An animation depicting the orbits of GPS satellites in medium Earth orbit.

A full-size model of the Earth observation satellite ERS 2

In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an object which has been placed into orbit by human endeavour. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as the Moon.

The world's first artificial satellite, the Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. Since then, thousands of satellites have been launched into orbit around the Earth; also some satellites, notably space stations, have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Artificial satellites originate from more than 50 countries and have used the satellite launching capabilities of ten nations. A few hundred satellites are currently operational, whereas thousands of unused satellites and satellite fragments orbit the Earth as space debris. A few space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the Sun.

Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways. Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit.

Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control and orbit control.

History[link]

Early conceptions[link]

"Newton's cannonball", presented as a "thought experiment" in A Treatise of the System of the World, was the first published mathematical study of the possibility of an artificial satellite.

The first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit is a short story by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon. The story is serialized in The Atlantic Monthly, starting in 1869.^[1][2] The idea surfaces again in Jules Verne's The Begum's Fortune (1879).

In 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935) published Means of Reaction Devices (in Russian: Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами), which is the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft. He calculated the orbital speed required for a minimal orbit around the Earth at 8 km/s, and that a multi-stage rocket fueled by liquid propellants could be used to achieve this. He proposed the use of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, though other combinations can be used.

In 1928 Slovenian Herman Potočnik (1892–1929) published his sole book, The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket Motor (German: Das Problem der Befahrung des Weltraums — der Raketen-Motor), a plan for a breakthrough into space and a permanent human presence there. He conceived of a space station in detail and calculated its geostationary orbit. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for detailed peaceful and military observation of the ground and described how the special conditions of space could be useful for scientific experiments. The book described geostationary satellites (first put forward by Tsiolkovsky) and discussed communication between them and the ground using radio, but fell short of the idea of using satellites for mass broadcasting and as telecommunications relays.

In a 1945 Wireless World article the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke (1917–2008) described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications.^[3] Clarke examined the logistics of satellite launch, possible orbits and other aspects of the creation of a network of world-circling satellites, pointing to the benefits of high-speed global communications. He also suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet.

The US military studied the idea of what was referred to as the earth satellite vehicle when Secretary of Defense, James Forrestal, made a public announcement on December 29, 1948 that his office was coordinating that project between the various services.^[4]

History of artificial satellites[link]

Sputnik 1: The first artificial satellite to orbit Earth.

The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer (there is a crater on the lunar far side which bears his name). This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States.

Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. The unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1's success precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United States and ignited the so-called Space Race within the Cold War.

Sputnik 2 was launched on November 3, 1957 and carried the first living passenger into orbit, a dog named Laika.^[5]

In May, 1946, Project RAND had released the Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship, which stated, "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century.^[6] The United States had been considering launching orbital satellites since 1945 under the Bureau of Aeronautics of the United States Navy. The United States Air Force's Project RAND eventually released the above report, but did not believe that the satellite was a potential military weapon; rather, they considered it to be a tool for science, politics, and propaganda. In 1954, the Secretary of Defense stated, "I know of no American satellite program."^[7]

On July 29, 1955, the White House announced that the U.S. intended to launch satellites by the spring of 1958. This became known as Project Vanguard. On July 31, the Soviets announced that they intended to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.

Following pressure by the American Rocket Society, the National Science Foundation, and the International Geophysical Year, military interest picked up and in early 1955 the Army and Navy were working on Project Orbiter, two competing programs, the army's which involved using a Jupiter C rocket, and the civilian/Navy Vanguard Rocket, to launch a satellite. At first, they failed: initial preference was given to the Vanguard program whose launch vehicle had a strange and uncanny way of exploding on national television. But finally, three months after Sputnik 2, the project succeeded; Explorer 1 thus became the United States' first artificial satellite on January 31, 1958.^[8]

In June 1961, three-and-a-half years after the launch of Sputnik 1, the Air Force used resources of the United States Space Surveillance Network to catalog 115 Earth-orbiting satellites.^[9]

The largest artificial satellite currently orbiting the Earth is the International Space Station.

Space Surveillance Network[link]

The United States Space Surveillance Network (SSN), a division of The United States Strategic Command, has been tracking objects in Earth's orbit since 1957 when the Soviets opened the space age with the launch of Sputnik I. Since then, the SSN has tracked more than 26,000 objects. The SSN currently tracks more than 8,000 man-made orbiting objects. The rest have re-entered Earth's atmosphere and disintegrated, or survived re-entry and impacted the Earth. The SSN tracks objects that are 10 centimeters in diameter or larger; those now orbiting Earth range from satellites weighing several tons to pieces of spent rocket bodies weighing only 10 pounds. About seven percent are operational satellites (i.e. ~560 satellites), the rest are space debris.^[10] The United States Strategic Command is primarily interested in the active satellites, but also tracks space debris which upon reentry might otherwise be mistaken for incoming missiles.

A search of the NSSDC Master Catalog at the end of October 2010 listed 6,578 satellites launched into orbit since 1957, the latest being Chang'e 2, on 1 October 2010.^[11]

Non-military satellite services[link]

There are three basic categories of non-military satellite services:^[12]

Fixed satellite services[link]

Fixed satellite services handle hundreds of billions of voice, data, and video transmission tasks across all countries and continents between certain points on the Earth's surface.

Mobile satellite systems[link]

Mobile satellite systems help connect remote regions, vehicles, ships, people and aircraft to other parts of the world and/or other mobile or stationary communications units, in addition to serving as navigation systems.

Scientific research satellites (commercial and noncommercial)[link]

Scientific research satellites provide us with meteorological information, land survey data (e.g., remote sensing), Amateur (HAM) Radio, and other different scientific research applications such as earth science, marine science, and atmospheric research.

Types[link]

MILSTAR: A communication satellite

• Anti-Satellite weapons/"Killer Satellites" are satellites that are designed to destroy enemy warheads, satellites, other space assets.
• Astronomical satellites are satellites used for observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects.
• Biosatellites are satellites designed to carry living organisms, generally for scientific experimentation.
• Communications satellites are satellites stationed in space for the purpose of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites typically use geosynchronous orbits, Molniya orbits or Low Earth orbits.
• Miniaturized satellites are satellites of unusually low weights and small sizes.^[13] New classifications are used to categorize these satellites: minisatellite (500–100 kg), microsatellite (below 100 kg), nanosatellite (below 10 kg).
• Navigational satellites are satellites which use radio time signals transmitted to enable mobile receivers on the ground to determine their exact location. The relatively clear line of sight between the satellites and receivers on the ground, combined with ever-improving electronics, allows satellite navigation systems to measure location to accuracies on the order of a few meters in real time.
• Reconnaissance satellites are Earth observation satellite or communications satellite deployed for military or intelligence applications. Very little is known about the full power of these satellites, as governments who operate them usually keep information pertaining to their reconnaissance satellites classified.
• Earth observation satellites are satellites intended for non-military uses such as environmental monitoring, meteorology, map making etc. (See especially Earth Observing System.)
• Tether satellites are satellites which are connected to another satellite by a thin cable called a tether.
• Weather satellites are primarily used to monitor Earth's weather and climate.^[14]
• Recovery satellites are satellites that provides a recovery of reconnaissance, biological, space-production and other payloads from orbit to Earth.
• Manned spacecraft (spaceships) are large satellites able for put human into (and beyond) an orbit, being on it and recovery back to Earth. Spacecrafts, and orbital parts-spaceplanes of reusable systems also, has a major propulsion or landing facilities, and often uses as transport to and from the orbital stations.
• Space stations are man-made orbital structures that are designed for human beings to live on in outer space. A space station is distinguished from other manned spacecraft by its lack of major propulsion or landing facilities. Space stations are designed for medium-term living in orbit, for periods of weeks, months, or even years.

Orbit types[link]

Various earth orbits to scale; cyan represents low earth orbit, yellow represents medium earth orbit, the black dashed line represents geosynchronous orbit, the green dash-dot line the orbit of Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites, and the red dotted line the orbit of the International Space Station (ISS).

The first satellite, Sputnik 1, was put into orbit around Earth and was therefore in geocentric orbit. By far this is the most common type of orbit with approximately 2456 artificial satellites orbiting the Earth. Geocentric orbits may be further classified by their altitude, inclination and eccentricity.

The commonly used altitude classifications are Low Earth orbit (LEO), Medium Earth orbit (MEO) and High Earth orbit (HEO). Low Earth orbit is any orbit below 2000 km, and Medium Earth orbit is any orbit higher than that but still below the altitude for geosynchronous orbit at 35786 km. High Earth orbit is any orbit higher than the altitude for geosynchronous orbit.

Centric classifications[link]

• Geocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Earth, such as the Moon or artificial satellites. Currently there are approximately 2465 artificial satellites orbiting the Earth.
• Heliocentric orbit: An orbit around the Sun. In our Solar System, all planets, comets, and asteroids are in such orbits, as are many artificial satellites and pieces of space debris. Moons by contrast are not in a heliocentric orbit but rather orbit their parent planet.
• Areocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Mars, such as by moons or artificial satellites.

The general structure of a satellite is that it is connected to the earth stations that are present on the ground and connected through terrestrial links.

Altitude classifications[link]

• Low Earth orbit (LEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 0–2000 km (0–1240 miles)
• Medium Earth orbit (MEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 2,000 km (1,200 mi) to just below geosynchronous orbit at 35,786 km (22,236 mi). Also known as an intermediate circular orbit.
• High Earth orbit (HEO): Geocentric orbits above the altitude of geosynchronous orbit 35,786 km (22,236 mi).

Orbital Altitudes of several significant satellites of earth.

Inclination classifications[link]

• Inclined orbit: An orbit whose inclination in reference to the equatorial plane is not zero degrees.
  • Polar orbit: An orbit that passes above or nearly above both poles of the planet on each revolution. Therefore it has an inclination of (or very close to) 90 degrees.
  • Polar sun synchronous orbit: A nearly polar orbit that passes the equator at the same local time on every pass. Useful for image taking satellites because shadows will be nearly the same on every pass.

Eccentricity classifications[link]

• Circular orbit: An orbit that has an eccentricity of 0 and whose path traces a circle.
  • Hohmann transfer orbit: An orbital maneuver that moves a spacecraft from one circular orbit to another using two engine impulses. This maneuver was named after Walter Hohmann.
• Elliptic orbit: An orbit with an eccentricity greater than 0 and less than 1 whose orbit traces the path of an ellipse.
  • Geosynchronous transfer orbit: An elliptic orbit where the perigee is at the altitude of a Low Earth orbit (LEO) and the apogee at the altitude of a geosynchronous orbit.
  • Geostationary transfer orbit: An elliptic orbit where the perigee is at the altitude of a Low Earth orbit (LEO) and the apogee at the altitude of a geostationary orbit.
  • Molniya orbit: A highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4° and orbital period of half of a sidereal day (roughly 12 hours). Such a satellite spends most of its time over two designated areas of the planet (specifically Russia and the United States).
  • Tundra orbit: A highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4° and orbital period of one sidereal day (roughly 24 hours). Such a satellite spends most of its time over a single designated area of the planet.

Synchronous classifications[link]

• Synchronous orbit: An orbit where the satellite has an orbital period equal to the average rotational period (earth's is: 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.091 seconds) of the body being orbited and in the same direction of rotation as that body. To a ground observer such a satellite would trace an analemma (figure 8) in the sky.
• Semi-synchronous orbit (SSO): An orbit with an altitude of approximately 20,200 km (12,600 mi) and an orbital period equal to one-half of the average rotational period (earth's is approximately 12 hours) of the body being orbited
• Geosynchronous orbit (GSO): Orbits with an altitude of approximately 35,786 km (22,236 mi). Such a satellite would trace an analemma (figure 8) in the sky.
  • Geostationary orbit (GEO): A geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of zero. To an observer on the ground this satellite would appear as a fixed point in the sky.^[15]
    • Clarke orbit: Another name for a geostationary orbit. Named after scientist and writer Arthur C. Clarke.
  • Supersynchronous orbit: A disposal / storage orbit above GSO/GEO. Satellites will drift west. Also a synonym for Disposal orbit.
  • Subsynchronous orbit: A drift orbit close to but below GSO/GEO. Satellites will drift east.
  • Graveyard orbit: An orbit a few hundred kilometers above geosynchronous that satellites are moved into at the end of their operation.
    • Disposal orbit: A synonym for graveyard orbit.
    • Junk orbit: A synonym for graveyard orbit.
• Areosynchronous orbit: A synchronous orbit around the planet Mars with an orbital period equal in length to Mars' sidereal day, 24.6229 hours.
• Areostationary orbit (ASO): A circular areosynchronous orbit on the equatorial plane and about 17000 km(10557 miles) above the surface. To an observer on the ground this satellite would appear as a fixed point in the sky.
• Heliosynchronous orbit: A heliocentric orbit about the Sun where the satellite's orbital period matches the Sun's period of rotation. These orbits occur at a radius of 24,360 Gm (0.1628 AU) around the Sun, a little less than half of the orbital radius of Mercury.

Special classifications[link]

• Sun-synchronous orbit: An orbit which combines altitude and inclination in such a way that the satellite passes over any given point of the planets's surface at the same local solar time. Such an orbit can place a satellite in constant sunlight and is useful for imaging, spy, and weather satellites.
• Moon orbit: The orbital characteristics of Earth's Moon. Average altitude of 384,403 kilometres (238,857 mi), elliptical–inclined orbit.

Pseudo-orbit classifications[link]

• Horseshoe orbit: An orbit that appears to a ground observer to be orbiting a certain planet but is actually in co-orbit with the planet. See asteroids 3753 (Cruithne) and 2002 AA₂₉.
• Exo-orbit: A maneuver where a spacecraft approaches the height of orbit but lacks the velocity to sustain it.
  • Suborbital spaceflight: A synonym for exo-orbit.
• Lunar transfer orbit (LTO)
• Prograde orbit: An orbit with an inclination of less than 90°. Or rather, an orbit that is in the same direction as the rotation of the primary.
• Retrograde orbit: An orbit with an inclination of more than 90°. Or rather, an orbit counter to the direction of rotation of the planet. Apart from those in sun-synchronous orbit, few satellites are launched into retrograde orbit because the quantity of fuel required to launch them is much greater than for a prograde orbit. This is because when the rocket starts out on the ground, it already has an eastward component of velocity equal to the rotational velocity of the planet at its launch latitude.
• Halo orbit and Lissajous orbit: Orbits "around" Lagrangian points.

Satellite subsystems[link]

The satellite's functional versatility is imbedded within its technical components and its operations characteristics. Looking at the "anatomy" of a typical satellite, one discovers two modules.^[12] Note that some novel architectural concepts such as Fractionated Spacecraft somewhat upset this taxonomy.

Spacecraft bus or service module[link]

This bus module consist of the following subsystems:

• The Structural Subsystems

The structural subsystem provides the mechanical base structure, shields the satellite from extreme temperature changes and micro-meteorite damage, and controls the satellite's spin functions.

• The Telemetry Subsystems (aka Command and Data Handling, C&DH)

The telemetry subsystem monitors the on-board equipment operations, transmits equipment operation data to the earth control station, and receives the earth control station's commands to perform equipment operation adjustments.

• The Power Subsystems

The power subsystem consists of solar panels and backup batteries that generate power when the satellite passes into the Earth's shadow. Nuclear power sources (Radioisotope thermoelectric generators) have been used in several successful satellite programs including the Nimbus program (1964–1978).^[16]

• The Thermal Control Subsystems

The thermal control subsystem helps protect electronic equipment from extreme temperatures due to intense sunlight or the lack of sun exposure on different sides of the satellite's body (e.g. Optical Solar Reflector)

• The Attitude and Orbit Control Subsystems

The attitude and orbit control subsystem consists of small rocket thrusters that keep the satellite in the correct orbital position and keep antennas positioning in the right directions.

Communication payload[link]

The second major module is the communication payload, which is made up of transponders. A transponder is capable of :

• Receiving uplinked radio signals from earth satellite transmission stations (antennas).
• Amplifying received radio signals
• Sorting the input signals and directing the output signals through input/output signal multiplexers to the proper downlink antennas for retransmission to earth satellite receiving stations (antennas).

End of life[link]

When satellites reach the end of their mission, satellite operators have the option of de-orbiting the satellite, leaving the satellite in its current orbit or moving the satellite to a graveyard orbit. Historically, due to budgetary constraints at the beginning of satellite missions, satellites were rarely designed to be de-orbited. One example of this practice is the satellite Vanguard 1. Launched in 1958, Vanguard 1, the 4th manmade satellite put in Geocentric orbit, was still in orbit as of August 2009.^[17]

Instead of being de-orbited, most satellites are either left in their current orbit or moved to a graveyard orbit.^[18] As of 2002, the FCC now requires all geostationary satellites to commit to moving to a graveyard orbit at the end of their operational life prior to launch.^[19]

Launch-capable countries[link]

Launch of the first British Skynet military satellite.

This list includes countries with an independent capability to place satellites in orbit, including production of the necessary launch vehicle. Note: many more countries have the capability to design and build satellites but are unable to launch them, instead relying on foreign launch services. This list does not consider those numerous countries, but only lists those capable of launching satellites indigenously, and the date this capability was first demonstrated. Does not include consortium satellites or multi-national satellites.

'First launch by country

Order	Country	Year of first launch	Rocket	Satellite
1	Soviet Union	1957	Sputnik-PS	Sputnik 1
2	United States	1958	Juno I	Explorer 1
3	France	1965	Diamant	Astérix
4	Japan	1970	Lambda-4S	Ōsumi
5	China	1970	Long March 1	Dong Fang Hong I
6	United Kingdom	1971	Black Arrow	Prospero X-3
7	India	1980	SLV	Rohini
8	Israel	1988	Shavit	Ofeq 1
_	Russia[1]	1992	Soyuz-U	Kosmos 2175
_	Ukraine[1]	1992	Tsyklon-3	Strela
11	Iran	2009	Safir-2	Omid

Attempted first launches[link]

This section requires expansion.

• United States tried in 1957 to launch the first satellite by own launcher before successfully completing a launch in 1958.
• China tried in 1969 to launch the first satellite by own launcher before successfully completing a launch in 1970.
• India, after launching the first national satellite by foreign launcher in 1975, tried in 1979 to launch the first satellite by own launcher before succeeding in 1980.
• Iraq have claimed orbital launch of warhead in 1989, but this claim is unconfirmed.
• Brazil, after launch of first national satellite by foreign launcher in 1985, tried to launched the satellites by own VLS 1 launcher three times in 1997, 1999, 2003 but all were unsuccessful.
• North Korea claimed a launch of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-1 and Kwangmyŏngsŏng-2 satellites in 1998 and 2009, but U.S., Russian and other officials and weapons experts later reported that the rockets failed to send a satellites into orbit, if that was the goal. The United States, Japan and South Korea believe this was actually a ballistic missile test, which is a claim also made after North Korea's 1998 satellite launch, and later rejected. The launch of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 was unsuccessful, a fact publicly recognized by the DPRK.
• South Korea (Korea Aerospace Research Institute), after launching their first national satellite by foreign launcher in 1992, tried to launch a first KSLV own launcher (created with assistance of Russia) in 2009 and 2011, but all were unsuccessful.

Other notes[link]

• Russia and Ukraine were parts of the Soviet Union and thus inherited their launch capability without the need to develop it indigenously. Through Soviet Union they also are on the number one position in this list of accomplishments.
• France, United Kingdom, Ukraine launched their first satellites by own launchers from foreign spaceports.
• Some countries such as South Africa, Spain, Italy, Germany, Canada, Australia, Argentina, Egypt and private companies such as OTRAG, have developed their own launchers, but have not had a successful launch.
• Only eight countries from the list above (Russia and Ukraine instead of USSR, also USA, Japan, China, India, Israel and Iran) and one regional organization (the European Space Agency, ESA) have independently launched satellites on their own indigenously developed launch vehicles. (The launch capabilities of the United Kingdom and France now fall under the ESA.)
• Several other countries, including South Korea, Brazil, Pakistan, Romania, Kazakhstan, Taiwan, Indonesia, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia^{[citation needed]} and Turkey, are at various stages of development of their own small-scale launcher capabilities.

Launch capable private entities[link]

• Orbital Sciences Corporation is conducting launches using its Taurus I rocket.
• On September 28, 2008, the private aerospace firm SpaceX successfully launched its Falcon 1 rocket in to orbit. This marked the first time that a privately built liquid-fueled booster was able to reach orbit.^[20] The rocket carried a prism shaped 1.5 m (5 ft) long payload mass simulator that was set into orbit. The dummy satellite, known as Ratsat, will remain in orbit for between five and ten years before burning up in the atmosphere.^[20]

A few other private companies are capable of sub-orbital launches.

First satellites of countries[link]

First satellites of countries including launched indigenously or by help of other^[21]

Country	Year of first launch	First satellite	Payloads in orbit in 2010-2011[22]
Soviet Union ( Russia)	1957 (1992)	Sputnik 1 (Cosmos 2175)	1437
United States	1958	Explorer 1	1099
United Kingdom	1962	Ariel 1	0029
Canada	1962	Alouette 1	0032
Italy	1964	San Marco 1	0017
France	1965	Astérix	0049
Australia	1967	WRESAT	0011
Germany	1969	Azur	0042
Japan	1970	Ōsumi	0127
China	1970	Dong Fang Hong I	0120
Poland	1973	Intercosmos Copernicus 500	00001
Netherlands	1974	ANS	0005
Spain	1974	Intasat	0009
India	1975	Aryabhata	0045
Indonesia	1976	Palapa A1	0010
Czechoslovakia	1978	Magion 1	0005
Bulgaria	1981	Intercosmos Bulgaria 1300	0001
Brazil	1985	Brasilsat A1	0011
Mexico	1985	Morelos 1	0007
Sweden	1986	Viking	0011
Israel	1988	Ofeq 1	00010
Luxembourg	1988	Astra 1A	0015
Argentina	1990	Lusat	0010
Pakistan	1990	Badr-1	0005
South Korea	1992	Kitsat A	0012
Portugal	1993	PoSAT-1	0001
Thailand	1993	Thaicom 1	0006
Turkey	1994	Turksat 1B	0005
Ukraine	1995	Sich-1	0006
Malaysia	1996	MEASAT	0004
Norway	1997	Thor 2	0003
Philippines	1997	Mabuhay 1	0002
Egypt	1998	Nilesat 101	0003
Chile	1998	FASat-Bravo	0002
Singapore	1998	ST-1	0003
Taiwan	1999	ROCSAT-1	0009
Denmark	1999	Ørsted	0004
South Africa	1999	SUNSAT	0002
Saudi Arabia	2000	Saudisat 1A	0012
United Arab Emirates	2000	Thuraya 1	0003
Morocco	2001	Maroc-Tubsat	0001
Algeria	2002	Alsat 1	0001
Greece	2003	Hellas Sat 2	0002
Cyprus	2003	Hellas Sat 2	0002
Nigeria	2003	Nigeriasat 1	0004
Iran	2005	Sina-1	0004
Kazakhstan	2006	KazSat 1	0002
Colombia	2007	Libertad 1	0001
Mauritius	2007	Rascom-QAF 1	0002
Vietnam	2008	Vinasat-1	0002
Venezuela	2008	Venesat-1	0001
Switzerland	2009	SwissCube-1[23]	0001
Hungary	2012	MaSat-1 [24]	0005[citation needed]
Poland	2012	PW-Sat [25]	0001
Romania	2012	Goliat [26]	0001

While Canada was the third country to build a satellite which was launched into space,^[27] it was launched aboard a U.S. rocket from a U.S. spaceport. The same goes for Australia, who launched on-board a donated Redstone rocket. The first Italian-launched was San Marco 1, launched on 15 December 1964 on a U.S. Scout rocket from Wallops Island (VA,USA) with an Italian Launch Team trained by NASA.^[28] Australia's launch project (WRESAT) involved a donated U.S. missile and U. S. support staff as well as a joint launch facility with the United Kingdom.^[29] The first satellite built by Singapore, X-SAT, was launched aboard a PSLV rocket on April 20, 2011.^[30]

Attempted first satellite[link]

This section requires expansion.

•  USA tried in 1957 to launch the first satellite by own launcher before this was successfully happened later in 1958
•  China tried in 1969 to launch the first satellite by own launcher before this was successfully happened later in 1970
•  Chile tried in 1995 to launch the first satellite FASat-Alfa by foreign launcher before this was successfully happened later in 1998
•  North Korea tried in 1998, 2009, 2012 to launch the first satellites by own launcher (see above)
•  Belarus tried in 2006 to launch the first satellite BelKA by foreign launcher

Planned first satellites[link]

This section requires expansion.

•  Afghanistan announced in April 2012 that it is planning to launch its first communications satellite to the orbital slot it has been award. The satellite is expected to be launched by a commercial company.^[31]
•  Austria The micro-satellite BRITE-AUSTRIA (TUG-SAT-1) plans to start in early 2012.^[32]
•  Azerbaijan is developing its space satellite Azerspace. According to the approved plan, the Azerspace satellite will be launched into orbit in 2012.^[33]
•  Bangladesh announced in 2009 that it intends to launch its first satellite into space by 2011.^[34]
•  Belgium Its nano-satellite OUFTI-1 within European University program CubeSat for test radio protocol in space are under construction in University of Liege.^[35]
•  Bolivia New Bolivian Space Agency plans a first satellite to 2012 by Chinese help ^[36]
•  Cambodia Royal Group plans to purchase for 250-350 billion $ and launch in the beginning of 2013 the telecommunication satellite [4]
•  Croatia has a goal to construct a satellite by 2013–2014. Launch into Earth orbit would be done by a foreign provider.^[37]
•  Ecuador presented its first satellite in April 4, 2011, the NEE-01 Pegasus designed and built by the Ecuadorian Space Agency. The pico-satellite will be launched into orbit by 2012, and will have an expected 1-year lifespan. it has 16 missions and 3 payloads, it is the first known CubeSat to be able to send real-time video from orbit, both visible and infrared. It also carries a thermal and radiation shield.
•  Estonia The nano-satellite ESTCube-1 plans by University of Tartu within student CubeSat projects [5]
•  Finland Aalto-1 with solar panels is a funded by EU student nano-satellite project of Aalto University, Finland and Finnish Meteorological Institute [6]. When launched (plan to 2013), it would be the first Finnish satellite.
•  Laos First satellite will be telecommunication and will be built and launched in 2013 for $250 million by China Asia-Pacific Mobile Communications Company (China-APMT) [7] [8]
•  Latvia The 5 kg nano-satellite Venta-1 is built in Latvia in cooperation with the German engineers. The data received from satellite will be received and processed in Irbene radioastronomical centre (Latvia); satellite will have software defined radio capabilities. "Venta-1" will serve mainly as a means for education in Ventspils University College with additional functions, including an automatic system of identification of the ships of a sailing charter developed by OHB-System AG. The launch of the satellite was planned for the end of 2009 using the Indian carrier rocket. Due to the financial crisis the launch has been postponed until late 2011.^[38] Started preparations to produce the next satellite "Venta-2".
•  Lithuania New national Space Science and Technology Institute ^[39] plans nano-satellite with space capsules by Russian help ^[40]
•  Moldova The remote sensing satellite plans to start in 2013 by Space centre at national Technical University.^[41]
•  Myanmar plans to purchase for $200 million the own telecommunication satellite [9]
•  New Zealand Private New Zealand Satellite Opportunities company since 2005 plans to launch in 2010 or later a commercial satellite NZLSAT for $200 million. [10] [11] Radio enthusiasts federation at Massey University [12] since 2003 hopes for $400,000 to launch a nano-satellite KiwiSAT to relay a voice and data signals [13] Also another RocketLab company works under suborbital space launcher and may use a further version of one to launch into low polar orbit a nano-satellite [14] [15]
•  North Korea will launch several more satellites according to national space program of Korean Committee of Space Technology ^[42][43]
•  Peru developed its space satellite with the National Engineering University, called Chasqui 1. The nano-satellite planning to launch into orbit in 2012 with an expected 60-day lifespan. Payload includes two small VGA cameras with NIR filter(s).
•  Serbia Nongovermental organisations designed, developed and assembled the first Serbian satellite Tesla-1 in 2009 but it still remains unlaunched.
•  Sri Lanka has a goal to construct two satellites. Sri Lankan Telecommunications Regulatory Commission has signed an agreement with Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd to get relevant help and resources. Launch into Earth orbit would be done by a foreign provider.^[44][45]
•  Tunisia is developing its first satellite, ERPSat01. Consisting of a CubeSat of 1 kg weight, it will be developed by the Sfax School of Engineering. ERPSat satellite is planned to be launched into orbit in 2013.^[46]
•  Turkmenistan New National Space Agency plans a first satellite by help of SpaceX to 2014 ^[47]
•  Uzbekistan Uzbek State Space Research Agency (UzbekCosmos) announced in 2001 about intention of launch in 2002 first remote sensing satellite [16] Later in 2004 was stated that two satellites (remote sensing and telecommunication) will be build by Russia for 60-70 billion $ each [17]

Attacks on satellites[link]

In recent times satellites have been hacked by militant organizations to broadcast propaganda and to pilfer classified information from military communication networks.^[48][49]

For testing purposes, satellites in low earth orbit have been destroyed by ballistic missiles launched from earth. Russia, the United States and China have demonstrated the ability to eliminate satellites.^[50] In 2007 the Chinese military shot down an aging weather satellite,^[50] followed by the US Navy shooting down a defunct spy satellite in February 2008.^[51]

Jamming[link]

Due to the low received signal strength of satellite transmissions, they are prone to jamming by land-based transmitters. Such jamming is limited to the geographical area within the transmitter's range. GPS satellites are potential targets for jamming,^[52][53] but satellite phone and television signals have also been subjected to jamming.^[54][55]

Also, it is trivial to transmit a carrier radio signal to a geostationary satellite and thus interfere with the legitimate uses of the satellite's transponder. It is common for Earth stations to transmit at the wrong time or on the wrong frequency in commercial satellite space, and dual-illuminate the transponder, rendering the frequency unusable. Satellite operators now have sophisticated monitoring that enables them to pinpoint the source of any carrier and manage the transponder space effectively.^{[citation needed]}

Satellite services[link]

• Satellite Internet access
• Satellite phone
• Satellite radio
• Satellite television
• Satellite navigation

See also[link]

Spaceflight portal

• 2009 satellite collision
• Footprint (satellite)
• Fractionated Spacecraft
• International Designator
• IMINT
• Space exploration
• List of Earth observation satellites
• List of communications satellite firsts
• Satellite Catalog Number
• Satellite formation flying
• USA 193 (2008 American anti-satellite missile test)
• Spaceport (including list of spaceports with achieved satellite launches)
• Echo 1
• Pioneer 10
• Mariner 10
• Viking I
• Viking II
• Satellites on stamps
• List of passive satellites

References[link]

External links[link]

• Satellite at the Open Directory Project
• Satellite Ground Tracks Real time satellite tracks (Full catalog of satellite orbit). (English) (German) (Spanish) (French) (Italian) (Portuguese) (Chinese)
• Real Time Satellite Tracking provides real-time tracks for about 17000 satellites, as well as 5-day predicitions of visibility
• Heavens Above provides 10-day predictions of satellite visibility
• 'Eyes in the Sky' Free video by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU Satellites and their implications over the last 50 years.
• UCS Satellite Database Lists operational satellites currently in orbit around the Earth. Updated quarterly.
• Current and Historical Launch Calendar
• Satellite launch schedule

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Satellite

Lena Meyer-Landrut
Lena Meyer-Landrut at the winner's press conference of the Eurovision Song Contest 2010
Background information
Also known as	Lena
Born	(1991-05-23) 23 May 1991 (age 21)
Origin	Hanover, Germany
Genres	Pop, Indie, Indie-pop[1]
Occupations	Singer-songwriter
Years active	2010–present
Labels	USFO, Universal Music Germany
Website	www.lena-meyer-landrut.com

Lena Meyer-Landrut (born 23 May 1991^[2]), known professionally as Lena, is a German singer-songwriter. She represented Germany in the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 in Oslo, Norway, and won the contest with the song "Satellite".^[3][4] With her three entries from the German national final Unser Star für Oslo (Our Star for Oslo), Meyer-Landrut set an all-time chart record in her home country by debuting with three songs in the top five of the German singles chart.^[5] Both "Satellite" and her first album My Cassette Player debuted at number one in Germany, while the former has been certified double Platinum since, the album has been certified five times Gold for sales of over 500,000 units.^[6][7][8] Meyer-Landrut represented Germany, for the second consecutive time, in the Eurovision Song Contest at Düsseldorf in 2011 with the song "Taken by a Stranger".^[9]

Early life[link]

Lena Meyer-Landrut was born in Hanover, Germany.^[10] She is the granddaughter of Andreas Meyer-Landrut, the Estonian-born West German ambassador to the Soviet Union in Moscow from 1980 to 1983 and 1987 to 1989.^[11][12][13] She grew up as an only child,^[10] and started taking dancing lessons at the age of five; initially doing ballet and later practising various modern styles, including hip-hop and jazz dance.^[14] Meyer-Landrut grew fond of singing and appeared as an extra in a number of German television series;^[10] however she never received any formal acting or vocal training.^[15] In June 2010 she graduated from IGS Roderbruch Hannover, a comprehensive school, receiving her Abitur diploma.^[16]

Career[link]

[edit] Unser Star für Oslo

Despite having had no professional singing experience,^[15] Meyer-Landrut decided to take part in the talent show Unser Star für Oslo (Our Star for Oslo), a newly created national television programme to select the German entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 in Oslo. The show was organised by public broadcaster ARD and private television station ProSieben, as well as entertainer and music producer Stefan Raab. Among 4,500 entrants, Meyer-Landrut was picked as one of the 20 contestants for the show. Asked about her motivation to apply, she stated, "I like to test myself. I wanted to see how I am perceived, and I wanted to hear what people with knowledge have to say about it. I personally can’t judge myself at all."^[12]

After her first appearance, performing "My Same" by British singer Adele, Meyer-Landrut received much praise from the show's jury panel and was instantly considered the favourite.^[15] The following week, Adele's "My Same" entered the German singles chart at position number 61.^[17] Meyer-Landrut reached the final of Unser Star für Oslo, mainly performing lesser known songs of international artists such as The Bird and the Bee, Kate Nash, Paolo Nutini and Lisa Mitchell. Out of her eight cover performances, five of the original songs subsequently charted in Germany, with all but one reaching their peak chart position.^{[18][19][20][21]} In the final on 12 March 2010, Meyer-Landrut sang three songs specifically written for the contest, "Bee", "Satellite" and "Love Me". Through televoting, the audience chose "Satellite", written by US American Julie Frost and Dane John Gordon, to be her designated song in case she wins the show. In a second round of voting, Meyer-Landrut was chosen as Germany's entry for the 55th Eurovision Song Contest, beating the last remaining contestant, Jennifer Braun.^[22] The music video for "Satellite" was shot during the night of the final and premiered on German television stations four days later.^[23]

	Lena Meyer-Landrut "Satellite" (2010) noicon Sample from the chorus of Lena Meyer-Landrut's "Satellite".
Problems listening to this file? See media help.

Throughout the show, Meyer-Landrut was seen as the clear favourite, often leading Internet polls by huge margins.^[24] One day after winning Unser Star für Oslo, all three of the songs performed by her in the final topped the German iTunes Store sales chart,^[25] making her the first singer to achieve that.^[26] "Satellite" sold over 100,000 downloads in its first week, becoming Germany's fastest selling digital release ever.^[27] Her three songs all entered the top five of the German singles chart, reaching positions number one, three and four, which no artist had ever achieved since charts were first released in Germany in 1959.^[5] "Satellite" was eligible to be certified gold after the first week and platinum after the fourth week of its release.^[27][28] The song has remained at number one for five consecutive weeks in Germany.^[29]

While competing at Unser Star für Oslo, Meyer-Landrut continued to attend school. The last show was held one month before the start of her final exams.^[10] Following her exams, she released her debut album, My Cassette Player, on 7 May 2010.^[30] Produced by Stefan Raab, it includes the singles "Satellite", "Love Me" and "Bee", as well as two cover songs and eight unreleased titles. Meyer-Landrut is credited as a co-writer for the lyrics of five songs.^[31] The album debuted at number one in the German albums chart.^[8] It peaked at number one in the Austrian albums chart, number three in the Swiss albums chart, number five in European Top 100 Albums,^[32][33][34] and has been certified five times Gold in Germany for sales of over 500,000 units since.^[7]

Following her success in Germany, Meyer-Landrut has said she would enjoy a singing or an acting career,^[12] but explained, "I'm not fixated on doing music my whole life."^[35] She stated she originally planned to study acting after graduating school, but now is unsure "if time allows".^[35] She has said her musical influences include Adele, Kate Nash, Vanessa Carlton, as well as the German singer Clueso and German pop rock band Wir sind Helden.^[14]

Eurovision Song Contest[link]

Meyer-Landrut during a dress rehearsal at the Eurovision Song Contest 2010

Representing a "big four" country, Meyer-Landrut automatically qualified for the final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2010. Germany received a wild card during the running order draw, allowing the German representatives to pick the country's position for the final. They chose position 22 out of the 25 spots. Meyer-Landrut arrived one week before the show in Oslo, Norway, where she completed five rehearsals of her song "Satellite". Prior to the final, she was considered one of the favourites. Bookmakers regarded her second favourite behind Azerbaijan's Safura, while Google projected she would win based on search volume in the participating countries.^[36] According to Norway's Aftenposten she received the most media attention of all participants.^[37]

The final was held on 29 May 2010 at Oslo's Telenor Arena. Appearing fourth from last, Meyer-Landrut wore a simple black dress and performed on a bare stage with four backing singers. Her pared-back presentation was a break from recent Eurovision trends, as it did not feature any form of choreography, dancers or elaborate stage show.^[38] "Satellite" received a total of 246 points, giving Germany its first win since 1982, and the first victory as a unified country. The song won over Turkey's entry "We Could Be the Same" with a margin of 76 points, at that time the second-biggest in Eurovision history, second only to Alexander Rybak's margin of 169 points in the 2009 contest (it would later be beaten by Loreen's victory in 2012, sporting a margin of 113 points). "Satellite" received the maximum 12 points nine times and received points from all but five countries.^[4]

2010–2011[link]

Lena on stage in Düsseldorf

The BBC called "Satellite" the first "contemporary pop hit Eurovision has produced in decades", ushering in "a new era for the annual music jamboree".^[39] Meyer-Landrut's victory received much attention in Germany and the show was seen by 15 million viewers on German television (a 49.1 percent market share).^[40] She returned to Hanover the following day, where she was greeted by 40,000 people.^[41] In June, "Satellite" regained the top spot in the German singles chart for one week and also peaked at number one in Denmark,^[42] Finland,^[43] Norway,^[44] Sweden^[45] and Switzerland.^[46] It also topped European Hot 100 singles chart,^[47] being the first Eurovision song to achieve this.^[48]

Meyer-Landrut attempted to defend her title in the 2011 Eurovision Song Contest.^[9] She was the third winner to do so, and the first in over 50 years.^[49]

In the German dubbed version of the computer-animated film Sammy's Adventures: The Secret Passage, Meyer-Landrut provided the voice for the character originally spoken by Isabelle Fuhrman.^[50][51]

In January 2011, the TV-Show "Unser Song für Deutschland" was announced. The viewers of the show decided for Meyer-Landrut's 2011 Eurovision song.^[52] All twelve songs Meyer-Landrut performed during that show were recorded on her second studio album Good News which was released on 8 February 2011. The album managed to reach a Gold status for selling more than 100,000 units in Germany in its first week of release.^[53]

On February 18, the "Unser Song für Deutschland" final was held and it was decided through televoting that Meyer-Landrut would perform the entry "Taken by a Stranger" in the final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2011^[54] where it was placed tenth. The song was released on 22 February 2011.^[55]

In April 2011 she went on her first German tour in the largest concert halls in Berlin, Hanover, Frankfurt, Dortmund, Leipzig, Hamburg, Munich, Stuttgart and Cologne. The concert in Frankfurt was recorded on video and was released on DVD in May 2011 which went to #1 in German DVD chart.

2012-present[link]

On May 24, 2012, Lena performed as part of the interval act during the second semi-finals of the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 in Baku, Azerbaijan. She was joined by the last five Eurovision winners from 2007 to 2011 which included Marija Šerifović, Dima Bilan, Alexander Rybak, and Ell & Nikki. Lena, Marija, Dima and Alexander performed their winning song entry accompanied by traditional Azeri instruments, being joined by Ell & Nikki for a rendition of "Waterloo".^[56]

Media image[link]

Meyer-Landrut has been noted for her unconventional way of handling the press,^[57] which has been labelled "aloof" as well as "quick-witted" and "intuitive".^[57] She usually refuses to answer questions about her private life, including her family, friends and personal beliefs, sometimes calling questions "stupid" or responding with counterquestions instead.^[57] This has drawn praise as well as criticism, including allegations of arrogance.^[58]

Meyer-Landrut's demeanour has been described as "carefree",^[59] "laid-back and self-effacing".^[60] She has been said to possess an "adequate youthful megalomania", to "cultivate her forwardness" and to stand for "unadorned genuineness"^[59] and "sincerity".^[61] She has also been said to give "infatuation a rhythm"^[60] and blur the "fine line between puppy love and psychotic obsession".^[62] Her vocals have been both lauded^[61][63] and criticised.^[63] The extent of her vocal control can be heard in the Australian broadcast of the 2010 Eurovision Song Contest, where, upon being interviewed by an Australian host, she responds in an uncannily perfect Melbourne-style accent. In an attempt to explain Meyer-Landrut's success, her appearance has been called a "mix of loveliness, professionalism and a little craziness".^[64] She has also been lauded for her stage presence^[64] and charisma.^[61]

[edit] Appearances on Unser Star für Oslo

Meyer-Landrut at Hanover's New City Hall after winning Unser Star für Oslo, March 2010

Jennifer Braun and Meyer-Landrut both sang different versions of "Bee" and "Satellite" in the final

Awards and nominations[link]

Results[link]

Discography[link]

Studio albums

• 2010: My Cassette Player
• 2011: Good News
• 2012: TBA

References[link]

Further reading[link]

English

• Brey, Marco. Lena Meyer-Landrut gets German ticket to Oslo. Eurovision.tv. 12 March 2010. Accessed 14 April 2010.
• Tarr, Sophie. Hanover teenager named Germany's hope for Eurovision. Deutsche Welle. 12 March 2010. Accessed 14 April 2010.
• European Broadcasting Union. Biography – About Lena. Eurovision.tv. Accessed 14 April 2010.
• Friedman, Deborah. Germany sends Eurovision star Lena into orbit (Interview). Deutsche Welle. 13 April 2010. Accessed 14 April 2010.
• Adams, Will. Germany's Eurovision 2010 Song: "Satellite" by Lena Meyer-Landrut. The Huffington Post. 4 May 2010. Accessed 6 May 2010.
• Spiegel.net GmbH. The Cult Of Lena-ism – Eurovision's Next Winner?. Spiegel Online. 21 May 2010. Accessed 23 May 2010.

German

• Kistner, Anna. Ein bisschen Frieden. Jetzt.de. 23 February 2010. Accessed 14 April 2010. (German)
• Pilz, Michael. Moderne Wolpertinger sollt ihr sein. Die Welt. 17 March 2010. Accessed 14 April 2010. (German)
• Dörfler, Sebastian. Verdammte Scheiße, ist die echt!. Die Tageszeitung. 25 March 2010. Accessed 14 April 2010. (German)
• Herzinger, Richard. Fräulein Wunder mit Knuddelfaktor. Die Welt. 28 March 2010. Accessed 14 April 2010. (German)
• Rapp, Tobias. Lenaismus. Der Spiegel. 14/2010. Accessed 14 April 2010. (German)

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Lena Meyer-Landrut

• Official website
• Lena Meyer-Landrut at the Internet Movie Database
• Profile at BBC Online
• Profile at Eurovision.ndr.de (German)
• Profile at Unser-Star-fuer-Oslo.de (German)
• Videos of Meyer-Landrut's USFO performances at Unser-Star-fuer-Oslo.de (German)
• Video of Meyer-Landrut's Eurovision performance at NDR.de (German)
• Entry at Allmusic.com

{{succession box

Awards and achievements
Preceded by Alexander Rybak with "Fairytale"	Winner of the Eurovision Song Contest 2010	Succeeded by Ell & Nikki with "Running Scared"
Preceded by Alex Swings Oscar Sings with "Miss Kiss Kiss Bang"	Germany in the Eurovision Song Contest 2010, 2011	Succeeded by Roman Lob with "Standing Still"
Preceded by Marco Mengoni	Best European Act in the MTV Europe Music Awards 2011	Succeeded by Incumbent