WebCite earns revenue from publishers who want to "have their publications analyzed and cited webreferences archived",^[11] and accepts donations. Early support was from the University of Toronto.^[12]

See also[link]

Internet portal

• Digital preservation
• Uniform Resource Locator
• Wayback Machine
• Web archiving

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. No cleanup reason has been specified. Please help improve this article if you can; the talk page may contain suggestions. (February 2010)

Masood Akhtar is popular Pakistani singer. He has fan base stretching from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pashtun areas of Balochistan (Pakistan) to southern parts of Afghanistan, and has achieved much recognition. Masood sings in several languages: Pashto, Urdu, Hindko

Origin[link]

Masood was born in Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan. It was here that Masood developed his interest in music. He started singing at the age of 24 on Avt Kyyber.

Career[link]

Hailing from Mardan, the 26-year-old holds a degree in Economics from the University of Peshawar. He also started his career as a model from Peshawar seven years ago while he was a student. “I had always known that I would join showbiz. I wanted to test my talent and so I tried modeling, acting and singing in Urdu, Hindko and Pashto languages. Eventually I became an anchor for the live music countdown show, Khyber Beats on AVT Khyber.

He got his break from the Pashto song, Zama ashna razi written by Pashto poet and drama writer Muhibullah Shauk. The song remained on the programme’s top 10 charts for several weeks. Masood is surprised that although he had been singing Urdu songs on PTV and has been acting in tele films and dramas since 1999, he eventually got recognition through a Pashto song on a Pashto channel.

“There is a lot of potential in upcoming Pashto singers as musical trends are changing. Young singers are breaking away from the traditional way of singing and experimenting a great deal,” he says. But he says that personally he does not like to experiment much. “I am not in favour of remixes, as is the trend these days. I believe in originality; it is much more difficult and challenging for a singer to deliver something original and leave a long-lasting impression on the listeners.”

The growth of artistes had been stunted due to a ban on live music shows and a dearth of good music recording companies in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Masood believes that this has been the reason why many good Pashto singers remain unheard of to date. “Pushto music is rich and it only needs a good market to make a place for itself worldwide.” Earlier, classical Pashto singers with rich voices focused more on beautiful lyrics and music. But today, singers have to project their songs through music videos. The concept of music countdown shows and charts has also been introduced recently on Pashto channels. Masood believes that this is a positive change as well, as high quality music videos are being produced that will help Pashto singers access international audiences.

The singer’s real passion, however, remains acting and he wants to pursue it seriously as a career: “I have reached this conclusion after testing my potential in various avenues of showbiz.” He has worked for PTV producer Ijaz Ahmed Niazi in an Urdu telefilm, Naqsh-i-Wafa and also in another play, Bandh mutthi Mein Suraj, based on the Kashmir issue. “Recently, I also performed in a play for AVT Khyber on the situation after the earthquake, Da Zalay Akhtar.” Presently, he is busy with the 13-episode Pashto drama serial, Grewaan, by director Fahmeed Khan.

He admits enjoying playing a TV anchor as well: “It is a real test of sharp-mindedness and live delivery. I got so attached to the show that after I left, I was sad for days.” Presently, he is anchoring a talent hunt show and already has big plans for the future. “I am working on my second album and have recorded two songs. I intend to release it soon but only if I find a good releasing company.”

He says he has been working under a lot of pressure and recently went to Chitral on a month-long holiday to escape the crank calls by fans. “I couldn’t even step out of my house, but my family has been a big support, particularly my father.” He says he has taken things in stride now. “Everyone has to pay a price and so have I. But I’m ready to face the problems attached with it because I’m struggling to become a known voice in international music.”

External links[link]

• Masood Akhter
• Masood Akhter
• Masood Akhter

This article's references may not meet Wikipedia's guidelines for reliable sources. Please help by checking whether the references meet the criteria for reliable sources. (January 2012)

Lisa "Elle" Fowler (born May 25, 1988)^[1] and Laura Elizabeth "Blair" Fowler (born April 1, 1993)^[2] are sisters who post beauty and style-related tutorials on YouTube under the monikers AllThatGlitters21 (Elle) and juicystar07 (Blair). Elle first stumbled into the beauty and fashion world of YouTube the summer of 2008, and soon convinced Blair to begin filming videos as well. Their videos of makeup tutorials and clothing hauls quickly garnered a large audience and rose in popularity. As of July 2011, Elle's videos on AllThatGlitters21 have been viewed more than 82 million times, while Blair's channel juicystar07 has received over 142 million views.^[3][4]

Both sisters also post vlogs under the monikers EllesGlitterGossip and otherjuicystar07, allowing subscribers to keep track of their daily lives outside of the YouTube community.^[5] Their respective second YouTube channels move away from purely beauty and fashion-related videos and branch into other topics such as health & fitness, their daily musings, and other random interests.^[6][7]

Backgrounds[link]

Elle Fowler was born Lisa Sylvia Fowler on May 25, 1988 to Dr. Scott Fowler, a physician, OB/GYN, with Holston Medical Group, and Melisa Fowler.^[8] Elle is the eldest of three: Blair Fowler was born Laura Elizabeth Fowler on April 1, 1993 in Augusta, Georgia and the family's youngest, "Hannah Fowler" born Emily Fowler, was born several years later.^[1][9] After Blair's fifth birthday, the family relocated from New Orleans to Kingsport, Tennessee,^[10] where Blair attended Dobyns-Bennett High School.^[8]

They recently moved to Los Angeles, California. A joint video gained over 500,000 views,^[11] and by August 2010 they together had 130 million views combined on all of their videos.^[12] They have appeared in Seventeen, where Elle had previously interned, as a Beauty and Hair Smarties. The sisters have also appeared in teen fashion magazine, Teen Vogue. Most recently, the two created an online lifestyle website titled elleandblair.com.^[13] In 2011, Blair was the youngest ever makeup artist at New York City Fashion Week, where she and Elle also modelled in a show.^[14] In 2010 they signed an agreement with Kinectic Content to star in a reality TV show.^[15] .^[1][2]

YouTube career[link]

Elle and Blair got their first exposure outside of YouTube when Seventeen invited them to become "Beauty Smarties" for the magazine, featuring them in a few issues so they could offer makeup tips to readers. Their first media appearance came not long after, when Good Morning America interviewed them for a segment on hauling. Elle said in the interview, "I think it's really fun for a girl to live vicariously through someone else and see what other cute girls that they relate to are buying." According to the segment, their YouTube careers have become so successful that Blair had to leave high school and become homeschooled, allowing her more time to focus on her videos.^[16] Elle and Blair are at the forefront of the "hauling" phenomenon, and have been featured in a number of news segments and interviews on the subject after their Good Morning America appearance. They were featured on a KTLA segment on hauling alongside macbarbie07, a friend of Blair's and fellow beauty guru. The girls claimed to have a combined number of 9,000,000 subscribers, and Elle pointed out that a watch she showed in a video sold out almost immediately after mentioned it—a testament to the popularity of their videos. Another KTLA segment featuring Elle and Blair pointed out that despite their growing number of fans, they've also encountered a great deal of backlash. "The Fowler sisters have gotten lots of criticism for being fake and for hiding the fact that they were being compensated by some of these big companies."^[17] Other segments have also been critical of the hauling trend, using Elle and Blair's videos as examples of how haul videos have become extremely influential and may fuel shopping addiction and cultural idealizations of consumption and materialism.^[18]

With features in Marie Claire,^[19] Glamour,^[20] Seventeen,^[8] and other national publications, as well as prominent news outlets such as Good Morning America, ABC News with Diane Sawyer,^[21] the New York Times Style Section^[22] and the Wall Street Journal, Elle and Blair Fowler have a wide-reaching influence.

In 2011, Blair was contacted by Disney and offered a background role as Leah in Prom. This was Blair's first film role, and she is not sure whether or not she would like to pursue acting. However, she and her sister are currently working on other projects, including a cell phone accessory line, a reality television show and a book.^[23]

Most recently, the sisters were nominated as a duo for the 2011 Teen Choice Awards' "Choice Web Star" category, but lost to Rebecca Black.

Elle and Blair currently serve as the hosts and main judges of the webseries, Beauty Vlogger Boot Camp. The show revolves around young men and women who are aspiring to be online gurus. Contestants compete in a beauty-related challenge in each episode, with one person getting eliminated before the next round begins.^[24]

In May 2012, Elle and Blair announced that, in conjuction with Blush.com, they would be releasing their first make up line called Skylark. The sisters have said that the products with be released as soon as they are completed which is due to be Fall 2012. TeenVogue revealed that the first 2 products to be released will be 2 lip glosses named after the 2 main characters from "Beneath The Glitter", Ava and Sophia.

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Elle and Blair Fowler

• Official site

Emperor of Japan 天皇
Monarchy
Imperial
Arms of His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of Japan 天皇
Incumbent: Akihito
Style:	His Imperial Majesty
Heir apparent:	Crown Prince Naruhito
First monarch:	Emperor Jimmu
Formation:	660 BC

Japan

This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Japan

Constitution Constitution (history) Emperor Emperor (List) Akihito Imperial Household Agency National Diet House of Representatives House of Councillors Government Prime Minister (List) Yoshihiko Noda Cabinet Ministries Judiciary Judicial system Prefectures Prefectures Governors (list) Elections Elections House of Councillors 2001, 2004, 2007, 2010 House of Representatives: 2003, 2005, 2009, Next Political parties Major parties Democratic Liberal Democratic Third parties Foreign relations Foreign policy Foreign relations Others Fiscal policy Human rights Political extremism

Other countries · Atlas Politics portal view talk edit

The Emperor of Japan is "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people" according to the 1947 Constitution of Japan, which dissolved the Empire of Japan when it was adopted by the Postwar Japanese government. He is a ceremonial figurehead under a form of constitutional monarchy and is head of the Japanese Imperial Family with functions as head of state. He is also the highest authority of the Shinto religion as he and his family are said to be direct descendants of Amaterasu.^[1]

The Emperor is called the Tennō (天皇) in Japanese, literally meaning "heavenly sovereign".^[2] He is also referred to in English as the Mikado (帝) of Japan. Currently the Emperor of Japan is the only remaining monarch in the world reigning under the title of emperor.

The Imperial House of Japan is the oldest continuing hereditary monarchy in the world.^[3] In Nihon Shoki, a book of Japanese history finished in the eighth century, it is said that the Empire of Japan was founded in 660 BC by Emperor Jimmu. The current emperor is His Imperial Majesty the Emperor Akihito, who has been on the Chrysanthemum Throne since his father the Showa Emperor (Hirohito) died in 1989.

The role of the Emperor of Japan has historically alternated between a largely ceremonial symbolic role and that of an actual imperial ruler. Since the establishment of the first shogunate in 1192, the emperors of Japan have rarely taken on a role as supreme battlefield commander, unlike many Western monarchs. Japanese emperors have nearly always been controlled by external political forces, to varying degrees. In fact, from 1192 to 1867, the shoguns, or their shikken regents in Kamakura (1203–1333), were the de facto rulers of Japan, although they were nominally appointed by the emperor.

Since the mid-nineteenth century, the Imperial Palace has been called "Kyūjō" (宮城), then Kōkyo (皇居), and located on the former site of Edo Castle in the heart of Tokyo. Earlier emperors resided in Kyoto for nearly eleven centuries.

The Emperor's Birthday (currently celebrated on 23 December) is a national holiday.

Role[link]

Unlike most constitutional monarchies, the Emperor is not even the nominal chief executive explicitly in the Constitution of Japan, but has duties "in matters of state", which are closely regulated. The constitution states that the Emperor "shall perform only such acts in matters of state as are provided for in the Constitution and he shall not have powers related to government" (article 4) and that the "advice and approval of the Cabinet shall be required for all acts of the Emperor in matters of state" (article 3). Article 4 also states that these duties can be delegated by the Emperor as provided for by law. Article 65 explicitly vests the executive power in the Cabinet, of which the Prime Minister is the leader.

In addition, while formally the Emperor's duties include appointing the Prime Minister to office, article 6 of the constitution requires him to appoint the candidate "as designated by the Diet" (in practice, the candidate designated by the House of Representatives), without any right to decline appointment. This is in marked contrast to his status under the Meiji Constitution, which recognized the emperor as the embodiment of all sovereign power of the realm.

The other detailed regulation of the Emperor's duties is laid down in article 7 of the constitution, where it is stated that the "Emperor with the advice and approval of the Cabinet, shall perform the following acts in matters of state on behalf of the people:

1. Promulgation of amendments of the constitution, laws, cabinet orders and treaties.
2. Convocation of the Diet.
3. Dissolution of the House of Representatives.
4. Proclamation of general election of members of the Diet.
5. Attestation of the appointment and dismissal of Ministers of State and other officials as provided for by law, and of full powers and credentials of Ambassadors and Ministers.
6. Attestation of general and special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights.
7. Awarding of honors.
8. Attestation of instruments of ratification and other diplomatic documents as provided for by law.
9. Receiving foreign ambassadors and ministers.
10. Performance of ceremonial functions."

The Emperor is not the (ceremonial) commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces as in some other monarchies. The Japan Self-Defense Forces Act of 1954 explicitly vests this role as commander-in-chief with the Prime Minister. This is similar to the system in Germany, where article 65a of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany vests it with the Federal Minister of Defence.

Regular ceremonies of the Emperor with a constitutional basis are the Prime Minister investitures in the Imperial palace throne room and the Speech from the Throne ceremony in the House of Councillors in the National Diet Building. The latter ceremony opens ordinary and extra sessions of the Diet. Ordinary sessions are opened this way each January and also after new elections to the House of Representatives. Extra sessions usually convene in the autumn and are opened then.^[4]

History[link]

Although the emperor has been a symbol of continuity with the past, the degree of power exercised by the emperor of Japan has varied considerably throughout Japanese history. In the early 7th century the emperor began to be called "Son of Heaven" (天子, tenshi^?).^[5]

Origin[link]

The earliest emperor recorded in Kojiki and Nihon Shoki is Emperor Jimmu. The key to knowing the origin of the Japanese imperial line may lie within the ancient imperial tombs known as kofun. However, since the Meiji period, the Imperial Household Agency has refused to open the kofun to the public or to archaeologists, citing their desire not to disturb the spirits of the past emperors as justification for their refusal. But in December 2006, the Imperial Household Agency reversed its position and decided to allow researchers to enter some of the kofun with no restrictions.

Factional control[link]

There have been six non-imperial families who have controlled Japanese emperors: the Soga (530s–645), the Fujiwara (850s–1070), the Taira (for a relatively short period), the Minamoto (and Kamakura bakufu) (1192–1333), the Ashikaga (1336–1565) and the Tokugawa (1603–1867). However, every shogun from the Minamoto, Ashikaga and Tokugawa families had to be officially recognized by the emperors, who were still the source of sovereignty, although they could not exercise their powers independently from the Shogunate.

Disputes[link]

The growth of the samurai class from the 10th century gradually weakened the power of the imperial family over the nation, leading to a time of instability. Emperors have been known to come into conflict with the reigning shogun from time to time; a notable example is the Hōgen Rebellion of 1156, in which former Emperor Sutoku attempted to seize power from the then current Emperor Go-Shirakawa, both of whom were supported by different clans of samurai. Other instances, such as Emperor Go-Toba's 1221 rebellion against the Kamakura shogunate and the 1336 Kemmu Restoration under Emperor Go-Daigo, show the power struggle between the Imperial House and the military governments of Japan.

Territorial matters[link]

Up to recent centuries, Japan's territory did not include several remote regions of its modern-day territory. The name Nippon came into use only many centuries after the start of the current imperial line. Centralized government only began to appear shortly before and during the time of Prince Shōtoku. The emperor was more like a revered embodiment of divine harmony rather than the head of an actual governing administration. In Japan it has always been easy for ambitious lords to hold actual power, as such positions have not been inherently contradictory to the emperor's position. Parliamentary government today continues a similar coexistence with the emperor as have various shoguns, regents, warlords, guardians, etc.

Historically the titles of Tennō in Japanese have never included territorial designations as is the case with many European monarchs. The position of emperor is a territory-independent phenomenon—the emperor is the emperor, even if he has followers only in one province (as was the case sometimes with the southern and northern courts).

Shoguns[link]

From 1192 to 1867, sovereignty of the state was exercised by the shoguns, or their shikken regents (1203–1333), whose authority was conferred by Imperial warrant. When Portuguese explorers first came into contact with the Japanese (see Nanban period), they described Japanese conditions in analogy, likening the Emperor, with great symbolic authority but little political power, to the Pope, and the Shogun to secular European rulers, e.g. the Holy Roman Emperor. In keeping with the analogy, they even used the term "Emperor" in reference to the shogun/regent, e.g. in the case of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who missionaries called "Emperor Taicosama" (from Taiko and the honorific sama).

Meiji restoration[link]

After the United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry's Black Ships forcibly opened Japan to foreign trade and the shogunate proved incapable of hindering the "barbarian" interlopers, the Emperor Kōmei began to assert himself politically. By the early 1860s, the relationship between the imperial court and the Shogunate was changing radically. Disaffected domains and ronin began to rally to the call of sonnō jōi, or "revere the emperor, expel the barbarians." The domains of Satsuma and Chōshū, historic enemies of the Tokugawa, used this turmoil to unite their forces and won an important military victory outside of Kyoto against Tokugawa forces.

In 1868, imperial "restoration" was declared, and the Shogunate was dissolved. A new constitution described the Emperor as "the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty", whose rights included to sanction and promulgate laws, to execute them and to exercise "supreme command of the Army and the Navy". The liaison conference created in 1893 also made the Emperor the leader of the Imperial General Headquarters.

World War II[link]

The role of the emperor as head of the Shinto religion was exploited during the war, creating an Imperial cult that led to kamikaze bombers and other fanaticism. This in turn led to the requirement in the Potsdam Declaration for the elimination "for all time [of] the authority and influence of those who have deceived and misled the people of Japan into embarking on world conquest". Following Japan's surrender, the Allies issued the Shinto Directive separating church and state within Japan, leading to the Humanity Declaration of the incumbent Emperor. Subsequently a new constitution was drafted to define the role of the emperor and the government.

Current constitution[link]

The constitution provides for a parliamentary system of government and guarantees certain fundamental rights. Under its terms the Emperor of Japan is "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people" and exercises a purely ceremonial role without the possession of sovereignty.

The constitution, also known as the "Constitution of the State of Japan" (日本國憲法, Nihonkoku-Kenpō^?), "Postwar Constitution" (戦後憲法, Sengo-Kenpō^?) or the "Peace Constitution" (平和憲法, Heiwa-Kenpō^?), was drawn up under the Allied occupation that followed World War II and was intended to replace Japan's previous militaristic and absolute monarchy system with a form of liberal democracy. Currently, it is a rigid document and no subsequent amendment has been made to it since its adoption.

Addressing and naming[link]

There are two Japanese words equivalent to the English word "emperor": tennō (天皇, lit. "heavenly sovereign"), which is used exclusively to refer to an emperor of Japan, and kōtei (皇帝, the title used for Chinese emperors), which is used primarily to describe non-Japanese emperors. Sumeramikoto (lit. "the Imperial person") was also used in Old Japanese. The term tennō was used by the emperors up until the Middle Ages; then, following a period of disuse, it was used again from the 19th century.^[6] In English, the term mikado (御門 or 帝 or みかど), literally meaning "the honorable gate" (i.e. the gate of the imperial place, which indicates the person who lives in and possesses the place), was once used (as in The Mikado, a 19th century operetta), but this term is now obsolete.^[7] (Compare Sublime Porte, an old term for the Ottoman government.)

Traditionally, the Japanese considered it disrespectful to call any person by his given name, and more so for a person of noble rank. This convention is more relaxed in modern age and now it is acceptable among friends to use the given name, but use of the family name is still common. In the case of the imperial family, it is still considered inappropriate to use the given name. Since Emperor Meiji, it has been customary to have one era per emperor and to rename each emperor after his death using the name of the era over which he presided, plus the word Tennō. Prior to Emperor Meiji, the names of the eras were changed more frequently, and the posthumous names of the emperors were chosen in a different manner.

The Emperor of Japan giving a New Year's address to the people in 2010.

Outside of Japan, beginning with Emperor Shōwa, the emperors are often referred to by their given names, both whilst alive and posthumously. For example, the previous emperor is usually called Hirohito in English, although he was never referred to as Hirohito in Japan, and was renamed Shōwa Tennō after his death, which is the only name that Japanese speakers currently use when referring to him.

The current emperor on the throne is typically referred to by the title Tennō Heika (天皇陛下, literally "His Majesty the heavenly sovereign") or Kinjō Heika (今上陛下, literally "his current majesty") or simply Tennō when speaking Japanese. Other terms used to refer to the emperor in Japanese include Heika and Okami, but these are much less typical than Tennō Heika or Kinjō Heika in ordinary conversation. The current Emperor will be renamed Heisei Tennō (平成天皇) after his death and will then be referred to exclusively by that name in Japanese. Non-Japanese speakers typically refer to him now as Akihito, or "Emperor Akihito", and will almost certainly continue to do so after his death. It is considered a major faux pas to refer to a living emperor by his posthumous name, though.

Origin of the title[link]

The ruler of Japan was known as either 大和大王/大君 (Yamato-ōkimi, Grand King of Yamato), 倭王/倭国王 (Wa-ō/Wakoku-ō, King of Wa, used externally), or 治天下大王 (ame-no-shita shiroshimesu ōkimi or sumera no mikoto, Grand King who rules all under heaven, used internally) in Japanese and Chinese sources prior to the 7th century. The oldest documented use of the word "tennō" is on a wooden slat, or mokkan, that was unearthed in Asuka-mura, Nara Prefecture in 1998 and dated back to the reign of Emperor Temmu and Empress Jitō.^{[clarification needed]}

Marriage traditions[link]

The current Empress Michiko

The current Crown Princess Masako

Throughout history, Japanese emperors and noblemen appointed the position of chief wife, rather than just keeping a harem or an assortment of female attendants.

The Japanese imperial dynasty consistently practiced official polygamy, a practice that only ended in the Taishō period (1912–1926). Besides the empress, the emperor could take, and nearly always took, several secondary consorts ("concubines") of various hierarchical degrees. Concubines were allowed also to other dynasts (shinno, o). After a decision decreed by Emperor Ichijō, some emperors even had two empresses simultaneously (kōgō and chūgū are the two separate titles for that situation). With the help of all this polygamy, the imperial clan thus was capable of producing more offspring. (Sons by secondary consorts were usually recognized as imperial princes, too, and could be recognized as heir to the throne if the empress did not give birth to an heir.)

Of the eight female tennō (reigning empress) of Japan, none married or gave birth after ascending the throne. Some of them, being widows, had produced children prior to their reigns.

In the succession, children of the empress were preferred over sons of secondary consorts. Thus it was significant which quarters had preferential opportunities in providing chief wives to imperial princes, i.e. supplying future empresses.

Apparently the oldest tradition of official marriages within the imperial dynasty were marriages between dynasty members, even half-siblings or uncle and niece. Such marriages were deemed to preserve better the imperial blood or were aimed at producing children symbolic of a reconciliation between two branches of the imperial dynasty. Daughters of others than imperials remained concubines, until Emperor Shōmu—in what was specifically reported as the first elevation of its kind—elevated his Fujiwara consort Empress Kōmyō to chief wife.

Japanese monarchs have been, as much as others elsewhere, dependent on making alliances with powerful chiefs and other monarchs. Many such alliances were sealed by marriages. The specific feature in Japan has been the fact that these marriages have been soon incorporated as elements of tradition which controlled the marriages of later generations, though the original practical alliance had lost its real meaning. A repeated pattern has been an imperial son-in-law under the influence of his powerful non-imperial father-in-law.

Beginning from the 7th and 8th centuries, emperors primarily took women of the Fujiwara clan as their highest wives—the most probable mothers of future monarchs. This was cloaked as a tradition of marriage between heirs of two kamis, Shinto gods: descendants of Amaterasu with descendants of the family kami of the Fujiwara. (Originally, the Fujiwara were descended from relatively minor nobility, thus their kami is an unremarkable one in the Japanese myth world.) To produce imperial children, heirs of the nation, with two-side descent from the two kamis, was regarded as desirable—or at least it suited powerful Fujiwara lords, who thus received preference in the imperial marriage market. The reality behind such marriages was an alliance between an imperial prince and a Fujiwara lord, his father-in-law or grandfather, the latter with his resources supporting the prince to the throne and most often controlling the government. These arrangements created the tradition of regents (Sesshō and Kampaku), with these positions allowed to be held only by a Fujiwara sekke lord.

Earlier, the emperors had married women from families of the government-holding Soga lords, and women of the imperial clan itself, i.e. various-degree cousins and often even their own sisters (half-sisters). Several imperials of the 5th and 6th centuries such as Prince Shōtoku were children of a couple of half-siblings. These marriages often were alliance or succession devices: the Soga lord ensured the domination of a prince, to be put as puppet to the throne; or a prince ensured the combination of two imperial descents, to strengthen his own and his children's claim to the throne. Marriages were also a means to seal a reconciliation between two imperial branches.

After a couple of centuries, emperors could no longer take anyone from outside such families as primary wife, no matter what the expediency of such a marriage and power or wealth brought by such might have been. Only very rarely was a prince without a mother of descent from such families allowed to ascend the throne. The earlier necessity and expediency had mutated into a strict tradition that did not allow for current expediency or necessity, but only dictated that daughters of a restricted circle of families were eligible brides, because they had produced eligible brides for centuries. Tradition had become more forceful than law.

Fujiwara women were often Empresses, and concubines came from less exalted noble families. In the last thousand years, sons of an imperial male and a Fujiwara woman have been preferred in the succession.

The five Fujiwara families, Ichijō, Kujō, Nijō, Konoe and Takatsukasa, were the primary source of imperial brides from the 8th century to the 19th century, even more often than daughters of the imperial clan itself. Fujiwara daughters were thus the usual empresses and mothers of emperors.

The acceptable source of imperial wives, brides for the emperor and crown prince, were even legislated into the Meiji-era imperial house laws (1889), which stipulated that daughters of Sekke (the five main branches of the higher Fujiwara) and daughters of the imperial clan itself were primarily acceptable brides.

Since that law was repealed in the aftermath of World War II, the present Emperor Akihito became the first crown prince for over a thousand years to have an empress outside the previously eligible circle.

Succession[link]

Tokyo Imperial Palace

The Japanese imperial dynasty bases its position in the expression that it has "reigned since time immemorial" (万世一系 bansei ikkei). It is true that its origins are buried in the mists of time: there are no records of any emperor who was not said to have been a descendant of other, yet earlier emperors. There is suspicion that Emperor Keitai (c. 500 AD) may have been an unrelated outsider, though the sources state that he was a male-line descendant of Emperor Ōjin.^{[citation needed]} However, his descendants, including his successors, were according to records descended from at least one and probably several imperial princesses of the older lineage. The tradition built by those legends has chosen to recognize just the putative male ancestry as valid for legitimizing his succession, not giving any weight to ties through the said princesses.^{[citation needed]} Millennia ago, the Japanese imperial family developed its own peculiar system of hereditary succession. It has been non-primogenitural, more or less agnatic, based mostly on rotation. Today, Japan uses strict agnatic primogeniture, which was adopted from Prussia, by which Japan was greatly influenced in the 1870s.

The controlling principles and their interaction were apparently very complex and sophisticated, leading to even idiosyncratic outcomes. Some chief principles apparent in the succession have been:

• Women were allowed to succeed (but there existed no known children of theirs whose father did not also happen to be an agnate of the imperial house, thus there is neither a precedent that a child of an imperial woman with a non-imperial man could inherit, nor a precedent forbidding it for children of empresses). However, female accession was clearly much more rare than male.
• Adoption was possible and a much used way to increase the number of succession-entitled heirs (however, the adopted child had to be a child of another member agnate of the imperial house).
• Abdication was used very often, and in fact occurred more often than death on the throne. In those days, the emperor's chief task was priestly (or godly), containing so many repetitive rituals that it was deemed that after a service of around ten years, the incumbent deserved pampered retirement as an honored former emperor.
• Primogeniture was not used—rather, in the early days, the imperial house practised something resembling a system of rotation. Very often a brother (or sister) followed the elder sibling even in the case of the predecessor leaving children. The "turn" of the next generation came more often after several individuals of the senior generation. Rotation went often between two or more of the branches of the imperial house, thus more or less distant cousins succeeded each other. Emperor Go-Saga even decreed an official alternation between heirs of his two sons, which system continued for a couple of centuries (leading finally to shōgun-induced (or utilized) strife between these two branches, the "southern" and "northern" emperors). Towards the end, the alternates were very distant cousins counted in degrees of male descent (but all that time, intermarriages occurred within the imperial house, thus they were close cousins if female ties are counted). During the past five hundred years, however, probably due to Confucian influence, inheritance by sons—but not always, or even most often, the eldest son—has been the norm.

Historically, the succession to Japan's Chrysanthemum Throne has always passed to descendants in male line from the imperial lineage. Generally they have been males, though of the over one hundred monarchs there have been nine women (one pre-historical and eight historical) as Emperor on eleven occasions. See the male line of the Yamato dynasty.

Over a thousand years ago, a tradition started that an emperor should ascend relatively young. A dynast who had passed his toddler years was regarded suitable and old enough. Reaching the age of legal majority was not a requirement. Thus, a multitude of Japanese emperors have ascended as children, as young as 6 or 8 years old. The high-priestly duties were deemed possible for a walking child. A reign of around ten years was regarded a sufficient service. Being a child was apparently a fine property, to better endure tedious duties and to tolerate subjugation to political power-brokers, as well as sometimes to cloak the truly powerful members of the imperial dynasty. Almost all Japanese empresses and dozens of emperors abdicated, and lived the rest of their lives in pampered retirement, wielding influence behind the scenes. Several emperors abdicated to their entitled retirement while still in their teens. These traditions show in Japanese folklore, theater, literature and other forms of culture, where the emperor is usually described or depicted as an adolescent.

Before the Meiji Restoration, Japan had eleven reigns of reigning empresses, all of them daughters of the male line of the Imperial House. None ascended purely as a wife or as a widow of an emperor. Imperial daughters and granddaughters, however, usually ascended the throne as a sort of a "stop gap" measure—if a suitable male was not available or some imperial branches were in rivalry so that a compromise was needed. Over half of Japanese empresses and many emperors abdicated once a suitable male descendant was considered to be old enough to rule (just past toddlerhood, in some cases). Four empresses, Empress Suiko, Empress Kōgyoku (also Empress Saimei) and Empress Jitō, as well as the mythical Empress Jingū, were widows of deceased emperors and princesses of the blood imperial in their own right. One, Empress Gemmei, was the widow of a crown prince and a princess of the blood imperial. The other four, Empress Genshō, Empress Kōken (also Empress Shōtoku), Empress Meishō and Empress Go-Sakuramachi, were unwed daughters of previous emperors. None of these empresses married or gave birth after ascending the throne.

Article 2 of the 1889 Meiji Constitution (the Constitution of the Empire of Japan) stated, "The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by imperial male descendants, according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law." The 1889 Imperial Household Law fixed the succession on male descendants of the imperial line, and specifically excluded female descendants from the succession. In the event of a complete failure of the main line, the throne would pass to the nearest collateral branch, again in the male line. If the empress did not give birth to an heir, the emperor could take a concubine, and the son he had by that concubine would be recognized as heir to the throne. This law, which was promulgated on the same day as the Meiji Constitution, enjoyed co-equal status with that constitution.

Article 2 of the Constitution of Japan, promulgated in 1947 by influence of the U.S. occupation administration and still in force, provides that "The Imperial Throne shall be dynastic and succeeded to in accordance with the Imperial Household Law passed by the Diet." The Imperial Household Law of 16 January 1947, enacted by the ninety-second and last session of the Imperial Diet, retained the exclusion on female dynasts found in the 1889 law. The government of Prime Minister Yoshida Shigeru hastily cobbled together the legislation to bring the Imperial Household in compliance with the American-written Constitution of Japan that went into effect in May 1947. In an effort to control the size of the imperial family, the law stipulates that only legitimate male descendants in the male line can be dynasts; that imperial princesses lose their status as Imperial Family members if they marry outside the Imperial Family;^[8] and that the Emperor and other members of the Imperial Family may not adopt children. It also prevented branches, other than the branch descending from Taishō, from being imperial princes any longer.

Current status[link]

Succession is now regulated by laws passed by the Japanese Diet. The current law excludes women from the succession. A change to this law had been considered until Princess Kiko gave birth to a son.

Until the birth of Prince Hisahito, son of Prince Akishino, on September 6, 2006, there was a potential succession problem, since Prince Akishino was the only male child to be born into the imperial family since 1965. Following the birth of Princess Aiko, there was public debate about amending the current Imperial Household Law to allow women to succeed to the throne. In January 2005 Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi appointed a special panel composed of judges, university professors, and civil servants to study changes to the Imperial Household Law and to make recommendations to the government.

The panel dealing with the succession issue recommended on October 25, 2005 amending the law to allow females of the male line of imperial descent to ascend the Japanese throne. On January 20, 2006, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi devoted part of his annual keynote speech to the controversy, pledging to submit a bill allowing women to ascend the throne to ensure that the succession continues in the future in a stable manner. Shortly after the announcement that Princess Kiko was pregnant with her third child, Koizumi suspended such plans. Her son, Prince Hisahito, is the third in line to the throne under the current law of succession. On January 3, 2007, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe announced that he would drop the proposal to alter the Imperial Household Law.^[9]

See also[link]

• List of Emperors of Japan
• Politics of Japan
• Sacred king

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Asakawa, Kan'ichi (1903). The Early Institutional Life of Japan. Tokyo: Shueisha. OCLC 4427686; see online, multi-formated, full-text book at openlibrary.org
• Screech, Timon (2006). Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779–1822. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN-10: 0-700-71720-X; ISBN 978-0-700-71720-0.
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Emperors of Japan

• Japan opens imperial tombs for research
• The Imperial Household Agency
• List of the Emperors, accompanied with the regents and shoguns during their reign and a genealogical tree of the imperial family
• The Emperor of Japan, explanation of the title of emperor in the context of western terminology

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