Sesame (
/ˈsɛsəmiː/; Sesamum indicum) is a flowering plant in the genus Sesamum. Numerous wild relatives occur in Africa and a smaller number in India. It is widely naturalized in tropical regions around the world and is cultivated for its edible seeds, which grow in pods.
Sesame seed is considered to be the oldest oilseed crop known to man, domesticated well over 5000 years ago. Sesame is very drought-tolerant. It has been called a survivor crop, with an ability to grow where most crops fail.[1][2]
Sesame has one of the highest oil content of any seed. With a rich nutty flavor, it is a common ingredient in cuisines across the world.[3][4]
Sesame, like other nuts and foods, triggers allergy reactions in some people.[5]
The world harvested about 3.84 million metric tonnes of Sesame seeds in 2010. The largest producer of Sesame seeds in 2010 was Myanmar.[6] The world's largest exporter of sesame seeds was India, while Japan the largest importer.
Magnified image of white sesame seeds
It is an annual plant growing to 50 to 100 cm (1.6 to 3.3 ft) tall, with opposite leaves 4 to 14 cm (1.6 to 5.5 in) long with an entire margin; they are broad lanceolate, to 5 cm (2 in) broad, at the base of the plant, narrowing to just 1 cm (0.4 in) broad on the flowering stem.
The flowers are yellow, tubular, 3 to 5 cm (1.2 to 2.0 in) long, with a four-lobed mouth. The flowers may vary in colour with some being white, blue or purple.
Sesame fruit is a capsule, normally pubescent, rectangular in section and typically grooved with a short triangular beak. The length of the fruit capsule varies from 2 to 8 cm, its width varies between 0.5 to 2 cm, and the number of loculi from 4 to 12. The fruit naturally splits opens (dehisces) to release the seeds by splitting along the septa from top to bottom or by means of two apical pores, depending on the varietal cultivar. The degree of dehiscence is of importance in breeding for mechanised harvesting as is the insertion height of the first capsule.
Sesame seeds are small. The size, form and colors vary with the thousands of varieties now known. Typically, the sesame seeds are about 3 to 4 millimeters long by 2 millimeters wide and 1 millimeter thick. The seeds are ovate, slightly flattened and somewhat thinner at the eye of the seed (hilum) than at the opposite end. The weight of the seed is between 20 and 40 milligrams.[4] The seed coat (testa) may be smooth or ribbed.
Sesame seeds come in many colors depending on the cultivar harvested. The most traded variety of Sesame is off white colored. Other common colors are buff, tan, gold, brown, reddish, gray and black.
Sesame seed is sometimes sold with its seed coat removed (decorticated). This is the variety often present on top of buns in developed economies.[7]
Most of the wild species of the genus Sesamum are native to Africa south of the Saharan. Sesamum indicum, the domesticated variety of Sesame, originated in India.[8][5]
Sesame seed is considered to be the oldest oilseed crop known to man.[1]
Sesame has been grown in different parts of the world for over 5000 years. The historic origins of Sesame was favored by its ability to grow in areas that will not support the growth of other crops; it is also a robust crop that needs little farmer support - it grows in drought conditions, in high heat, with residual moisture in soil after monsoons are gone or even when rains fail or when rains are excessive. It was a crop that could be grown by subsistence farmers at the edge of deserts, where no crops grow. Sesame has been called a survivor crop.[2]
Sesame is an oil producing seed that is commonly described in many human civilizations. Egyptians called it sesemt, and it is included in the list of medicinal drugs in the scrolls of the Ebers Papyrus dated to be over 3600 years old. The records from Babylon and Assyria, dating about 4300 years ago mention Sesame. Archeological reports from Turkey indicate that Sesame was grown and pressed to extract oil at least 2750 years ago in the empire of Urartu. Archaeological remnants dating to 5500 years ago in the Indian subcontinent suggest Sesame was a domesticated crop.[9][4]
Upon ripening, sesame fruit capsules split, releasing the seeds with a pop. It has been suggested that this is root of the phrase "Open Sesame" in the historic fable of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves in One Thousand and One Nights. The opening of the capsule releases the treasure of Sesame seeds.[10]
Sesame is very drought-tolerant, in part due to its extensive root system. However, it requires adequate moisture for germination and early growth. While the crop survives drought as well as presence of excess water, the yields are significantly lower in either conditions. Moisture levels before planting and flowering impact yield most.
Most commercial cultivars of Sesame are intolerant of water-logging. Rainfall late in the season prolongs growth and increases high harvest-shattering losses. Wind can also cause shattering at harvest.
Initiation of flowering is sensitive to photoperiod and to Sesame variety. The photoperiod also impacts the oil content in sesame seed; increased photoperiod increases oil content. The oil content of the seed is inversely proportional to its protein content.
Sesame varieties have adapted to many soil types. The high yielding crops thrive best on well-drained, fertile soils of medium texture and neutral pH. However these have low tolerance for soils with high salt and water-logged conditions. Commercial sesame crops require 90 to 120 frost free days. Warm conditions above 23 oC favor growth and yields. While sesame crops can grow in poor soils, the best yields come from properly fertilized farms.[11][4]
Since sesame is a small flat seed, it is difficult to dry it after harvest because the small seed makes movement of air around the seed difficult. Therefore, the seeds need to be harvested as dry as possible and stored at 6 percent moisture or less. If the seed is too moist, it can quickly heat up and become rancid.[3]
- Processing
After harvesting, the seeds are usually cleaned and hulled. In some countries, once the seeds have been hulled, they are passed through an electronic color-sorting machine that rejects any discolored seeds to ensure perfectly colored sesame seeds. This is done because sesame seeds with consistent appearance is perceived to be of better quality by consumers and sells for higher price. Immature or off-sized seed is removed but saved for oil production.
Sesame is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the Turnip Moth.
The world harvested about 3.84 million metric tonnes of Sesame seeds in 2010. The largest producer of Sesame seeds in 2010 was Myanmar. The top three producers accounted for 50 percent of the world's production.[12]
Sesame was grown on over 7.8 million hectares of world's farms in 2010.[6]
The worldwide average yield of sesame seeds was 0.49 metric tonnes per hectare in 2010. The table in this section presents the 2010 production (million metric tons) and yields (metric tons per hectare) for the top ten producers of Sesame seeds.
The most productive Sesame seed farms in the world were in the European Union with an average composite yield of 5.5 metric tonnes per hectare in 2010; Italy reported the best nation wide average yield of 7.2 metric tonnes per hectare in 2010.[6] There is a large yield gap and farm loss differences between major sesame seed producers, in part because of knowledge gap, poor crop management practices and use of technology.
The white and other lighter colored sesame seeds are common in Europe, the Americas, West Asia, and Indian subcontinent. The black and darker colored sesame seeds are mostly produced in China and southeast Asia. Africa produces a variety of sesame seeds.
Beginning in the 1950s, U.S. production of the crop has been largely centered in Texas, with acreage fluctuating between 10,000 to 20,000 acres (40 to 80 km2) in recent years. The country's crop does not make up a significant global source; indeed imports have now outstripped domestic production.[13]
- Trade
The world traded over a billion dollars worth of sesame seeds in 2010. The trade volume has been increasing rapidly in last two decades.
Japan is the world's largest sesame importer. Sesame oil, particularly from roasted seed, is an important component of Japanese cooking and traditionally this is the principal use of the seed. China is the second largest importer of sesame, mostly oil-grade sesame. China exports lower priced food grade sesame seeds, particularly to southeast Asia. Other major importers are the United States, Canada, Netherlands, Turkey and France.
Sesame seed is a high value cash crop. Sesame prices have ranged between US$ 800 to 1700 per metric ton between 2008 and 2010.[14][15]
Sesame exports sell across a wide price range. Quality perception, particularly how the seed looks is a major pricing factor. Most importers who supply ingredient distributors and oil processors only want to purchase scientifically treated, properly cleaned, washed, dried, color-sorted, size-graded and impurity-free seeds with a guaranteed minimum oil content (not less than 40 percent) packed according to international standards. Seeds that do not meet these quality standards are considered unfit for exports and are consumed locally. In 2008, by volume, by premium prices and by quality, the largest exporter was India, followed by Ethiopia and Myanmar.[16][3]
Nutrition data - Toasted versus Raw Sesame
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- Nutritional content
Sesame seeds are a rich source of oil.
Sesame is a common source of human nutrition. An example is
Simit, shown above, a ring-shaped bread coated with sesame seeds. Also called
Koulouri or
Gevrek, it is common in Turkey, Greece, the Balkans and the Middle East.
For thousands of years, sesame seeds have been a source of food and oil. Sesame has one of the highest oil content of any seed, some varietals exceeding 50 percent oil content compared to soybean's 20 percent. Sesame oil is one of the most stable vegetable oils, with long shelf life, because of the high level of natural antioxidants (sesamin, sesamolin, and sesamol). Oil from the seed is used in cooking, as salad oils and margarine, and contains about 47 percent oleic and 39 percent linoleic acid. Sesame seed oil, like sunflower seed oil, is rich in Omega 6 fatty acids, but lacks Omega 3 fatty acids. Sesame seed is also rich in protein, at 25 percent by weight. The flour that remains after oil extraction is between 35 to 50 percent protein, has good effective carbohydrates, and contains water-soluble antioxidants (sesaminol glucosides) that provide added shelf-life to many products. This flour, also called sesame meal, is an excellent high-protein feed for poultry and livestock.[3][4] The addition of sesame to high lysine meal of soybean produces a well balanced animal feed.[1]
The relative ratio of protein and oil, as well as essential amino acids and essential fatty acids varies with sesame cultivar as well as growing conditions.
In 2008, about 65 percent of the annual sesame crop was processed into oil and 35 percent was used in food. The food segment included about 42 percent roasted sesame, 36 percent washed sesame, 12 percent ground sesame and 10 percent roasted sesame seed with salt.
- Health claims
Kamal-Eldin et al. have reviewed patent literature claiming beneficial effects of sesame seed. They note that these health claims are based on the very high levels (up to 2.5%) of furofuran lignans with beneficial physiological activities, mainly sesamin, sesamolin, and sesaminol glucosides.[17] Among edible oils from six plants, sesame oil had the highest Ferric Reducing/Antioxidant Power (FRAP) value, which means the herbs and additives are better preserved in sesame oil. To the extent these herbs have health benefits, the study proposes that it may be possible that ingestion of these herbs preserved in sesame oil could increase resistance of polyunsaturated fatty acids of cell membranes and lipoproteins to oxidation within the body.[18]
Sesame seeds contain phytosterols associated with reduced levels of blood cholesterol.[citation needed] Sesame seeds are a good source of calcium and are therefore suitable for sufferers of osteoporosis. Sesame seeds contain a high amount of the antioxidant phytic acid.[citation needed] The nutrients of sesame seeds are better absorbed if they are ground or pulverized before consumption, as in tahini.
Women of ancient Babylon would eat halva, a mixture of honey and sesame seeds to prolong youth and beauty, while Roman soldiers ate the mixture for strength and energy.[19]
There have been erroneous claims that sesame seeds also contain THC which may be detectable on random screening.[citation needed] This error stems from a misunderstanding of the commercial drug Dronabinol, a synthetic form of THC. The normal delivery mechanism for synthetic dronabinol is via infusion into sesame oil and encapsulation into soft gelatin capsules. As a result some people are under the mistaken assumption that sesame oil naturally contains THC. In fact, THC, CBD, CBN and the other cannabinoids are unique to the Cannabis genus.
Sesame oil is used for massage and health treatments of the body (abhyanga and shirodhara) and teeth (oil pulling) in the ancient Indian ayurvedic system. Ayurveda views sesame oil as the most viscous of the plant oils and believes it may pacify the health problems associated with Vata aggravation.[citation needed]
Sesame seeds contain the lignans pinoresinol and lariciresinol.[20]
Sesame seeds and sesame oil are a serious allergen to some people. Even some infants have been found to exhibit allergies to sesame. In Australia the occurrence of allergy to sesame seed was estimated to be 0.42 percent among all children, while in the United Kingdom the allergic reaction was found to affect 0.04 percent of adults. The occurrence of allergy to sesame in patients with some form of food allergy was found to be much higher than in the general population, ranging from 0.5 percent in Switzerland to 8.5 percent in Australia. In other words, allergy to sesame affects a small percentage of overall human population; but, sesame allergy is high in people who already show symptoms of allergy to other foods.[5]
The symptoms of Sesame seed allergy can be classified into:
- Systemic reactions: Primarily presenting anaphylaxis[21] characterized by symptoms including hives (urticaria), lip and eyelid swelling (angioedema ) sneezing, nasal itching, congestion, rhinorrhea, wheezing, cough, tightness of throat, hoarse voice, difficulty in breathing, abdominal pain, unconsciousness, shock with drop of blood pressure. In the systemic reactions can also be included severe reactions like dizziness, drowsiness, chills and collapse as has been reported in patients after ingestion of falafel burger.
- Other symptoms: Facial or generalized redness (“flushing”), hives (urticaria) on smaller or larger parts of the body, swelling of the eyelids, lips or other parts of the face, itching of the eyes or of the skin in general, hay fever symptoms in the eyes and eczema. Respiratory symptoms observed include hay fever, asthma, cough, wheeze, or difficulty in breathing. Gastrointestinal symptoms: Itching in the mouth and/or tongue soon after chewing and ingesting (Oral allergy syndrome) and abdominal pain.
Amounts as low as 100 mg of sesame seeds or sesame flour and 3 ml of sesame oil can trigger allergic reactions in severe cases of sesame allergic individuals. Most patients, however, show allergic reactions after consuming 2–10 grams of sesame seeds or sesame seed flour. The onset of the symptoms may occur within a few minutes up to 90 minutes after ingestion of sesame seed product. It was a common finding that most patients had other allergic diseases such as asthma, hay fever, and eczema, and most patients also had a relative with an allergic disease. More than two thirds of the patients with Sesame allergy also had food allergic reactions to other foods.[5]
Prevalence of sesame allergy varies per country. While it is one of the three most common allergens in Israel,[22] sesame allergy prevalence is considered small relative to other allergens in the United States.[23][24] Some experts consider sesame allergies to have "increased more than any other type of food allergy over the past 10 to 20 years" in the United States.[21] Such increasing prevalence led Canada to issue regulations that require food labels to note the presence of sesame.[25]
In addition to products derived from sesame such as tahini and sesame oil,[26] persons with sesame allergies are warned to stay away from a broad assortment of processed foods including baked goods, tempeh, and generic "vegetable oil."[27] In addition to possible food sources, individuals allergic to sesame have been warned that a variety of non-food sources may also trigger a reaction to sesame, including adhesive bandages, cosmetics, hair care products, perfumes, soaps and sunscreens, drugs, some fungicides and insecticides, lubricants, ointments and topical oils, and pet food.[27][28]
At least one study found that "standard skin and blood testing for food allergies doesn’t predict whether a child has true sesame allergy." [29][21] In which case, a food challenge under direction of a physician may be required to properly diagnose a sesame allergy.
There appears to be cross-reactivity between sesame allergens and peanut, rye, kiwifruit, poppy seed, and various tree nuts (such as hazelnut, black walnut, cashew, macadamia and pistachio).[28] [30]
Rolled
khao phan with black sesame seeds. Similar cuisines are found in Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and East Asia.
Sesame seeds are commonly added to bakery and creative confectionery across the world. Above are sesame infused baskets from Israel.
Bread sticks with sesame seeds.
Til-patti - a delicacy from
Rajasthan (India) made from sesame seeds heavily loaded to sugar syrup. The mix is cast very thin, semi-translucent disk.
Sesame seed is a common ingredient in various cuisines. It is used whole in cooking for its rich nutty flavour. Sesame seeds are sometimes added to breads, including bagels and the tops of hamburger buns. Sesame seeds may be baked into crackers, often in the form of sticks. In Sicily and France, the seeds are eaten on bread (called "ficelle sésame", sesame thread). Fast food restaurants use buns with tops sprinkled with sesame seeds. About one-third of Mexico's sesame crop is exported to the United States and purchased by McDonald's for their sesame seed buns (The Nut Factory 1999).[31]
Sesame seeds are sprinkled onto some sushi style foods but this practice is more popular in Asia. Whole seeds are found in many salads and baked snacks as well in Japan. East Asian cuisines, like Chinese cuisine use sesame seeds and oil in some dishes, such as dim sum, sesame seed balls (Chinese: 麻糰; pinyin: mátuǎn or 煎堆; Cantonese: jin deui), and the Vietnamese bánh rán. Sesame flavour (through oil and roasted or raw seeds) is also very popular in Korean cuisine, used to marinate meat and vegetables. Chefs in tempura restaurants blend sesame and cottonseed oil for deep-frying.
Tan and black sesame seed varieties are roasted and used for making the flavoring gomashio. In Greece the seeds are used in cakes, and in Togo they are a main soup ingredient.
In DR Congo and North of Angola, ground sesame or wangila is a delicious dish, especially when cooked with smoked fish or lobsters.
In India, sesame is called til, till or thil.
In Manipur (India) black sesame is used in the preparation of Thoiding and in Singju (a kind of salad). Thoiding is prepared with ginger and chili and vegetables are used in the spicy Singu dish. In Assam, black sesame seeds are used to make Til Pitha and Tilor laru (sesame seed balls) during bihu. In Punjab and Tamil Nadu (both in India), a sweet ball called "Pinni" (پنی) in Urdu and 'Ell urundai' in Tamil, "Ellunda"(എള്ളുണ്ട) in Malayalam, "Yellunde" (sesame ball, usually in jaggery) in Kannada and tilgul in Marathi is made of its seeds mixed with sugar. Also in Tamil Nadu, sesame oil used extensively in their cuisine, Milagai Podi, a ground powder made of sesame and dry chili is used to enhance flavor and consumed along with other traditional foods such as idli.
Sesame seed cookies and wafers, both sweet and savory, are popular in places like Charleston, South Carolina. Sesame seeds, also called benne, are believed to have been brought into 17th century colonial America by West African slaves. Since then, they have become part of various American cuisines.
In Caribbean cuisine, sugar and white sesame seeds are combined into a bar resembling peanut brittle and sold in stores and street corners.
Sesame is a popular and essential ingredient in many Middle Eastern cuisines. Sesame seeds is made into a paste called tahini (used in various ways, including hummus bi tahini) and the Middle Eastern confection halvah. Ground and processed, the seeds is also used in sweet confections. In South Asia, Middle East, East Asian cuisines, popular confectionery are made from sesame mixed with honey or syrup and roasted into a sesame candy. In Japanese cuisine goma-dofu (胡麻豆腐) is made from sesame paste and starch.
Mexican cuisine refers to sesame seeds as Ajonjolí. It is mainly used as a sauce additive, such as mole or adobo. It is often also used to sprinkle over artisan breads and baked in traditional form to coat the smooth dough, especially on whole wheat flat breads or artisan nutrition bars, such as alegrías.
Sesame oil is sometimes used as a cooking oil in different parts of the world.
Although sesame leaves are edible as a potherb,[32] recipes for Korean cuisine calling for "sesame leaves" are often a mistranslation, and really mean perilla.[33]
The word sesame is from Latin sesamum, borrowed from Greek sésamon "seed or fruit of the sesame plant", borrowed from Semitic (cf. Hebrew shumshum, Arabic simsim, Aramaic shūmshĕmā), from Late Babylonian *shawash-shammu, itself from Assyrian shamash-shammū, from shaman shammī "plant oil".
{فارسی}
Sesame in various languages[34][35][36]
| Transliteration |
Name konjed |
Language |
Juljulan, Zelzlane,
Sumsum, Simsim |
جلجلان, سمسم |
Arabic |
| Kunjut, Shushma |
Քունջութ, կունճուտ,
շուշմա |
Armenian |
| Zhī Má, Hú Má |
芝麻, 胡麻 |
Chinese (Mandarin) |
| Goma, Shima |
胡麻
ゴマ, シマ |
Japanese |
Chamggae, Cham-kkae,
Ssisaem, Ggae, Kkae |
참깨, 깨씨, 씨샘, 깨 |
Korean |
| Ajonjolí, Sésamo |
|
Spanish |
| Teel, Till, Sésame |
|
French |
| Til |
تل |
Urdu |
| तिल |
Sanskrit |
| Hindi |
| তিল |
Oriya |
| Raashi |
ରାଶି |
| Nuvvulu |
నువ్వులు |
Telugu |
| Ellu |
எள் |
Tamil |
| എള്ള് |
Malayalam |
| ಎಳ್ಳು |
Kannada |
From all the 3 roots above, words with the generalized meaning “oil, liquid fat” are derived, e.g., Sanskrit taila [तैल]. Similar semantic shifts from the name of an oil crop to a general word “fat, oil” are also known for other languages, e.g., “olive” has given rise to English “oil”.
In some languages of the Middle East, sesame is named differently and evolved from Middle Persian kunjid. This has also been borrowed into other languages — e.g., Russian kunzhut [кунжут] and Yiddish kunzhut [קונזשוט].
Brazilian Portuguese gergelim, Spanish ajonjolí, and Hindi gingli [गिंगली] derive from an Arabic noun jaljala [جلجلة] “sound, echo”, referring to the rattling sound of ripe seeds within the capsule.[33]
In the Southern US and the Caribbean, where a form of the sesame seed was introduced by African slaves, it is known under the name benne (variously spelled benné, bene, beni, benni, benny) representing Wolof or Mande bene.
According to Assyrian legend, when the gods met to create the world, they drank wine made from sesame seeds.
In Hindu legends and beliefs, tales are told in which sesame seeds represent a symbol of immortality and the God Maha Vishnu's consort Maha Sri Devi herself representing the properties of the sesame seed, as such it is considered as the most auspicious oil next to ghee used in Hindu rituals and prayers.
In Orissa, Raashi ladu (sweet made of sesame) is a must as an offering to Lord Ganesha. Black sesame seeds are mixed with grains of rice and offered to the manes. White sesame seeds mixed with rice are offered to the gods and seers of the Veda. Both of these offerings are called tarpanam. Sesame oil is used to pacify the malefic effect of Lord Shani (Saturn).
In Tamil literature and medicine, it has been mentioned as the "very good healthy" oil as such it is called Nalla + Enney (Good Oil), old Tamil medicinal proverbs such as "ilaythavannakku yellum kohluthavanukkum kohlum"; meaning "prescribe for underweight/unnourished it boost up and also may apply for the overweight/corpulent as well to reduce down, sometimes misinterpreted as "prescribe sesame to underweight and horse gram to overweight" thus the word kohlum is mistaken for Horse Gram. Tamil medicine holds that gargling with sesame oil after brushing one's teeth will reduce gum disease and mouth ulcers while eliminating plaque. Taking a sesame oil bath with a simple self massage are considered mandatory in Tamil tradition at least once in a week on Wednesday and Saturday for male and Fridays for female as per quoted by a Siddha Yogic Tamil medicine philosopher Auvaiyaar as quoted "Sani Neeraadu" means at least take a full shower once a week with oil which will reduce ones body heat on a rest day which is Saturday for those who live in the hot humid tropical regions. According to Bhavishya-uttara-Purana, one who distributes sesame in charity on day of Shat-Tila-Ekadashi, in the end of life comes back to home, back to Godhead, to spiritual world, abode of Lord Krishna.
In recent times, sesame seeds have become an ingredient in wiccan practices. Cunningham's Encyclopedia of Wicca in the Kitchen suggests their use to aid conception, to draw money, or for protection.
Main article:
Open SesameIn the story of "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves", the phrase "Open Sesame" magically opens a sealed cave. The origin of the phrase is unclear.
Sesame seeds are also used conceptionally in Urdu literature, in the proverbs "til dharnay ki jagah na hona"; meaning a place so crowded that there is no room for a single seed of sesame, and "in tilon mein teil nahee" (ان تلوں میں تیل نہیں); referring to a person who appears to be useful but shan't be of much use (selfish) when the time comes, literally meaning: there is no oil (left) in this sesame.
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A simit is a small circular Turkish bread with sesame seeds
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Thai workers harvesting sesame
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A hamburger sesame seed bun
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Tahini - Sesame seeds paste
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- ^ a b D. Ray Langham. "Phenology of Sesame". American Sesame Growers Association. http://www.sesamegrowers.org/langham144-182.pdf.
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- ^ a b c d Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2012). "Production Crops: sesame seeds". http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor.
- ^ D. Ray Langham (2008). "GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF SESAME". American Sesame Growers Association. http://www.sesamegrowers.org/farmer%20phenology%20080506.pdf.
- ^ Dorothea Bedigian(Editor) (2010). Sesame: The genus Sesamum. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-3538-9.
- ^ Sesame Coordinators. "Sesame". Sesaco. http://www.sesaco.net/index.htm.
- ^ Peter Griffee. "Sesamum indicum L.". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=1937&entityDisplayCategory=full.
- ^ TJAI (2006). "Sesame: high value oilseed". Thomas Jefferson Agriculture Institute. http://www.jeffersoninstitute.org/pubs/sesame.shtml.
- ^ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2012). "Food and Agricultural commodities production: Countries by commodity". http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx.
- ^ Growing Sesame: Production tips, economics, and more.
- ^ "Oil seed prices and futures". Commodity Prices. July 2010. http://www.agricommodityprices.com/futures_prices.php?id=144.
- ^ Mal Bennett. "Sesame". Ag Market Research Center. http://www.agmrc.org/media/cms/sesame_38F4324EE52CB.pdf.
- ^ "Sesame Export Statistics". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2011. http://faostat.fao.org/site/342/default.aspx.
- ^ Kamal-Eldin A, Moazzami A, Washi S (January 2011). "Sesame seed lignans: potent physiological modulators and possible ingredients in functional foods & nutraceuticals". Recent Pat Food Nutr Agric 3 (1): 17–29. PMID 21114470.
- ^ Cheung SC, Szeto YT, Benzie IF (March 2007). "Antioxidant protection of edible oils". Plant Foods Hum Nutr 62 (1): 39–42. DOI:10.1007/s11130-006-0040-6. PMID 17285359.
- ^ Positive Health Magazine — Article Abstract.
- ^ Lignan contents of Dutch plant foods: a database including lariciresinol, pinoresinol, secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol. Ivon E. J. Milder, Ilja C. W. Arts, Betty van de Putte, Dini P. Venema and Peter C. H. Hollman, British Journal of Nutrition (2005), 93: 393-402, doi:10.1079/BJN20051371
- ^ a b c Charlene Laino. "Sesame Allergies on the Rise in U.S.: Sesame Seed Allergy Now Among Most Common Food Allergies". WebMD Health News. http://www.webmd.com/allergies/news/20090316/sesame-allergies-on-the-rise-in-us.
- ^ Aaronov, D., et al (Dec 2008). "Natural history of food allergy in infants and children in Israel". Annals of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology 101 (6): 637–40. PMID 19119709. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19119709.
- ^ Ben-Shoshan M, Harrington DW, Soller L, et al. (June 2010). "A population-based study on peanut, tree nut, fish, shellfish, and sesame allergy prevalence in Canada". J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 125 (6): 1327–35. DOI:10.1016/j.jaci.2010.03.015. PMID 20451985. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0091-6749(10)00537-3.
- ^ "US prevalence of peanut and sesame allergy". http://www.jacionline.org/article/S0091-6749(10)00575-0/fulltext.
- ^ "Regulatory Impact Analysis Statement: Project 1220 Enhanced Labelling for Food Allergen and Gluten Sources and Added Sulphites". http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/label-etiquet/allergen/project_1220_rias_eeir-eng.php.
- ^ "Sesame Allergy". http://www.eatwell.gov.uk/healthissues/foodintolerance/foodintolerancetypes/sesame/.
- ^ a b "Canadian Food Inspection Agency: Sesame Allergy". http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/labeti/allerg/sese.shtml.
- ^ a b "The Online Allergist: Sesame Allergy". http://www.theonlineallergist.com/article/sesame_allergy.
- ^ Permaul P, et al (Nov 2009). "Sesame allergy: role of specific IgE and skin-prick testing in predicting food challenge results". Allergy and Asthma Proceedings: 643–48. PMID 20031010. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20031010.
- ^ "Sesame seed allergy". http://allergies.about.com/od/otherfoodallergies/a/sesameallergy.htm.
- ^ Food, Industrial, Nutraceutical, and Pharmaceutical Uses of Sesame Genetic Resources
- ^ Sesamum indicum — Plants For A Future database report
- ^ a b Spice Pages: Sesame Seeds (Sesamum indicum)
- ^ Webster's Dictionary. "Definition: Teel, Sesame". Webster's, Multilingual Thesaurus Translation. http://www.websters-dictionary-online.com/definitions/teel?cx=partner-pub-0939450753529744%3Av0qd01-tdlq&cof=FORID%3A9&ie=UTF-8&q=teel&sa=Search#906.
- ^ "Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.)". Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages. http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Sesa_ind.html.
- ^ L. Soukiassian's dictionary, p. 673
- Bedigian, D. (1984). Sesamum indicum L. Crop origin, diversity, chemistry and ethnobotany (Ph.D. thesis). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois.
- Bedigian, D. (1985). "Is še-giš-i sesame or flax?". Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture 2: 159–178.
- Bedigian, D. (1988). "Sesamum indicum L. (Pedaliaceae): Ethnobotany in Sudan, crop diversity, lignans, origin, and related taxa". In Goldblatt P., Lowry P.P.. Modern Systematic Studies in African Botany. AETFAT Monographs in Systematic Botany. 25. St. Louis, MO: Missouri Botanical Garden. pp. 315–321.
- Bedigian, D. (1998). "Early history of sesame cultivation in the Near East and beyond". In Damania A.B., Valkoun J., Willcox G., Qualset C.O.. The Origins of Agriculture and Crop Domestication. The Harlan Symposium. Aleppo: ICARDA. pp. 93–101. http://web.archive.org/web/20080401040905/http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/publications/HTMLPublications/47/ch07.htm#bm4-Early%20History%20of%20Sesame%20Cultivation%20in%20the%20Near%20East%20and%20Beyond%20D.%20Bedigian.
- Bedigian, D. (2000). "Sesame". In Kiple K.F., Ornelas-Kiple C.K.. The Cambridge World History of Food. I. Cambridge University Press. pp. 411–421.
- Bedigian, D.; Korošec-Koruza, Zora (2003). "Evolution of sesame revisited: domestication, diversity and prospects". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 50 (7): 779–787. DOI:10.1023/A:1025029903549.
- Bedigian, D. (2003). "Sesame in Africa: origin and dispersals". In Neumann K., Butler A., Kahlheber S.. Food, Fuel and Fields — Progress in African Archaeobotany. Africa Praehistorica. Cologne: Heinrich-Barth-Institute. pp. 17–36.
- Bedigian, D. (2004). "Conspectus of Sesamum. Annex III" (PDF). IPGRI. Descriptors for Sesame (Sesamum spp.). Rome: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. pp. 61–63. http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/publications/pdf/246.pdf. [dead link]
- Bedigian, D. (2004). "History and lore of sesame in Southwest Asia". Economic Botany 58 (3): 329–353.
- Bedigian, D. (2006). "Assessment of sesame and its wild relatives in Africa". In Ghazanfar S.A., Beentje H.J.. Taxonomy and Ecology of African Plants, their Conservation and Sustainable Use. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens. pp. 481–491.
- Bedigian, Dorothea (2010). Sesame: The Genus Sesamum. St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden. ISBN 978-0-8493-3538-9.
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Herbs and spices
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- Aonori (ground seaweed)
- Ajwain (bishop's weed)
- Aleppo pepper
- Alligator pepper
- Allspice
- Amchur (mango powder)
- Anise
- Aromatic ginger
- Asafoetida
- Camphor
- Caraway
- Cardamom
- Cardamom, black
- Cassia
- Cayenne pepper
- Celery seed
- Charoli
- Chenpi
- Chili pepper
- Cinnamon
- Clove
- Coriander seed
- Cubeb
- Cumin
- Cumin, black
- Dill and dill seed
- Fennel
- Fenugreek
- Fingerroot (krachai)
- Galangal, greater
- Galangal, lesser
- Garlic
- Ginger
- Golpar
- Grains of Paradise
- Grains of Selim
- Horseradish
- Juniper berry
- Kaempferia galanga (kencur)
- Kokum
- Korarima
- Lime, black
- Liquorice
- Litsea cubeba
- Mace
- Mango-ginger
- Mahlab
- Malabathrum (tejpat)
- Mustard, black
- Mustard, brown
- Mustard, white
- Nigella (kalonji)
- Nutmeg
- Paprika
- Pepper, Brazilian
- Pepper, Peruvian
- Pepper, long
- Peppercorn (black, green, and white)
- Pomegranate seed (anardana)
- Poppy seed
- Radhuni
- Rose
- Sichuan pepper (huājiāo)
- Saffron
- Salt
- Sarsaparilla
- sanshō (berries, ground powder)
- Sassafras
- Sesame
- shiso (seeds, berries)
- Sichuan pepper (huājiāo)
- Star anise
- Sumac
- Tamarind
- Tasmanian pepper
- Tonka bean
- Turmeric
- Uzazi
- Vanilla
- Voatsiperifery
- Wasabi
- Yuzu (zest)
- Zedoary
- Zereshk
- Zest
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Lists of herbs and spices
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![[B1SS] 120330 B1A4's Sesame Player Episode 9 Final Episode (2/2)](http://web.archive.org./web/20120904120303im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/7XeQm4TYfJ8/0.jpg "[B1SS] 120330 B1A4's Sesame Player Episode 9 Final Episode (2/2)")
![[B1SS] 120316 B1A4's Sesame Player Episode 7 (1/2)](http://web.archive.org./web/20120904120303im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/5aYfKEGo-aE/0.jpg "[B1SS] 120316 B1A4's Sesame Player Episode 7 (1/2)")
.jpg)
