The of the history of Japan covers the years from AD 710 to 794. Empress Gemmei established the capital of Heijō-kyō (present-day Nara). Except for 5 years (740–745), when the capital was briefly moved again, it remained the capital of Japanese civilization until Emperor Kammu established a new capital, Nagaoka-kyō, in 784 before moving to Heian-kyō, or Kyoto, a decade later in 794.

Most of Japanese society during this period was agricultural in nature and centered around villages. Most of the villagers followed a religion based on the worship of natural and ancestral spirits called ''kami''.

The capital at Nara was modeled after Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), the capital city of Tang China. In many other ways, the Japanese upper classes patterned themselves after the Chinese, including adopting Chinese written characters (Japanese: ''kanji''), fashion, and the religion of Buddhism.

Etymology

According to the most complete extant historical record of ancient Japan ''Nihon Shoki'' the name "Nara" derived from the Japanese verb ''narasu'' "to flatten".

Modern hypotheses suggest that it is cognate with the modern Korean word nara "country, kingdom". More specifically, Modern Korean ''nara'' derives from Middle Korean ''narah'', which in turn is from reconstructed Old Korean *''narak''. The initial ''na'' may be related to Goguryeo language ''na'' "earth".. According to Bae HakTae(배 학태), The final -ra < -rah < -rak may be identified as meaning "land, territory" and is also seen in other geographical places such as Nara, Gara, and Silla, the last two of which where spelled with a final k- in Old Japanese (cf, Shiragi(しらぎ)). Also, Nara was variously written as 寧楽 and 乃楽, suggesting a reading of *''naraku'', also with a final k- ending.This hypothesis was introduced to Japan by the pressman in Japan.

Nara period literature

Concentrated efforts by the imperial court to record and document its history produced the first works of Japanese literature during the Nara period. Works such as the ''Kojiki'' and the ''Nihon Shoki'' were political in nature, used to record and therefore justify and establish the supremacy of the rule of the emperors within Japan.

With the spread of written language, the writing of Japanese poetry, known in Japanese as ''waka'', began. Over time, personal collections were referenced to establish the first large collection of Japanese poetry known as ''Man'yōshū'' sometime after 759. Chinese characters were used to express sounds of Japanese until ''kana'' were invented. The Chinese characters used to express the sounds of Japanese are known as ''man'yōgana''.

Economic, social, and administrative developments

Before the Taihō Code was established, the capital was customarily moved after the death of an emperor because of the ancient belief that a place of death was polluted. Reforms and bureaucratization of government led to the establishment of a permanent imperial capital at Heijō-kyō, or Nara, in AD 710. It is to be noted that the capital was moved shortly (for reasons described later in this section) to Kuni-kyō (present-day Kizugawa) in 740–744, to Naniwa-kyō (present-day Osaka) in 744–745, to Shigarakinomiya (紫香楽宮, present-day Shigaraki) in 745, and moved back to Nara in 745. Nara was Japan's first truly urban center. It soon had a population of 200,000 (representing nearly 4% of the country's population) and some 10,000 people worked in government jobs.

Economic and administrative activity increased during the Nara period. Roads linked Nara to provincial capitals, and taxes were collected more efficiently and routinely. Coins were minted, if not widely used. Outside the Nara area, however, there was little commercial activity, and in the provinces the old Shōtoku land reform systems declined. By the mid-eighth century, ''shōen'' (landed estates), one of the most important economic institutions in medieval Japan, began to rise as a result of the search for a more manageable form of landholding. Local administration gradually became more self-sufficient, while the breakdown of the old land distribution system and the rise of taxes led to the loss or abandonment of land by many people who became the "wave people" (''furōsha''). Some of these formerly "public people" were privately employed by large landholders, and "public lands" increasingly reverted to the ''shōen''.

Factional fighting at the imperial court continued throughout the Nara period. Imperial family members, leading court families, such as the Fujiwara, and Buddhist priests all contended for influence. Earlier this period, Prince Nagaya seized power at the court after the death of Fujiwara no Fuhito. Fuhito was succeeded by four sons, Muchimaro, Umakai, Fusasaki, and Maro. They put Emperor Shōmu, the prince by Fuhito's daughter, on the throne. In 729, they arrested Nagaya and regained control. However, as the first outbreak of smallpox spread from Kyūshū in 735, all four brothers were killed two years later, resulting in temporary shrinking of Fujiwara's dominance. It is without doubt that the Emperor was heavily shocked about this disaster, and he moved the palace three times in only five years since 740, until he eventually returned to Nara. In the late Nara period, financial burdens on the state increased, and the court began dismissing nonessential officials. In 792 universal conscription was abandoned, and district heads were allowed to establish private militia forces for local police work. Decentralization of authority became the rule despite the reforms of the Nara period. Eventually, to return control to imperial hands, the capital was moved in 784 to Nagaoka-kyō and in 794 to Heian-kyō (literally Capital of Peace and Tranquility), about twenty-six kilometers north of Nara. By the late eleventh century, the city was popularly called Kyoto (capital city), the name it has had ever since.

Cultural developments and the establishment of Buddhism

Some of Japan's literary monuments were written during the Nara period, including the ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'', the first national histories, compiled in 712 and 720 respectively; the ''Man'yōshū'', an anthology of poems; and the ''Kaifūsō'', an anthology written in Chinese by Japanese emperors and princes.

Another major cultural development of the era was the permanent establishment of Buddhism. Buddhism was introduced by Baekje in the sixth century, but had a mixed reception until the Nara period, when it was heartily embraced by Emperor Shōmu. Shōmu and his Fujiwara consort were fervent Buddhists and actively promoted the spread of Buddhism, making it the "guardian of the state" and a way of strengthening Japanese institutions.

During Shōmu's reign, the Tōdai-ji (literally Eastern Great Temple) was built, and within it was placed the Great Buddha Daibutsu; a sixteen-metre-high, gilt-bronze statue. This Buddha was identified with the Sun Goddess, and a gradual syncretism of Buddhism and Shinto ensued. Shōmu declared himself the "Servant of the Three Treasures" of Buddhism: the Buddha, the law or teachings of Buddhism, and the Buddhist community.

The central government also established temples called ''kokubunji'' in the provinces. The Tōdai-ji was the kokubunji of Yamato Province (present-day Nara Prefecture).

Although these efforts stopped short of making Buddhism the state religion, Nara Buddhism heightened the status of the imperial family. Buddhist influence at court increased under the two reigns of Shōmu's daughter. As Empress Kōken (r. 749–758) she brought many Buddhist priests into court. Kōken abdicated in 758 on the advice of her cousin, Fujiwara no Nakamaro. When the retired empress came to favor a Buddhist faith healer named Dōkyō, Nakamaro rose up in arms in 764 but was quickly crushed. Kōken charged the ruling emperor with colluding with Nakamaro and had him deposed. Kōken reascended the throne as Empress Shōtoku (r. 764–770). The empress commissioned the printing of 1 million prayer charms—the Hyakumantō dharani —many examples of which survive. The small scrolls, dating from 770, are among the earliest printed works in the world. Shōtoku had the charms printed to placate the Buddhist clergy. She may even have wanted to make Dōkyō emperor, but she died before she could act. Her actions shocked Nara society and led to the exclusion of women from imperial succession and the removal of Buddhist priests from positions of political authority.

Many of the Japanese artworks and imported treasures from other countries during the era of Emperors Shōmu and Shōtoku are archived in Shōsō-in of Tōdai-ji temple. They are called Shōsōin treasures, and illustrate the cosmopolitan culture also known as Tempyō culture. Imported treasures show various influences of Silk Road areas, including China, Korea, India, and Islamic Empire. Also, Shosoin stores more than 10,000 paper documents so-called . These are records written in the reverse side of the sutra or in the wrapping of imported items, and survived as a result of reusing wasted official documents. Shōsōin documents contribute greatly to the research of Japanese political and social systems of the Nara period, while they even indicate the development of Japanese writing systems (such as katakana).

International relations

The Nara court aggressively imported Chinese civilization by sending diplomatic envoys known as kentōshi to the Tang court every twenty years. Many Japanese students, both lay and Buddhist priests, studied in Chang'an and Luoyang. One student named Abe no Nakamaro passed the Chinese civil examination to be appointed to governmental posts in China. He served as Governor-General in Annam or Chinese Vietnam from 761 through 767. Many students who returned from China were promoted to high government posts like Kibi no Makibi.

Tang China never sent official envoys to Japan, for Japanese kings, or emperors as they styled themselves, did not seek investiture from the Chinese emperor. A local Chinese government in Lower Yangzi Valley sent a mission to Japan to return Japanese envoys who entered China through Balhae. The Chinese local mission could not return home due to the rebellion of An Lu Shan and remained in Japan.

Relations with the Korean kingdom of Silla were initially peaceful, with regular diplomatic exchanges. However, the rise of Balhae north of Silla destabilized Japan-Silla relations. Balhae sent its first mission in 728 to Nara, which welcomed them as the successor state to Goguryeo, with which Japan was allied until Silla unified the Three Kingdoms of Korea.

Events

710: Japan's capital is moved from Fujiwara to Nara, modeled after China's capital Chang'an

712: The collection of tales ''Kojiki''

720: The collection of tales ''Nihon Shoki''

743: Emperor Shōmu issues a rescript to build the ''Daibutsu'' (Great Buddha), later to be completed and placed in Tōdai-ji, Nara

752: The Great Buddha(Daibutsu) at Tōdai-ji was completed

759: The poetic anthology ''Man'yōshū''

784: The emperor moves the capital to Nagaoka

788: The Buddhist monk Saichō founds the monastery of Mt Hiei, near Kyoto, which becomes a vast ensemble of temples

See also

Takahashi Ujibumi

Notes

References

English

Brown, Delmer, ed. ''Cambridge History of Japan: Ancient Japan'' (1993)

Farris, William. ''Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age'' (University of Hawaii Press, 2009)

Ooms, Herman. ''Imperial Politics and Symbolics in Ancient Japan: The Tenmu Dynasty, 650–800'' (University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu, 2009)

Sansom, G. B. ''Japan: A Short Cultural History'' (Stanford University Press, 1978) pp 108=187 online

Other

– Japan

Category:Nara period

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name	Emperor Shōmu
title	45th Emperor of Japan
reign	March 3, 724 — August 19, 749
predecessor	Empress Genshō
successor	Empress Kōken
consort	Fujiwara no Asukabe-hime(Empress Kōmyō) (701-760)
issue	Prince Motoi, Empress Kōken, Prince Asaka, Princess Inoe, Princess Fuwa
father	Emperor Mommu
mother	Fujiwara no Miyako (?-754), daughter of Fujiwara no Fuhito
birth date	701 |
death date	June 4 756|
death place	Nara, Japan
place of burial	''Sahoyama no minami no misasagi'' (Nara)

was the 45th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.

Shōmu's reign spanned the years 724 through 749.

Traditional narrative

Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (''imina'') is not clearly known, but he was known as Oshi-hiraki Toyosakura-hiko-no-mikoto.

Shōmu was the son of Emperor Mommu and Fujiwara no Miyako, a daughter of Fujiwara no Fuhito.

Shōmu had four Empresses and six Imperial sons and daughters.

Events of Shōmu's reign

Shōmu was still a child at the time of his father's death; thus, Empresses Gemmei and Gensho occupied the throne before he acceded.

724 (''Yōrō 8, 1st month''): In the 9th year of Genshō''-tennō'' 's reign (元正天皇9年), the empress abdicated; and her younger brother received the succession (‘‘senso’’). Shortly thereafter, Emperor Shōmu is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’).

January 31, 724 (''Jinki 1''): The era name is changed to mark the accession of Emperor Shōmu.

Shōmu continued to reside in the Hezei Palace.

Shōmu is known as the first emperor whose consort was not born into the imperial household. His consort Kōmyō was a non-royal Fujiwara commoner. A ritsuryo office was created for the queen-consort, the ''Kogogushiki''; and this bureaucratic innovation continued into the Heian period.

Timeline

724 (''Jinki 1''): Emperor Shōmu rises to throne.

740 (''Tenpyō 12, 8th month''): In the Imperial court in Nara, Kibi no Makibi and Genbō conspire to discredit Fujiwara no Hirotsugu, who is ''Dazai shoni'' in Kyushu. 740 (''Tenpyō 12, 9th month''): Hirotsugu creates an army in reaction to the growing influence of Genbō and others. 740 (''Tenpyō 12, 9th month''): Under the command of Ōno no Azumabito, an Imperial army of 17,000 is sent to Kyushu to stop the potential disturbance. 740 (''Tenpyō 12, 10th month''): Hirotsugu is decisively beaten in battle; and he is beheaded in Hizen province.

740 (''Tenpyō 12''): The capital is moved to Kuni-kyō

741 (''Tenpyō 13''): The Emperor calls for nationwide establishment of provincial temples. Provincial temples (''"kokubunji"'') and provincial nunneries (''"kokubunniji"'') were established throughout the country. The more formal name for these ''"kokubunji"'' was ''"konkomyo-shitenno-gokoku no tera"'' (meaning "temples for the protection of the cournty by the four guardian deities of the golden light"). The more formal name for these ''"bokubunniji"'' was ''"hokke-metuzai no tera"'' (meaning "nunneries for eliminating sin by means of the Lotus Sutra"). 743 (''Tenpyō 15''): The Emperor issues a rescript to build the ''Daibutsu'' (Great Buddha), later to be completed and placed in Tōdai-ji, Nara.

743 (''Tenpyō 15''): The law of Perpetual Ownership of Cultivated Lands (墾田永代私財法) issued

744 (''Tenpyō 16''): In the Spring, the court was moved to Naniwa-kyō which then became the new capital.

745 (''Tenpyō 17''): The Emperor declares by himself Shigaraki-kyō the capital

745 (''Tenpyō 17''): The capital returns to Heijō-kyō, construction of the Great Buddha resumes.

749 (''Tenpyō 21, 4th month''): Shōme, accompanied by the empress, their children and all the great men and women of the court, went in procession to Todai-ji. The emperor stood before the statue of the Buddha and proclaimed himself to be a slave to the three precious precepts of the Buddhist religion, which are the Buddha, the Buddhist law, and the Buddhist church. 749 (''Tenpyō 21, 7th month''): After a 25-year reign, Emperor Shōmu abdicates in favor of his daughter, Princess Takano-hime, who will become Empress Kōken. After his abdication, Shomu took the tonsure, thus becoming the first retired emperor to become a Buddhist priest. Empress Komyo, following her husband’s example, also took holy vows in becoming a Buddhist nun.

752 (''Tenpyō-shōhō 4, 4th month''): The Eye-opening Ceremony celebrating the completion of the Great Buddha is held at Tōdai-ji.

Legacy

Shōmu, a devout Buddhist, is best remembered for commissioning, in 743, the sixteen-meter high statue of the Vairocana Buddha (the ''Daibutsu'') in Tōdai-ji of Nara. At the time, this was such a massive undertaking that later chroniclers accuse him of having completely exhausted the country's reserves of bronze and precious metals. In 752, the Shōmu held the Eye-opening Ceremony of the Great Buddha.

Earlier in 741, he established the system of provincial temples, making this the closest anyone ever came to declaring Japan a Buddhist nation. In addition he commissioned the observance of the ohigan holiday for both spring and autumnal equinox.

Emperor Shōmu died at age 56.

The actual site of Shōmu's grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (''misasagi'') at Nara.

The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Shōmu's mausoleum. It is formally named ''Sahoyama no minami no misasagi''. The tomb site can be visited today in Horenji-cho, Tenri City near Nara City. The Imperial tomb of Shōmu's consort, Empress Kōmyō, is located nearby.

Kugyō

is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.

In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Shōmu's reign, this apex of the ''Daijō-kan'' included: ''Daijō-daijin'' (720-735), Toneri''-shinnō'' (舎人親王) (9th son of Emperor Temmu). ''Daijō-daijin'' (737-745), Suzuka''-ō'' (鈴鹿王) (son of Prince Takechi). ''Sadaijin'' (724-729), Nagaya''-ō'' (長屋王) (son of Prince Takechi). ''Sadaijin'' (743-756), Tachibana no Moroe (橘諸兄) (formerly Katsuragi''-ō'', Prince Katsuragi) (half brother of Empress Kōmyō) . ''Udaijin'' (734-737), Fujiwara no Muchimaro (藤原武智麻呂) (son of Fujiwara no Fuhito). ''Nadaijin'', Fujiwara no Toyonari (藤原豊成) (son of Fujiwara no Muchimaro). ''Dainagon'', Fujiwara no Fusasaki (藤原房前) (son of Fujiwara no Fuhito).

Eras of Shōmu's life

The years of Shōmu's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or ''nengō''. *

''Jinki'' (724-729)

''Tenpyō'' (729-749)

''Tenpyō-kanpō'' (749)

''Tenpyō-shōhō'' (749-757)

Consorts and Children

Empress: Fujiwara no Asukabe-hime (藤原安宿媛)(Empress Kōmyō, 光明皇后) (701-760), daughter of Fujiwara no Fuhito

Imperial Princess Abe (阿倍内親王) (Empress Kōken) (718-770)

Prince Motoi (基王) (727-728)

''Bunin'': Agatainukai no Hirotoji (県犬養広刀自) (?-762), daughter of Agatainukai no Morokoshi

Imperial Princess Inoe (井上内親王) (717-775), married to Prince Shirakabe(later Emperor Kōnin)

Imperial Princess Fuwa (不破内親王) (?-after 795), married to Prince Shioyaki (son of Prince Niitabe)

Imperial Prince Asaka (安積親王) (728-744)

''Bunin'': A daughter of Fujiwara no Muchimaro (?-748)

''Bunin'': A daughter of Fujiwara no Fusasaki (?-760)

''Bunin'': Tachibana-no-Hirooka no Konakachi (橘広岡古那可智) (?-759), daughter of Tachibana no Sai

See also

Emperor of Japan

List of Emperors of Japan

Imperial cult

Notes

References

Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). ''Gukanshō: The Future and the Past.'' Berkeley: University of California Press. 10-ISBN 0-520-03460-0; 13-ISBN 978-0-520-03460-0; OCLC 251325323

Piggott, Joan R. (19970. ''The Emergence of Japanese Kingship.'' Stanford: Stanford University Press. 10-ISBN 0804728321/13-ISBN 9780804728324; OCLC 247691704

Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). ''The Imperial House of Japan.'' Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887

Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). ''Nihon Odai Ichiran''; ou, ''Annales des empereurs du Japon.'' Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691

Varley, H. Paul. (1980). ''Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns.'' New York: Columbia University Press. 10-ISBN 0-231-04940-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-231-04940-5; OCLC 59145842

External links

Vairocana Buddha at the temple of Todaiji

Photographs of the mausolea of Empress Kōmyō and Emperor Shōmu

Category:Japanese emperors Category:701 births Category:756 deaths Category:People of Asuka period Japan Category:People of Nara period Japan Category:8th-century monarchs in Asia

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