- go to the top
- About WN
- Contact
- Feedback
- Privacy Policy
- © 2012 World News Inc., all Rights Reserved
King
Open Collage in a new Window
Email the Collage
- Loading...
Loading suggestions ...
- Abdicate
- Abdication
- Abdul Hamid II
- Absolute monarchy
- Aceh
- Adjective
- Agnatic seniority
- Agustín I of Mexico
- Ajaw
- Akihito
- Aksumite Empire
- Akure Kingdom
- Almami
- Ancient Egypt
- Andhra Pradesh
- Andorra
- Antigua and Barbuda
- Antipope
- Arasan, Kazakhstan
- Arasi
- Archduchess
- Archduchy
- Archduke
- Archontology
- Ard Rí
- Ariki
- Aristocracy
- Austria
- Authority
- Autocracy
- Baden
- Baden Germany
- Baganda
- Bahrain
- Ban (title)
- Ban of Croatia
- Barbados
- Baron
- Baroness
- Baronet
- Barony
- Basileus
- Belarusian language
- Belgium
- Belize
- Bhumibol Adulyadej
- Bhutan
- Bini people
- Borinquen
- Bornu Empire
- Brazil
- Brenhines
- Brenin
- British Empire
- British monarchy
- Brunei Darussalam
- Bunyoro
- Burundi
- Byzantine Empire
- Byzantium
- Cacique
- Canada
- Canary Islands
- Carol I of Romania
- Category Politics
- Central Africa
- Ceremony
- Ceuta
- Chinese Language
- Chinese language
- Chinese nobility
- Chogyal
- Chulalongkorn
- College of Cardinals
- Commonwealth realm
- Communist
- Conservatism
- Coronation
- Count
- Count Palatine
- Countess
- County
- County of Barcelona
- Coup
- Courtesy title
- Crimean
- Croatia
- Crown of Castile
- Czar
- Dame (title)
- Datu
- Dedopali
- Democracy
- Denmark
- Despot (court title)
- Diarchy
- Diplomacy
- Domn
- Druk Gyalpo
- Dubai
- Duchess
- Duchy
- Duke
- Dynasty
- Earl
- East Africa
- Edler
- Election
- Elective monarchy
- Emir
- Emperor
- Emperor Norton
- Emperor of China
- Emperor of India
- Emperor of Japan
- Empire
- Empire of Brazil
- Empire of Japan
- Empire of Mexico
- Empress
- Empress dowager
- Empress Kōjun
- Empress Michiko
- Empress of India
- Ethiopian Empire
- Eze
- Fa'amatai
- Fairy tale
- Family dictatorship
- Fantasy
- Fejedelem
- Female
- First French Empire
- Form of government
- France
- Freiherr
- French Revolution
- Fulani
- Fürst
- George I of Greece
- German Empire
- Germanic king
- Ghana
- Glorious Revolution
- Graf
- Grand Duchess
- Grand duchy
- Grand Duchy
- Grand duke
- Grand Duke
- Grand prince
- Greek city-state
- Greek language
- Grenada
- Guangxu Emperor
- Gustav V
- Haakon VII of Norway
- Habsburg
- Haile Selassie
- Han dynasty
- Hausa people
- Head of state
- Hereditary monarchy
- Hindustan
- Hirohito
- Hispaniola
- History of Africa
- History of China
- Holy Roman Emperor
- Holy Roman Empire
- Holy See
- Igbo people
- Imperator
- Imperial China
- Imperial Russia
- Inca Empire
- India
- Infante
- Inheritance
- Interregnum
- Iran
- Iranian Revolution
- Ivan V of Russia
- Jamaica
- Japan
- Java
- Joanna of Castile
- Jordan
- Jupan
- Jure uxoris
- Kabaka of Buganda
- Kaiser
- Kanem Empire
- Khmer language
- King
- King consort
- King of Cambodia
- King of France
- King of Spain
- King of Thailand
- Kingdom of England
- Kingdom of Jordan
- Kingdom of Kongo
- Kingdom of Scotland
- Knight
- Knyaz
- Konge
- Koning
- Kralj
- Kung
- Kunigaikshtis
- Kuwait
- Lakan
- Landgraf
- Latin
- Lesotho
- Liechtenstein
- Life tenure
- Limbuwan
- Lithuania
- Luxembourg
- Magna Carta
- Maharawal
- Malaysia
- Male
- Malik
- Malikah
- Mandate of Heaven
- Margrave
- Marquess
- Marquise
- Mary II of England
- Maya civilization
- Mbret
- Melilla
- Mepe
- Mexican Empire
- Michael I of Romania
- Micronation
- Middle East
- Military dictator
- Minor (law)
- Modern Cambodia
- Moldova
- Monaco
- Monarch
- Monarchies in Africa
- Monarchies in Asia
- Monarchies in Europe
- Monarchism
- Monarchy
- Mongol Empire
- Morocco
- Morubixaba
- Mwami
- Myanmar
- Nahua peoples
- Nauru
- Nepal
- Nepalese Civil War
- Netherlands
- Nigeria
- Nobile (aristocracy)
- Normandy
- Norodom Sihamoni
- Norway
- Nubia
- Oba (king)
- Oba (ruler)
- Oligarchy
- Oltenia
- Oman
- Omukama
- Order of precedence
- Order of succession
- Ordination of women
- Ottoman Empire
- Paddy Roy Bates
- Padshah
- Papacy
- Papal States
- Papessa
- Parliament
- Patabendige
- Patu-iki
- Pedro I of Brazil
- Pedro II of Brazil
- Peerage
- Persia
- Person
- Personal union
- Peter I of Russia
- Peter I of Serbia
- Pharaoh
- Political family
- Polity
- Pope
- Pope Joan
- Popess
- Portal Politics
- Portugal
- President for Life
- President of France
- Pretender
- Primogeniture
- Prince
- Prince consort
- Prince-elector
- Princely state
- Princess
- Princess consort
- Princess Leia
- Principalities
- Principality
- Protocol (diplomacy)
- Proximity of blood
- Qaghan
- Qatar
- Qhapaq Inka
- Qin dynasty
- Qing Dynasty
- Queen consort
- Queen dowager
- Queen mother
- Queen of Australia
- Queen of Canada
- Queen regnant
- Racha
- Raja
- Realm
- Regent
- Republic
- Republicanism
- Reserve power
- Right-wing politics
- Rights
- Ritter
- Roman Empire
- Romania
- Romanians
- Royal family
- Royalist
- Rwanda
- Rí
- Saint Lucia
- Salic
- Salic Law
- Salic law
- Samurai
- Saopha
- Sapa Inca
- Saudi Arabia
- Sayyid
- Scramble for Africa
- Seborga
- Second French Empire
- Serbia
- Sha-quan
- Shah
- Shah of Iran
- Shan people
- Sheikh
- Shogun
- Southern Africa
- Sovereign
- Spain
- Spanish Civil War
- Sparta
- Sri lanka
- Sri Lanka
- St. Helena
- State (polity)
- Sultan
- Sultana (title)
- Sumeramikoto
- Susuhunan
- Swaziland
- Sweden
- Talk Monarch
- Tamil Nadu
- Tanistry
- Tarot
- Template Monarchism
- Ten Kingdoms
- Tengku
- Thailand
- The Ashanti
- The Bahamas
- Thomas Hobbes
- Tianxia
- Title
- Tlatoani
- Tonga
- Tory
- Tribal chief
- Trienio Liberal
- Tsar
- Tsardom of Russia
- Tupi people
- Tutsi
- Tywysog
- Tywysoges
- UAE
- United Arab Emirates
- United Kingdom
- Vatican City
- Vicereine
- Viceroy
- Viceroy of India
- Viceroy of New Spain
- Viceroy of Peru
- Viceroyalty
- Viscount
- Voievod
- Voivode
- Wallachia
- Wallis and Futuna
- West Africa
- Windsor Castle
- Yaduvanshi
- Yoruba people
- Župan
-
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh (, ), abbreviated A.P., is a state situated on the southeastern coast of India. It is India's fourth largest state by area and fifth largest by population. Its capital and largest city is Hyderabad. The State has the second longest coastline among all the States in India. The official language of Andhra Pradesh is Telugu, while other languages spoken in Andhra Pradesh are Urdu, English, Tamil, and Hindi.
http://wn.com/Andhra_Pradesh -
Andorra
Andorra , officially the Principality of Andorra (), also called the Principality of the Valleys of Andorra, (), is a small country in southwestern Europe, located in the eastern Pyrenees mountains and bordered by Spain and France. It is the sixth smallest nation in Europe having an area of and an estimated population of 83,888 in 2009. Its capital, Andorra la Vella, is the highest capital city in Europe, being at an elevation of 1023 metres. The official language is Catalan, although Spanish, French, and Portuguese are also commonly spoken.
http://wn.com/Andorra -
Antigua and Barbuda
Antigua and Barbuda (; Spanish for "ancient" and "bearded") is a twin-island nation lying between the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. It consists of two major inhabited islands, Antigua and Barbuda, and a number of smaller islands (including Great Bird, Green, Guinea, Long, Maiden and York Islands). Separated by a few sea miles, the group is in the middle of the Leeward Islands part of the Lesser Antilles, roughly at 17 degrees north of the Equator. Being a former part of the British Empire has strongly influenced the country's governance, language, and culture.
http://wn.com/Antigua_and_Barbuda -
Arasan, Kazakhstan
Arasan is a village in the Almaty Province of south-eastern Kazakhstan.
http://wn.com/Arasan_Kazakhstan -
Austria
Austria or (), officially the Republic of Austria (German: ), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.3 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by Germany and the Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below , and its highest point is . The majority of the population speaks German, which is also the country's official language. Other local official languages are Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
http://wn.com/Austria -
Bahrain
Bahrain, officially Kingdom of Bahrain (, , literally: "Kingdom of the Two Seas"), is a small island country in the Persian Gulf ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family. While Bahrain is an archipelago of thirty-three islands, the largest (Bahrain Island) is long by wide. Saudi Arabia lies to the west and is connected to Bahrain via the King Fahd Causeway, which was officially opened on 25 November 1986. Qatar is to the southeast across the Gulf of Bahrain.
http://wn.com/Bahrain -
Barbados
Barbados ()or (Bar-bay-dos) is an island nation of the Lesser Antilles, in length and as much as in width, amounting to . It is situated in the western area of the North Atlantic Ocean and 100 kilometres (62 mi) east of the Windward Islands and the Caribbean Sea; therein, it is about east of the islands of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and north-east of Venezuela. Barbados is outside of the principal Atlantic hurricane belt.
http://wn.com/Barbados -
Belgium
Belgium (, ), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, as well as those of several other major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium covers an area of , and it has a population of about 10.8 million people.
http://wn.com/Belgium -
Belize
Belize () (formerly British Honduras), is a democratic constitutional monarchy, and the northernmost Central American nation. Belize has a diverse society, comprising many cultures and languages. Although Kriol and Spanish are spoken among the population, Belize is the only country in Central America where English is the official language. Belize is bordered by Mexico to its north, by Guatemala to its south and west, and by the Caribbean Sea to the east.
http://wn.com/Belize -
Bhutan
The Kingdom of Bhutan () (Dzongkha: ; Wylie: '' 'drug yul; Tibetan pinyin: ''), is a small landlocked country in South Asia, located at the eastern end of the Himalayas and bordered to the south, east and west by the Republic of India and to the north by the People's Republic of China . Bhutan is separated from the nearby state of Nepal to the west by the Indian state of Sikkim, and from Bangladesh to the south by West Bengal.
http://wn.com/Bhutan -
Borinquen
http://wn.com/Borinquen -
Brazil
Brazil (; , ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (, ), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone country in the world.
http://wn.com/Brazil -
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-quarter of the world's population at the time, and covered more than 13 million square miles (34 million km2), almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was often said that "the sun never sets on the British Empire" because its span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous territories.
http://wn.com/British_Empire -
Brunei Darussalam
http://wn.com/Brunei_Darussalam -
Bunyoro
Bunyoro is a kingdom of western Uganda, and from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century was one of the most powerful kingdoms of East Africa. It is ruled by the Omukama of Bunyoro. The current ruler is Solomon Iguru I, 27th Omukama (king) of Bunyoro-Kitara.
http://wn.com/Bunyoro -
Canada
Canada () is a country in North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean. It is the world's second largest country by total area. Canada's common border with the United States to the south and northwest is the longest in the world.
http://wn.com/Canada -
Canary Islands
http://wn.com/Canary_Islands -
Crimean
http://wn.com/Crimean -
Croatia
Croatia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Croatia (Croatian: Republika Hrvatska ), is a country in Central Europe and Southeastern Europe at the crossroads of the Pannonian Plain, the Balkans, and the Adriatic Sea. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. Croatia borders Slovenia to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the southeast, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the southeast.
http://wn.com/Croatia -
Crown of Castile
The Crown of Castile, as a historic entity, is usually considered to have begun in 1230 with the third and almost definitive union of the monarchies of kingdoms Castile and Toledo in one hand, and the kingdoms of Leon and Galicia in other hand, and with the union of their parliaments a few decades later. In 1217, Ferdinand III was crowned King of Castile and Toledo, and 13 years after (1230), he usurped the crown of Leon and Galicia to their heirs (Sancha and Dulce); however, to reduce his titulation, he is most known as Ferdinand III of Castile and sometimes of "Castile and Leon".
http://wn.com/Crown_of_Castile -
Denmark
http://wn.com/Denmark -
Dubai
Dubai ( ; ) is one of the seven emirates of the United Arab Emirates (UAE). It is located south of the Persian Gulf on the Arabian Peninsula and has the largest population with the second-largest land territory by area of all the emirates, after Abu Dhabi. Dubai and Abu Dhabi are the only two emirates to have veto power over critical matters of national importance in the country's legislature.
http://wn.com/Dubai -
Empire of Brazil
The Empire of Brazil was a political entity that comprised present-day Brazil under the rule of Emperors Pedro I and his son Pedro II. Founded in 1822 it was replaced by a republic in 1889.
http://wn.com/Empire_of_Brazil -
France
{{Infobox Country
http://wn.com/France -
German Empire
http://wn.com/German_Empire -
Ghana
http://wn.com/Ghana -
Grenada
Grenada () is an island country and Commonwealth Realm consisting of the island of Grenada and six smaller islands at the southern end of the Grenadines in the southeastern Caribbean Sea. Grenada is located northwest of Trinidad and Tobago, northeast of Venezuela, and southwest of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.
http://wn.com/Grenada -
Han dynasty
http://wn.com/Han_dynasty -
Hindustan
http://wn.com/Hindustan -
Hispaniola
http://wn.com/Hispaniola -
India
India (), officially the Republic of India ( ; see also official names of India), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east; and it is bordered by Pakistan to the west; Bhutan, the People's Republic of China and Nepal to the north; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. In the Indian Ocean, mainland India and the Lakshadweep Islands are in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives, while India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share maritime border with Thailand and the Indonesian island of Sumatra in the Andaman Sea. India has a coastline of .
http://wn.com/India -
Iran
Iran ( ), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran is a country in Central Eurasia and Western Asia. The name Iran has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was also known to the western world as Persia. Both Persia and Iran are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, Iran is the name used officially in political contexts.
http://wn.com/Iran -
Jamaica
http://wn.com/Jamaica -
Japan
http://wn.com/Japan -
Jordan
{{Infobox Country
http://wn.com/Jordan -
Kingdom of England
http://wn.com/Kingdom_of_England -
Kuwait
The State of Kuwait (, Dawlat al-Kuwayt) is a sovereign Arab nation situated in the northeast of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south, and Iraq to the north. It lies on the northwestern shore of the Persian Gulf. The name Kuwait is derived from the Arabic "akwat", the plural of "kout", meaning fortress built near water. The emirate covers an area of 17,820 square kilometres (6,880 sq mi) and has a population of about 2.7 million.
http://wn.com/Kuwait -
Lesotho
http://wn.com/Lesotho -
Liechtenstein
http://wn.com/Liechtenstein -
Limbuwan
http://wn.com/Limbuwan -
Lithuania
Lithuania (, U.S. usually ; ), officially the Republic of Lithuania () is a country in Northern Europe, the southernmost of the three Baltic states. Situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, it shares borders with Latvia to the north, Belarus to the southeast, Poland, and the Russian exclave of Kaliningrad to the southwest.
http://wn.com/Lithuania -
Luxembourg
Luxembourg ( ), officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (, , ), is a landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany. Luxembourg has a population of over half a million people in an area of approximately 2,586 square kilometres (999 sq mi).
http://wn.com/Luxembourg -
Malaysia
Malaysia (pronounced or ) is a federal constitutional monarchy in Southeast Asia. It consists of thirteen states and three federal territories and has a total landmass of . The country is separated by the South China Sea into two regions, Peninsular Malaysia and Malaysian Borneo (also known as West and East Malaysia respectively). Malaysia shares land borders with Thailand, Indonesia, and Brunei and has maritime boundaries with Singapore, Vietnam, and the Philippines. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government. The population as of 2009 stood at over 28 million.
http://wn.com/Malaysia -
Melilla
http://wn.com/Melilla -
Moldova
Moldova , officially the Republic of Moldova (Moldovan/) is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, located between Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east and south. It declared itself an independent state with the same boundaries as the preceding Moldovan SSR in 1991, as part of the dissolution of the Soviet Union. A strip of Moldova's internationally recognized territory on the east bank of the river Dniester has been under the de facto control of the breakaway government of Transnistria since 1990.
http://wn.com/Moldova -
Monaco
http://wn.com/Monaco -
Morocco
http://wn.com/Morocco -
Nauru
Nauru ( ), officially the Republic of Nauru and formerly known as Pleasant Island, is an island nation in Micronesia in the South Pacific. Its nearest neighbour is Banaba Island in Kiribati, 300 km to the east. Nauru is the world's smallest island nation, covering just .
http://wn.com/Nauru -
Netherlands
{{Infobox country
http://wn.com/Netherlands -
Nigeria
Nigeria (), officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and its Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its coast in the south lies on the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean. The three largest and most influential ethnic groups in Nigeria are the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. In terms of religion Nigeria is roughly split half and half between Muslims and Christians with a very small minority who practice traditional religion.
http://wn.com/Nigeria -
Norway
http://wn.com/Norway -
Oman
Oman (pronounced ; '), officially the Sultanate of Oman''' ( ), is an Arab country in southwest Asia on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It borders the United Arab Emirates on the northwest, Saudi Arabia on the west and Yemen on the southwest. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. The country also contains Madha and Musandam, two exclaves on the Gulf of Oman, south of the Strait of Hormuz and surrounded by the United Arab Emirates on the land side.
http://wn.com/Oman -
Papal States
The Papal State(s), State(s) of the Church, or Pontifical States (, also Stato della Chiesa, Stati della Chiesa, Stati Pontifici, and Stato Ecclesiastico; , also Dicio Pontificia) were among the major historical states of Italy from roughly the 6th century until the Italian peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia (after which the Papal States, in less territorially extensive form, continued to exist until 1870).
http://wn.com/Papal_States -
Persia
http://wn.com/Persia -
Portugal
Portugal (, ), officially the Portuguese Republic (; ), is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south and by Spain to the north and east. The Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are also part of Portugal.
http://wn.com/Portugal -
Qatar
Qatar ( ; ; local pronunciation: ), also known as the State of Qatar or locally , is an Arab country, known officially as an emirate, in the Middle East, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the much larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise, the Persian Gulf surrounds the state. A strait of the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the nearby island nation of Bahrain.
http://wn.com/Qatar -
Qing Dynasty
http://wn.com/Qing_Dynasty -
Racha
http://wn.com/Racha -
Romania
Romania ( ; dated: Rumania; ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, north of the Balkan Peninsula, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea. Romania shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south.
http://wn.com/Romania -
Rwanda
The Republic of Rwanda (, , or in English, or in Kinyarwanda) is a unitary republic of central and eastern Africa. It borders Uganda to the north; Tanzania to the east; Burundi to the south; and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. Rwanda is landlocked but is noted for its lakes, particularly Lake Kivu, which occupies the floor of the Rift Valley along most of the country's western border. Although close to the equator, the country has a temperate climate due to its high elevation, with the highest point being Mount Karisimbi. The terrain consists of mountains and gently rolling hills, with plains and swamps in the east. Abundant wildlife, including rare mountain gorillas, have led to a fast-growing tourism sector. The largest cities in Rwanda are Kigali, Gitarama, and Butare. Unlike many African countries, Rwanda is home to only one significant ethnic and linguistic group, the Banyarwanda. The country is well known for its native styles of dance, particularly the Intore dance, and for its drummers. Kinyarwanda, English and French are the official languages.
http://wn.com/Rwanda -
Saint Lucia
Saint Lucia (; ) is an island country in the eastern Caribbean Sea on the boundary with the Atlantic Ocean. Part of the Lesser Antilles, it is located north/northeast of the islands of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, northwest of Barbados and south of Martinique. It covers a land area of 620 km2 (238 sq mi) and has an estimated population of 160,000. Its capital is Castries. The island nation has been the home of two Nobel laureates, Arthur Lewis and Derek Walcott. It is the nation with the second most such honorees per capita after Faroe Islands.
http://wn.com/Saint_Lucia -
Saudi Arabia
http://wn.com/Saudi_Arabia -
Second French Empire
The Second French Empire () or French Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France.
http://wn.com/Second_French_Empire -
Serbia
Serbia (pronounced: ), officially the Republic of Serbia (), is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central- and Southeastern Europe, covering the southern lowlands of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans. Serbia borders Hungary to the north; Romania and Bulgaria to the east; the Republic of Macedonia to the south; and Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro to the west; its border with Albania is disputed. Serbia's capital city, Belgrade, is among the most populous in Southeastern Europe.
http://wn.com/Serbia -
Spain
Spain ( ; , ), officially the Kingdom of Spain (), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
http://wn.com/Spain -
Sparta
http://wn.com/Sparta -
Sri lanka
http://wn.com/Sri_lanka -
Sri Lanka
The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (commonly known as Sri Lanka (, , or ); ; , ) is a country and a sovereign state off souther coast of the Indian subcontinent. A island nation in South Asia, it was till 1972 known as Ceylon (, , or ). Sri Lanka is surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait.
http://wn.com/Sri_Lanka -
St. Helena
http://wn.com/St_Helena -
Swaziland
The Kingdom of Swaziland (Umbuso weSwatini), sometimes called Ngwane or Swatini, is a landlocked country in Southern Africa, bordered to the north, south and west by South Africa, and to the east by Mozambique. The nation, as well as its people, are named after the 19th century king Mswati II.
http://wn.com/Swaziland -
Sweden
http://wn.com/Sweden -
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu (, ) is one of the 28 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai (formerly known as Madras). Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the States of Puducherry, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. It is bound by the Eastern Ghats in the north, the Nilgiri, the Anamalai Hills, and Palakkad on the west, by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Gulf of Mannar, the Palk Strait in the south east, and by the Indian Ocean in the south.
http://wn.com/Tamil_Nadu -
Thailand
Thailand ( or ; Ratcha Anachak Thai, ), formerly Siam (, ), is an independent country that lies in the heart of Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the west by the Andaman Sea and the southern extremity of Burma. Its maritime boundaries include Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast and Indonesia and India in the Andaman Sea to the southwest.
http://wn.com/Thailand -
The Bahamas
The Bahamas (), officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is a country consisting of 29 islands, 661 cays, and 2,387 islets (rocks). It is located in the Atlantic Ocean north of Cuba and Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti), northwest of the Turks and Caicos Islands, and southeast of the United States (nearest to the state of Florida). Its total land area is ; slightly larger than the US states of Connecticut and Rhode Island combined), with an estimated population of 330,000. Its capital is Nassau. Geographically, the Bahamas lie in the same island chain as Cuba, Hispaniola and the Turks and Caicos Islands, the designation of the Bahamas refers normally to the commonwealth and not the geographic chain.
http://wn.com/The_Bahamas -
Tonga
http://wn.com/Tonga -
Tsardom of Russia
http://wn.com/Tsardom_of_Russia -
UAE
http://wn.com/UAE -
United Arab Emirates
http://wn.com/United_Arab_Emirates -
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a country and sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island nation, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land border with another sovereign state, sharing it with the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border, the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea. Great Britain is linked to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel.
http://wn.com/United_Kingdom -
Vatican City
http://wn.com/Vatican_City -
Wallachia
Wallachia or Walachia ( or ', archaic: ', Cyrillic: ) is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia is sometimes referred to as Muntenia (Greater Wallachia), through identification with the larger of its two traditional sections; the smaller being Oltenia (Lesser Wallachia).
http://wn.com/Wallachia -
Wallis and Futuna
http://wn.com/Wallis_and_Futuna -
Windsor Castle
Windsor Castle, in Windsor in the English county of Berkshire, is the largest inhabited castle in the world and, dating back to the time of William the Conqueror, is the oldest in continuous occupation. The castle's floor area is about .
http://wn.com/Windsor_Castle
-
A-Group
A-Group is the designation for a distinct culture that arose between the First and Second Cataracts of the Nile in Nubia between
http://wn.com/A-Group -
Abdul Hamid II
http://wn.com/Abdul_Hamid_II -
Agustín I of Mexico
http://wn.com/Agustín_I_of_Mexico -
Akihito
:See also Prince Komatsu Akihito, a Japanese general.
http://wn.com/Akihito -
Austria
Austria or (), officially the Republic of Austria (German: ), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.3 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by Germany and the Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below , and its highest point is . The majority of the population speaks German, which is also the country's official language. Other local official languages are Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
http://wn.com/Austria -
Bhumibol Adulyadej
http://wn.com/Bhumibol_Adulyadej -
Carol I of Romania
Carol I (20 April 1839 – 27 September 1914 (O.S.) / 10 October 1914 (N.S.)), born Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was reigning prince and then king of Romania from 1866 to 1914. He was elected prince of Romania on 20 April 1866 following the overthrow of Alexander John Cuza by a palace coup, although some see it as an important move in legitimising the de-facto union of two of Romania's principalites with the involvement of an important western European family tie. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War he was proclaimed King of Romania on 26 March 1881. He was the first ruler of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen dynasty, which ruled the country until the proclamation of a republic in 1947.
http://wn.com/Carol_I_of_Romania -
Chulalongkorn
http://wn.com/Chulalongkorn -
Emperor Norton
http://wn.com/Emperor_Norton -
Emperor of China
http://wn.com/Emperor_of_China -
Emperor of Japan
The of Japan is the Japanese head of state. He is the head of the Japanese Imperial Family. He is also the highest authority of the Shinto religion. Under Japan's present constitution, the Emperor is the "symbol of the state and the unity of the people," and is a ceremonial figurehead in a constitutional monarchy (see Politics of Japan).
http://wn.com/Emperor_of_Japan -
Empress Kōjun
http://wn.com/Empress_Kōjun -
Empress Michiko
|align=right
http://wn.com/Empress_Michiko -
Fulani
http://wn.com/Fulani -
George I of Greece
http://wn.com/George_I_of_Greece -
Germanic king
http://wn.com/Germanic_king -
Guangxu Emperor
The Guangxu Emperor () (14 August 1871–14 November 1908), born Zaitian (), was the tenth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the ninth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign lasted from 1875 to 1908, but in practice he ruled, under Empress Dowager Cixi's influence, only from 1889 to 1898. He initiated the Hundred Days' Reform, but was abruptly stopped when Cixi launched a coup in 1898, after which he was put under house arrest until his death. His reign name means "The Glorious Succession".
http://wn.com/Guangxu_Emperor -
Gustav V
http://wn.com/Gustav_V -
Haakon VII of Norway
http://wn.com/Haakon_VII_of_Norway -
Haile Selassie
http://wn.com/Haile_Selassie -
Hausa people
The Hausa are a Sahelian people chiefly located in the West African regions of northern Nigeria and southeastern Niger. There are also significant numbers found in regions of Sudan, Cameroon, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire, and Chad and smaller communities scattered throughout West Africa and on the traditional Hajj route across the Sahara Desert and Sahel. Many Hausa have moved to large coastal cities in West Africa such as Lagos, Accra, Kumasi and Cotonou, as well as to countries such as Libya. However, most Hausa remain in small villages, where they grow crops and raise livestock, including cattle. They speak the Hausa language, an Afro-Asiatic language of the Chadic group.
http://wn.com/Hausa_people -
Hirohito
http://wn.com/Hirohito -
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire, (Quechua: Tawantinsuyu) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru.
http://wn.com/Inca_Empire -
Ivan V of Russia
http://wn.com/Ivan_V_of_Russia -
Joanna of Castile
http://wn.com/Joanna_of_Castile -
King of France
http://wn.com/King_of_France -
Mary II of England
http://wn.com/Mary_II_of_England -
Nahua peoples
The Nahuas are a group of indigenous peoples of Mexico. Their language of Uto-Aztecan affiliation is called Nahuatl and consists of many more dialects and variants, a number of which are mutually unintelligible.
http://wn.com/Nahua_peoples -
Nepalese Civil War
The Nepali Civil War (labelled '''People's War''' by the Maoists) was a conflict between government forces and Maoist rebels in Nepal which lasted from 1996 until 2006. The war was started by the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) on 13 February 1996, with the aim of overthrowing the Nepalese monarchy and establishing the "People's Republic of Nepal." It ended with a Comprehensive Peace Accord signed on 21 November 2006 which is now monitored by United Nations Mission in Nepal.
http://wn.com/Nepalese_Civil_War -
Norodom Sihamoni
Norodom Sihamoni (, born 14 May 1953) is the King of Cambodia. He is the eldest son of Norodom Sihanouk and Norodom Monineath Sihanouk. Previously Cambodia's ambassador to UNESCO, he was named by a nine-member throne council to become the next king after his father Norodom Sihanouk abdicated in 2004. Before ascending the throne, Sihamoni was best known for his work as a cultural ambassador in Europe and as a classical dance instructor.
http://wn.com/Norodom_Sihamoni -
Ottoman Empire
http://wn.com/Ottoman_Empire -
Paddy Roy Bates
Paddy Roy Bates (born 1922 ) is a former British pirate radio broadcaster and founder of the Principality of Sealand, styling himself HRH Prince Roy of Sealand since 22 September 1967.
http://wn.com/Paddy_Roy_Bates -
Pedro I of Brazil
http://wn.com/Pedro_I_of_Brazil -
Pedro II of Brazil
http://wn.com/Pedro_II_of_Brazil -
Person
A person (from the Latin persona meaning "mask") is most broadly defined as any individual self-conscious or rational being, or any entity having rights and duties; or often more narrowly defined as an individual human being in particular.
http://wn.com/Person -
Peter I of Serbia
http://wn.com/Peter_I_of_Serbia -
Pharaoh
http://wn.com/Pharaoh -
Pope Joan
Pope Joan is a legendary female Pope who supposedly reigned for a few years some time during the Middle Ages. The story first appeared in the writings of 13th-century chroniclers, and subsequently spread through Europe. It was widely believed for centuries, though modern historians and religious scholars consider it fictitious, perhaps deriving from historicized folklore regarding Roman monuments or from anti-papal satire.
http://wn.com/Pope_Joan -
Qhapaq Inka
http://wn.com/Qhapaq_Inka -
Romanians
http://wn.com/Romanians -
Sapa Inca
The Sapa Inca ("The Great Inca"), also known as Apu ("Divinity"), Inka Qhapaq ("mighty Inca"), or simply Sapa ("The Great One") was the ruler of the Kingdom of Cusco and later, the emperor of Tawantinsuyu. The origins of the position are mythical and tied to the legendary foundation of the city of Cusco but historically it seems to have come into being around 1100. The position was hereditary, with son succeeding father. There were two known dynasties, led by the Hanan and Hurin moieties respectively. The latter was in power at the time of Spanish conquest. The last official Sapa Inca was Atahualpa, who was executed by the Spanish in 1533, though several of successors later claimed the title.
http://wn.com/Sapa_Inca -
Shan people
#REDIRECTShan
http://wn.com/Shan_people -
Spanish Civil War
http://wn.com/Spanish_Civil_War -
Sumeramikoto
http://wn.com/Sumeramikoto -
The Ashanti
http://wn.com/The_Ashanti -
Thomas Hobbes
http://wn.com/Thomas_Hobbes -
Tutsi
Tutsi (; ) are an ethnic group in Central Africa. They are the second largest population of peoples in Rwanda and Burundi, the other two being the Hutu (largest) and the Twa (smallest).
http://wn.com/Tutsi -
Viceroy of New Spain
http://wn.com/Viceroy_of_New_Spain -
Yoruba people
:Okun redirects here. A Dr.Okun was a character in Independence Day (film). Or see Okan
http://wn.com/Yoruba_people
King's Speech, The (2010)
"King's Speech, The (2010)" Actors
- Colin Firth
- Geoffrey Rush
- Helena Bonham Carter
- Guy Pearce
- Timothy Spall
- Michael Gambon
- Jennifer Ehle
- Sir Derek Jacobi
- Eve Best
- Freya Wilson
- Ramona Marquez
- Claire Bloom
- Anthony Andrews
"King's Speech, The (2010)" Director
King, Don Filmography
- The Seven Deadly Sins (2011)
- The After Party (2010)
- Thriller in Manila (2008)
- Beyond the Ropes (2008)
- Tyson (2008)
- Soul Power (2008)
- J.C. Chávez (2007)
- Bicentennial Nigger (2006)
- The 100 Most Memorable TV Moments (2004)
- The 1999 Source Hip-Hop Music Awards (1999)
- Michael Jackson: HIStory on Film - Volume II (1997)
- The Devil's Advocate (1997)
- Muhammad Ali: The Whole Story (1996)
- When We Were Kings (1996)
- Fallen Champ: The Untold Story of Mike Tyson (1993)
- Voices that Care (1991)
- Kojak: Fatal Flaw (1989)
- Heaven (1987)
- The 1st Annual Soul Train Music Awards (1987)
- Head Office (1985)
- The Last Fight (1983)
- The Big Fight: Muhammad Ali - Joe Frazier (1975)
- Muhammad Ali, the Greatest (1969)
World-renowned promoter of boxing luminaries including Muhammad Ali, "Smokin'" Joe Frazier, "Big" George Foreman, Larry "The Easton Assassin" Holmes, "Iron" Mike Tyson, "Sugar" Ray Leonard, Roberto "Manos de Piedra" Duran, Julio Cesar Chavez, Evander "The Real Deal" Holyfield, Roy Jones Jr., Felix "Tito" Trinidad, Bernard "The Executioner" Hopkins, Ricardo "Finito" Lopez, Salvador Sanchez and Wilfredo Gomez, to name a few. Promoter of over 500 world championship fights-so far. Nearly 100 boxers have earned $1 million or more in Don King Productions-promoted fights-so far. Don King continues to be a staunch supporter of our Armed Forces. He has had the honor of visiting with our troops both overseas and stateside, from Landstuhl Medical Center in Germany, to participating in a USO tour in Iraq to touring numerous US military bases including Fort Campbell in Kentucky, the home of the 101st Airborne, where he was made an Honorary "Screaming Eagle" by then Lt. General David Petraeus for all his contributions and support. Mr. King provides his televised events, for free, to the AFRTS (Armed Forces Radio and Television Service) for global broadcasting to overseas bases and ships and has provided thousands of tickets for our men and women in uniform to view his live boxing events.
King, Don A. Filmography
- The Waters (2011)
- The Waters (2011)
- Butchered (2010)
- White Men Can't Dance (2009)
- Undoing Time (2008)
- Turk Diamond, P.I. (2008)
- Defying Debt (2008)
- Undoing Time (2008)
- Rainy Day Miracle (2007)
- Rainy Day Miracle (2007)
- The Water Is Wide (2006)
- Once Lost Love (2006)
- Once Lost Love (2006)
King, Will Filmography
RELEASE
ALBUMS
- Alone Without You
- Platform One
- I Cringed, I Died, I Felt Hot
- (KFAD) Wait for No One
- 2 M.B.
- These Things
- The Taste of Your Tears
- Torture
- Sugar Candy Mountain Buddhas
- Mind Yer Toes
- Crazy Party
- Alone Without You (Scorcher mix)
- The Taste of Your Tears (Breaker Heart CD mix)
- Torture (Passion Fruit mix)
- Love and Pride (USA Summer mix)
- I Kissed the Spikey Fridge (Rock Hard mix)
- These Things (reprise)
- Alone Without You (reprise)
- Blok B
- Chum
- King c'est quoi
- Blast the Shit
- Luv moi
- L'espoir vit toujours
- Je crache la vérité
- Diamondz & Gunz
- Qu'est-ce-que t'as
- Comprends
- La vie qu'on a choisit (feat. Connaisseur)
- Passion urbaine
- Face à la réalité (feat. Coshyne)
- Chum (remix)
- Love & Pride
- Don't Stop
- Won't You Hold My Hand Now
- Fish
- Trouble
- Soul on My Boots
- I Kissed the Spikey Fridge
- Alone Without You
- Crazy Party
- The Taste of Your Tears
- I Cringed, I Died, I Felt Hot
- These Things
- Torture
- Groovin' With the Kings
- I Know
- Love & Pride (Body and Soul mix)
- Won't You Hold My Hand Now (Heavy Times mix edit)
- The Taste of Your Tears (Breaker Heart mix)
- Fish
- Love & Pride
- And as for Myself
- Trouble
- Won't You Hold My Hand Now
- Unity Song
- Cherry
- Soul on My Boots
- I Kissed the Spikey Fridge
- Fish (reprise)
- Don't Stop
- Endlessly
- Fools
- Ain't No Doubt
- Classic Strangers
- Soul on My Boots (Rub a dub remix)
- Love & Pride (Body & Soul remix)
- Won't You Hold My Hand Now (Heavy Times mix)
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
e-dubble - Be A King
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:02
- Published: 22 Mar 2011
- Updated: 14 Jul 2012
facebook.com twitter.com Free Download on.fb.me Purchase iTunes smarturl.it iTunes smarturl.it Spotify smarturl.it Free Music Written Thursday Mixtape smarturl.it All Freestyle Friday songs e-dubble.com e-dubble uses his music as a tool to convey his thoughts and feelings in an honest style that is difficult to find in hip-hop. Following a year of weekly free song releases on his Facebook and acclaimed mixtape Written Thursday, e-dubble released "Changed My Mind". An intense testimonial, "Changed My Mind" can't be summed up with a few keywords, you'll feel it when you listen. www.youtube.com -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Sample Track "The Last Living Rose" by PJ Harvey chorus: my momma told me- one day I'ma grow up big and I'ma be a king and my poppa told me- it's ok to sing when shit hurts don't forget your dreams cuz' they'll get you through this So called life, they call living but I call it strange and I bet I'll do it cuz' I'm on my way and strong enough that I can shake the pain verse 1: mr. sunshine, mr. rainstorm, meet me in the conference room we need to brainstorm need some middle ground, need an even keel but you're at war picking sides give me fever chills I'll take em' both like my flu shot broke I need the give and take to keep me out of that moat my head above water thoughts to those lost this week all these tragedies stay on repeat like we can't shake shit, I can't speak on it <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/e-dubble_Be_A_King
SATYRICON - King (OFFICIAL VIDEO)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:34
- Published: 21 Jul 2006
- Updated: 13 Jul 2012
SATYRICON - KING Taken From the album Now, Diabolical. Century Media USA CMDistro - www.cmdistro.com Best Buy - www.bestbuy.com iTunes - itunes.com/satyricon Amazon MP3 - www.amazon.com EMP.de - www.emp.de Amazon.de - www.amazon.de Amazon.co.uk - www.amazon.co.uk Play.com - www.play.com HMV.com - hmv.com
http://wn.com/SATYRICON_King_OFFICIAL_VIDEO
E-DUBBLE - Be A King
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:50
- Published: 30 Jul 2011
- Updated: 14 Jul 2012
Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter: twitter.com Download it free: soundcloud.com Written Thursday Mixtape: www.writtenthursday.com Sexy headphone girl: www.google.com
http://wn.com/E-DUBBLE_Be_A_King
King
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 167:55
- Published: 07 Sep 2010
- Updated: 13 Jul 2012
The story starts off in Khairatabad area where Gyaneshwar (Srihari) is a vagagabond. The area is under his control and he's the only one authorized to do settlements upon petty issues. In comes Bottu Seenu (Nagarjuna) who is a tough competitor for the established don. On a beautiful interlude in a rainy day, Bottu Seenu comes across Sravani (Trisha). He falls in love with her and makes utmost efforts to woo her heart. But, bad luck for Bottu as Sravani was already in love with a software engineer Sharath (the second Nag). Bottu gets disappointed yet a twist of fate awaits there.
http://wn.com/King
The king and I - march of the siamese children
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:28
- Published: 04 Jun 2010
- Updated: 13 Jul 2012
I couldent get the ejjj´s and ajj´s out of it
http://wn.com/The_king_and_I_march_of_the_siamese_children
BB King - Blues Boys Tune
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:13
- Published: 15 Jan 2007
- Updated: 14 Jul 2012
BB King plays live guitar solo. This came from the extras on the DVD The Road to Memphis: www.pbs.org And the only other complete performance by BB on the extras is Key to the Highway, which doesn't have this incredibly searing guitar and is in fact pretty "lite". If you like my vids please consider donating to: sophiascure(dot)com/donate
http://wn.com/BB_King_Blues_Boys_Tune
Martin Luther King, "Why I Am Opposed to the War in Vietnam"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 22:48
- Published: 11 Jan 2007
- Updated: 14 Jul 2012
Speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. against the "triple evils of racism, economic exploitation, and militarism." Audio. This speech was released by Black Forum records, a subsidiary of Motown, and went on to win a Grammy (in 1972, according to Wikipedia, in 1970, according to Grammy website) for the Best Spoken Word Recording. Excerpts of a Sermon at the Ebenezer Baptist Church on April 30, 1967. Text of entire speech: husseini.org Real Audio file of entire speech: www.africanbynature.com
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Why_I_Am_Opposed_to_the_War_in_Vietnam
The King's Speech Movie Trailer Official (HD)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:28
- Published: 27 Sep 2010
- Updated: 13 Jul 2012
bit.ly - Subscribe! The King's Speech hits theaters on November 24th, 2010. Cast: Colin Firth, Geoffrey Rush, Helena Bonham Carter, Jennifer Ehle, Guy Pearce, Derek Jacobi, Timothy Spall, Michael Gambon Firth will play George VI, known as Bertie, the father of the current Queen Elizabeth II, who assumed the throne when his brother Edward VIII abdicated in 1936 to marry Wallis Simpson. The film will focus on his efforts to overcome a nervous stammer with the help of speech therapist Lionel Logue (Rush). The King's Speech trailer courtesy The Weinstein Company.
http://wn.com/The_King's_Speech_Movie_Trailer_Official_HD
The King And I part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Published: 15 Sep 2009
- Updated: 14 Jul 2012
Part 1 - the 1999 animated feature.. ENJOY :) ps COPYRIGHT GOES TO THE DISTRIBUTING COMPANIES AND FILMMAKERS and blablablabla I DO NOT OWN ANYTHING... maybe a pencil.... and a lighter...
http://wn.com/The_King_And_I_part_1
Rainbow : Kill The King
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:18
- Published: 29 Oct 2006
- Updated: 13 Jul 2012
Live Munchen 1977
http://wn.com/Rainbow_Kill_The_King
HANNIBAL FOR KING
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:18
- Published: 10 Jul 2008
- Updated: 14 Jul 2012
HANNIBAL WORKIN OUT.HE SUPPORTS ANTWON BAILEY MUSIC! WERE FROM THE SAME NABORHOOD WE ALL WORK OUT EVERYDAY EACH SUMMER FOR THREE MOUTHS STRAIGHT, IF YOUR INTERESTED IN WORKING OUT WITH US, JUST HIT THE INBOX. BE SURE TO CHECK OUT ANTWON BAILEY MUSIC IN THE RESPONSE. WE WORK REALY HARD IN MUSIC, AS WELL AS WORKING OUT! THANKS FOR WATCH THIS VID
http://wn.com/HANNIBAL_FOR_KING
The Kings Speech - Official Trailer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:29
- Published: 28 Sep 2010
- Updated: 12 Jul 2012
Release Date: 10 December 2010 Genre: Drama | History Cast: Helena Bonham Carter, Colin Firth, Guy Pearce, Michael Gambon, Tim Downie Director: Tom Hooper Writer: David Seidler MPAA: R Studio: The Weinstein Company Plot: Tells the story of the man who became King George VI, the father of Queen Elizabeth II. After his brother abdicates, George ('Bertie') reluctantly assumes the throne. Plagued by a dreaded stutter and considered unfit to be king, Bertie engages the help of an unorthodox speech therapist named Lionel Logue. Through a set of unexpected techniques, and as a result of an unlikely friendship, Bertie is able to find his voice and boldly lead the country into war. Subscribe Now: www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/The_Kings_Speech_Official_Trailer
e-dubble - Be A King
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:08
- Published: 29 Aug 2011
- Updated: 14 Jul 2012
e-dubble - Be A King Channel: www.youtube.com www.facebook.com www.youtube.com twitter.com Enjoy ;)
http://wn.com/e-dubble_Be_A_King
Wake Up With The King
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:29
- Published: 20 Feb 2006
- Updated: 06 Jul 2012
Wake up
http://wn.com/Wake_Up_With_The_King
30 Seconds To Mars - Kings and Queens
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:50
- Published: 23 Sep 2010
- Updated: 14 Jul 2012
Music video by Thirty Seconds To Mars performing Kings and Queens (The Ride). Pre VEVO play counts 10904864. 2010 Virgin Records America, Inc. Directed by: Bartholomew Cubbins
http://wn.com/30_Seconds_To_Mars_Kings_and_Queens
"The King and I" - Etc., Etc., Etc.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:56
- Published: 22 Nov 2009
- Updated: 13 Jul 2012
Great scene from the film version of "The King and I."
http://wn.com/The_King_and_I_Etc,_Etc,_Etc
Pierce The Veil - "King For A Day" ft. Kellin Quinn (Lyric Video)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:00
- Published: 06 Jun 2012
- Updated: 15 Jul 2012
"King for a Day" by Pierce the Veil featuring Kellin Quinn of Sleeping With Sirens. Taken from the album 'Collide with the Sky' available July 17th, 2012. Download "King For A Day" now on iTunes: smarturl.it Pre-Order 'Collide With The Sky' iTunes Digital Pre-Order: smarturl.it More from Pierce The Veil: piercetheveil.net http twitter.com
http://wn.com/Pierce_The_Veil_King_For_A_Day_ft_Kellin_Quinn_Lyric_Video
Cassie - King Of Hearts
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:44
- Published: 14 Feb 2012
- Updated: 14 Jul 2012
Music video by Cassie performing King Of Hearts. (C) 2012 Bad Boy/Interscope Records
http://wn.com/Cassie_King_Of_Hearts
Lion King - Circle of Life
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:56
- Published: 14 Dec 2006
- Updated: 14 Jul 2012
tinyurl.com Lion King - Circle of Life Hey check out my DeviantArt account: parkerjademerce.deviantart.com Permission from MP3 Rocket #48 - Most Discussed (All Time) - Film & Animation #27 - Most Viewed (All Time) - Film & Animation #17 - Top Favorited (All Time) - Film & Animation #22 - Top Rated (All Time) - Film & Animation
http://wn.com/Lion_King_Circle_of_Life
![That's My King Dr. SM Lockridge - [OFFICIAL]](http://web.archive.org./web/20120715042944im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/yzqTFNfeDnE/0.jpg "That's My King Dr. SM Lockridge - [OFFICIAL]")
That's My King Dr. SM Lockridge - [OFFICIAL]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:20
- Published: 23 Jul 2008
- Updated: 14 Jul 2012
(Official video from the creator.) Visuals set to the audio of the famous sermon "Seven Way King" (aka That's My King) as spoken by Dr. SM Lockridge. The audio is slightly edited for a better flow in the video. The music in the background was performed live by the GCC band while the video played on the screens. It then led directly into the worship song "Here is Our King" (To see the performance in it's entirety go here: gccwired.com/mediaplayer/playeropener.asp?id=478 ) Created entirely using After Effects with footage from the movie "The Passion of the Christ". The video took 30 hours to create plus around 6 hours of rendering. The final After Effects project file totaled well over 600 layers.
http://wn.com/That's_My_King_Dr_SM_Lockridge_OFFICIAL_
The lion King - I just can't wait to be king
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:45
- Published: 22 Oct 2006
- Updated: 14 Jul 2012
I DO NOT OWN THIS!!! COPYRIGHT BY DISNEY!!!!!!!! Hallo^^ Das ist mein erstes Viedeo!^^ Es ist das Lied "Ich will jetzt gleich König sein" aus dem "König der Löwen". Hoffe es gefällt euch^^ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Hello^^ This is my first viedeo!^^ It's the song "I just can't wait to be king" fron "The lion king". Hope you like it^^ Lyrics: [YOUNG SIMBA] I'm gonna be a mighty king, so enemies beware! [ZAZU] [spoken] Well I've never seen a king of beasts With quite so little hair [YOUNG SIMBA] I'm gonna be the mane event Like no king was before I'm brushing up on looking down I'm working on my roar [ZAZU] [spoken] Thus far, a rather uninspiring thing [YOUNG SIMBA] Oh, I just can't wait to be king! [YOUNG SIMBA] No one saying do this [ZAZU] [spoken] Now when I said that -- [YOUNG NALA] No one saying be there [ZAZU] What I meant was -- [YOUNG SIMBA] No one saying stop that [ZAZU] What you don't realize -- [YOUNG NALA AND YOUNG SIMBA] No one saying see here [ZAZU] Now see here! [YOUNG SIMBA] Free to run around all day [ZAZU] That's definitely out! [YOUNG SIMBA] Free to do it all my way [ZAZU] [spoken] I think it's time that you and I arranged a heart-to-heart [YOUNG SIMBA] Kings don't need advice From little hornbills for a start [ZAZU] [spoken] If this is where the monarchy is headed Count me out Out of service, out of Africa I wouldn't hang about This child is getting wildly out of [sung] wing [YOUNG SIMBA] Oh, I just can't wait to be king Everybody look left <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/The_lion_King_I_just_can't_wait_to_be_king
Sade - King Of Sorrow
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:41
- Published: 12 Dec 2009
- Updated: 14 Jul 2012
Music video by Sade performing King Of Sorrow. (C) 2001 Sony Music Entertainment UK Limited
http://wn.com/Sade_King_Of_Sorrow
Dog Eat Dog Who's the King?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:49
- Published: 13 Apr 2007
- Updated: 13 Jul 2012
Dog Eat Dog Who's the King? More at www.dogeatdog.nl
http://wn.com/Dog_Eat_Dog_Who's_the_King?
Public Domain / Ultimate Destiny
Creative Commons / Peppigue
Public Domain / William Frederick Mitchell
AP / Abdeljalil Bounhar
Creative Commons
Creative Commons / Armona
Creative Commons / Armona
Creative Commons / Armona
Creative Commons / Russ Hamer
Creative Commons / Benoît
Creative Commons / Angela George
AP / Raad Adayleh
Creative Commons / JIP
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
WN / Aaron Gilbert
Loading results ...
photo: AP
12 Jul 2012
Photos from Kate Middleton and Prince William’s honeymoon leaked online Wednesday and are stirring up controversy. The royal couple spent their honeymoon on the north island of the Seychelles...
photo: AP / Drug Enforcement Administration
13 Jul 2012
LOS ANGELES: US and Mexican authorities have unearthed a 240-yard-long drug smuggling tunnel under their joint border in the state of Arizona, the latest such find in the violence-scarred region, US...
photo: US Navy / MCS3 Jeff Atherton
14 Jul 2012
Iran could prevent even "a single drop of oil" passing through the Strait of Hormuz if its security is threatened, country's naval commander has said, as tensions simmer over Tehran's...
photo: AP
13 Jul 2012
LAGOS, Nigeria -- A truck carrying fuel veered off the road into a ditch, caught fire and exploded in Nigeria's oil-rich delta Thursday, killing at least 95 people who had rushed to the scene to...
photo: NASA
14 Jul 2012
A solar storm is racing toward Earth this weekend, but scientists say not to worry. The blast of charged solar particles was due to arrive on Saturday morning and last through Sunday as it slams into...
photo: Creative Commons / Karen Seto
14 Jul 2012
Print this page Tweet Kate Beckinsale is very, very pissed off in the new “Total Recall” reboot coming from Sony. The actress plays Colin Farrell’s wife, hell-bent on inflicting a...
photo: AP / Miguel Angel Morenatti
14 Jul 2012
If we are going to have criminal prosecutions at all, surely they should be related to the damage that the offender causes. By that yardstick, venal bankers who have caused misery for millions should...
The Dallas Morning News
SEATTLE (AP) — Felix Hernandez struck out 12 in a three-hitter and the Seattle Mariners beat Yu Darvish and the Texas Rangers 7-0 on Saturday night. Hernandez (7-5)...(size: 1.1Kb)
Kings taking a chance on Tony Mitchell
15 Jul 2012
Sacramento Bee
LAS VEGAS -- Tony Mitchell is a talented player with an uphill climb to make the NBA. He was suspended for the final 11 games last season at Alabama for violating team rules in dealing with coach Anthony Grant. Mitchell, a junior forward, was released from his scholarship and could have transferred...(size: 3.2Kb)
Burger Wars: Burger King Reigns on Facebook While McDonald’s is the Biggest Mac on Twitter
15 Jul 2012
San Francisco Chronicle
In-N-Out creates cult-like engagement while Chipotle doesn’t miss a tweet, according to new report from social media benchmarking platform Unmetric. Chicago, IL (PRWEB) July 14, 2012 Over the past fifty years, fast food chains have redefined the American dining experience. In the age of social...(size: 8.7Kb)
Ha'aretz
Moran Roth has agreed a three-year deal with Maccabi Tel Aviv, replacing Yogev Ohayon at the point guard position. The 29-year-old played in Maccabi’s youth division but has been something of a journeyman, playing with seven different basketball teams, some in the lower leagues, over the...(size: 1.9Kb)
Sacramento Bee
MIAMI -- Hard to watch, now, isn't it? Nobody ever thought just the sight of those bland Penn State uniforms and that craggy guy with the Poindexter glasses on the sideline could make skin crawl. The results of the games don't matter. Whether it's the University of Miami upsetting No. 1 Penn State...(size: 5.4Kb)
Keeping Kings Royal crown tough task
15 Jul 2012
Dayton Daily News
ROSSBURG — Every so often as he makes his way through the pits at a race track they’ll give a shout out to King Tyler the 28th. California sprint car driver Tyler Walker, who entered the weekend as the Kings Royal defending champ, woke up this morning with either another year added to...(size: 3.1Kb)
The Miami Herald
Hard to watch, now, isn’t it? Nobody ever thought just the sight of those bland Penn State uniforms and that craggy guy with the Poindexter glasses on the sideline could make skin crawl. The results of the games don’t matter. Whether it’s the University of Miami upsetting...(size: 3.5Kb)
Rice legend King Hill dies at 75
15 Jul 2012
Houston Chronicle
Dale Robertson Updated 07:28 p.m., Saturday, July 14, 2012 Tweet Comments (0) Larger | Smaller Printable Version Email This...(size: 10.1Kb)
The Observer
Sir Mervyn King: stepping down next summer. Photograph: Bloomberg/Getty Images At six o'clock on a dreary Monday evening, an exhausted Marcus Agius walked into the Bank of England to meet its governor, Sir Mervyn King. Less than 12 hours earlier, Agius – a quietly spoken, old-school former...(size: 9.2Kb)
For other uses, see Monarch (disambiguation).
"King" redirects here. For other uses, see King (disambiguation).
.svg)
A monarch is the person who leads a monarchy. This is a form of government in which a state or polity is ruled or controlled by an individual who typically inherits the throne by birth and rules for life or until abdication. Monarchs may be autocrats (absolute monarchy) or ceremonial heads of state who exercise little or no power or only reserve power, with actual authority vested in a parliament or other body (constitutional monarchy).
Contents |
Etymology[link]
The word monarch is derived from the Greek μονάρχης (from μόνος, "one/singular," and ἄρχων, "leader/ruler/chief") through the Latin: monarcha (mono: "one" + arch "chief") which referred to a single, at least nominally, absolute ruler. In current usage the word monarchy generally refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule, as elective monarchies are rare in the modern period (though they do still exist in Vatican City, Andorra and Malaysia).
Characteristics[link]
Most states have at most one monarch at any given time, although a regent may rule when the monarch is a minor, not present, or otherwise incapable of ruling. Two monarchs have ruled simultaneously in some countries, as in the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta or the joint sovereignty of spouses or relatives (e.g. William and Mary of Kingdom of England and Scotland, Peter and Ivan of Russia, Charles and Joanna of Castile, etc.).
Monarchs have various titles — king or queen, prince or princess (e.g. Sovereign Prince of Monaco), Malik or Malikah (e.g. Maliks of Middle eastern Mamlakahs), emperor or empress (e.g. Emperor of Japan, Emperor of India), Shah of Iran, archduke, duke or grand duke (e.g. Grand Duke of Luxembourg). Prince is sometimes used as a generic term to describe any monarch regardless of title, especially in older texts.
Many monarchs are distinguished by titles and styles. They often take part in certain ceremonies, such as a coronation.
Monarchy is associated with political or sociocultural in nature hereditary rule; most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a royal family (over a period of time called a dynasty) and trained for future duties. Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority (Salic law). While traditionally most monarchs have been male, female monarchs have also ruled in history; the term queen regnant refers to a ruling monarch, as distinct from a queen consort, the wife of a reigning king.
Some monarchies are non-hereditary. In an elective monarchy, the monarch is elected but otherwise serves as any other monarch. Historical examples of elective monarchy include the Holy Roman Emperors (chosen by prince-electors but often coming from the same dynasty) and the free election of kings of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Modern examples include the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia and the pope of the Roman Catholic Church, who serves as Sovereign of the Vatican City State and is elected to a life term by the College of Cardinals.
Monarchies have existed throughout the world, although in recent centuries many states have abolished the monarchy and become republics. Advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the immediate continuity of leadership, with a usually short interregnum (as illustrated in the classic phrase "The [old] King is dead. Long live the [new] King!"). However, this only applies in the case of autocratic rule. In cases where the monarch serves mostly as a ceremonial figure (e.g. most modern constitutional monarchies) real leadership does not depend on the monarch.
A form of government may in fact be hereditary without being considered monarchy, such as family dictatorship or political families present in some nominally democratic countries.
Classification[link]
A particular case is the French co-prince of Andorra, a position held by the elected President of France. Nonetheless, he is still generally considered a monarch because of the traditional use of a monarchical title (even though Andorra is, strictly speaking, a diarchy.) Similarly, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia is considered a monarch despite only holding the office for five years at a time. On the other hand, several life-time dictators around the world have not been formally classified as monarchs, even if succeeded by their children, but that may be more to do with international political sensitivities than with semantics.
Succession[link]
Hereditary succession within one family has been most common. The usual hereditary succession is based on some cognatic principles and on seniority, though sometimes merit has played a part. Thus, the most common hereditary system in feudal Europe was based on cognatic primogeniture where a lord was succeeded by his eldest son or, if he had no son, by either his brother, his daughters or sons of daughters. The system of tanistry was semi-elective and gave weight also to merits and capability.
The Quasi-Salic succession provided firstly for male members of the family to succeed, and secondarily males descended from female lines. In most feudal fiefs, females (such as daughters and sisters) were allowed to succeed, should the male line fail, but usually the husband of the heiress became the real lord and most often also received the title, jure uxoris. Great Britain and Spain today continue this model of succession law, in the form of cognatic primogeniture. In more complex medieval cases, the sometimes conflicting principles of proximity and primogeniture battled, and outcomes were often idiosyncratic.
As the average life span among the nobility increased (thanks to lords limiting their personal participation in dangerous battles, and generally improved sustenance and living conditions among the wealthy), an eldest son was more likely to reach majority age before the death of his father, and primogeniture became increasingly favoured over proximity, tanistry, seniority and election.
Later, when lands were strictly divided among noble families and tended to remain fixed, agnatic primogeniture (practically the same as Salic Law) became more usual: the succession would go to the eldest son of the monarch, or, if the monarch had no sons, the throne would pass to the nearest male relative through the male line, to the total exclusion of females.
In some countries however, inheritance through the female line was never wholly abandoned, so that if the monarch had no sons, the throne would pass to the eldest daughter and to her posterity. (This, cognatic primogeniture, was the rule that let Elizabeth II become Queen.)
In 1980, Sweden became the first monarchy to declare equal primogeniture or full cognatic primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne.[1] Other kingdoms (Netherlands in 1983, Norway in 1990, Belgium in 1991 and Denmark in 2009) have since followed suit.
In some monarchies, such as Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority). In some other monarchies (e.g. Jordan), the monarch chooses who will be his successor, who need not necessarily be his eldest son.
Whatever the rules of succession, there have been many cases of a monarch being overthrown and replaced by a usurper who would then often install his own family as the ruling monarchy.
History[link]
Further information: Monarchy
Monarchs in Africa[link]
Further information: Monarchies in Africa
Further information: History of Africa
A series of Pharaohs ruled Ancient Egypt over the course of three millennia (circa 3150 BC to 31 BC) until it was conquered by the Roman Empire. In the same time period several kingdoms flourished in the nearby Nubia region, with at least one of them, that of the so-called A-Group culture, apparently influencing the customs of Egypt itself.
West Africa hosted the Kanem Empire (700 - 1376) and its successor, the Bornu principality which survives to the present day as a part of the Federation of Nigeria.
In East Africa, the Aksumite Empire and later the Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974) were ruled by a series of monarchs. Haile Selassie, the last Emperor of Ethiopia, was deposed in a communist coup.
Central and Southern Africa were largely isolated from other regions until the modern era, but they did later feature kingdoms like the Kingdom of Kongo (1400–1914).
As part of the Scramble for Africa, Europeans conquered, bought, or established African kingdoms and styled themselves as monarchs.
Currently the African nations of Morocco, Lesotho and Swaziland are sovereign monarchies under dynasties that are native to the continent. Places like St. Helena, Ceuta, Melilla and the Canary Islands are ruled by the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the King of Spain, while so-called sub-national monarchies of varying sizes can be found all over the rest of the continent e.g. the Yoruba city-state of Akure in south-western Nigeria is something of an elective monarchy, with its reigning Oba having to be chosen by an electoral college of nobles from amongst a finite collection of royal princes and princesses of the realm.
Monarchs in Europe[link]
Further information: Monarchies in Europe
Prince was a common title within the Holy Roman Empire, along with a number of higher titles listed below. Such titles were granted by the Emperor, while the titulation of rulers of sovereign states was generally left to their own discretion, most often choosing King or Queen. Such titulations could cause diplomatic problems, and especially the elevation to Emperor or Empress was seen as an offensive action.
During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries most small monarchies in Europe disappeared, merging to form larger entities, and so King is the most common title for male rulers and Queen has become the most common title today for female rulers.
As of 2010[update] in Europe there are twelve monarchies: seven kingdoms, one grand duchy, one papacy, and two principalities, as well as the diarchy of Andorra.
Monarchs in Asia[link]
Further information: Monarchies in Asia
In China, before the abolition of the monarchy in 1912, the Emperor of China was traditionally regarded as the ruler of "All under heaven". "King" is the usual translation for the term wang 王, the sovereign before the Qin dynasty and during the Ten Kingdoms period. During the early Han dynasty, China had a number of small kingdoms, each about the size of a county and subordinate to the Empress or Emperor of China.
The Japanese monarchy is now the only monarchy to still use the title of Emperor. Between 1925 and 1979, Iran was ruled by an Emperor that used the title of "Shahanshah" (or "King of Kings" in Gelf). Thailand and Bhutan are like the UK in that they are constitutional monarchies ruled by a King. Saudi Arabia and many other Middle Eastern monarchies are ruled by a Malik and parts of the United Arab Emirates, such as Dubai, are still ruled by monarchs.
Oman is led by Monarch Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said. The Kingdom of Jordan is one of the Middle East's more modern monarchies is also ruled by a Malik. In Arab and arabized countries, Malik (absolute King) is absolute word to render a monarch and is superior to all other titles. Nepal abolished their monarchy in 2008. Sri Lanka had a complex system of monarchies from 543BC to 1815. Between 47BC-42BC Anula of Sri Lanka became the country's first female head of state as well as Asia's first head of state.[dubious – discuss]
In Malaysia's constitutional monarchy, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (The Supreme Lord of the Federation) is de facto rotated every five years among the nine Rulers of the Malay states of Malaysia (those nine of the thirteen states of Malaysia that have hereditary royal rulers), elected by Majlis Raja-Raja (Conference of Rulers). Under Brunei Darussalam's 1959 constitution, His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda, Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah is the head of state with full executive authority, including emergency powers, since 1962. The Prime Minister of Brunei is a title held by the Sultan of Brunei. As the prime minister, the Sultan presides over the cabinet.
Monarchs in the Americas[link]
Further information: Monarchies in the Americas
The concept of monarchy existed in the Americas long before the arrival of European colonialists.[2][3] When the Europeans arrived they referred to these tracts of land within territories of different aboriginal groups to be kingdoms, and the leaders of these groups were often referred to by the Europeans as Kings, particularly hereditary leaders.[4]
Pre-colonial titles that were used included:
- Cacique – Aboriginal Hispaniola and Borinquen
- Tlatoani – Nahuas
- Ajaw – Maya
- Qhapaq Inka – Tawuantin Suyu (Inca Empire)
- Morubixaba – Tupi tribes
- Sha-quan – King of the world used in some America Indian tribes
The first local monarch to emerge in North America after colonization was Augustin I, who declared himself Emperor of Mexico in 1822. Mexico again had an emperor, Maximilian I from 1863 to 1867. In South America, Brazil had a Portuguese royal house ruling as emperor between 1822 and 1889, under Emperors Pedro I and Pedro II.
Monarchs in Tonga[link]
Tonga was ruled by a chief and the chief is in charge of one village. The cities were governed by the Prime Minister of Tonga. Tonga was falling apart because the chiefs would start war with other villages and Tonga would fall apart. Tonga did not know what to do and then the chiefs thought that a Monarch would bring balance to the Kingdom of Tonga and peace. The following day was the day that Tonga received a Monarch, so Tonga celebrated with games, dancing and singing.
Between 1931 and 1983 nine other previous British colonies attained independence as kingdoms, all, including Canada, in a personal union relationship under a shared monarch. Therefore, though today there are legally ten American monarchs, one person occupies each distinct position.
| Male Title | Female Title | Realm | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor | Empress | Empire | Brazil, Mexico, Sapa Inca, Japan |
| King | Queen | Kingdom | Canada, Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Grenada, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Saint Kitts and Nevis |
Titles and precedence[link]
For commonly used names for specific monarchs, see List of monarchs by nickname.
The normal monarch title in Europe — i.e., the one used if the monarch has no higher title — is prince or princess, by convention. As an absolute ruler, a monarch can choose a title. However, titles are usually defined by tradition and diplomatic considerations.
Note that some of these titles have several meanings and do not necessarily designate a monarch. A Prince may be a person of royal blood (some languages uphold this distinction, see Fürst). A Duke may be a British peer. In Imperial Russia, a Grand Duke was a son or grandson of the Tsar or Tsarina. Holders of titles in these alternative meanings did not enjoy the same status as the monarchs of the same title.
Within the Holy Roman Empire, there were even more titles that were used occasionally for monarchs although they were normally noble; Margrave, Count Palatine, and Landgrave. A monarch with such a low title was still regarded as more important than a noble Duke.[citation needed]
The table below lists titles in order of precedence. According to protocol any holder of a title of monarchy took precedence over all holders of a lower title. Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom was arguably the most powerful monarch of her time, but at banquets was seated below all the Emperors until she took the title of Empress of India.
| Male version | Female version | Realm | Adjective | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Emperor | Empress | Empire | Imperial | Roman Empire, Byzantine Empire, Ottoman Empire, Holy Roman Empire, Russia, Mongol Empire, Imperial China, First and Second French Empire, Austria, Mexico, Brazil, German Empire (none left in Europe after 1918), Empress of India (ceased to be used after 1947 when India was granted independence from the British Empire), Japan (the only remaining enthroned emperor in the world). |
| King | Queen | Kingdom | Royal | Common in larger sovereign states |
| Viceroy | Vicereine | Viceroyalty | Viceregal | Historical: Spanish Empire (Peru, New Spain, Rio de la Plata, New Granada), Portuguese Empire, (India, Brazil), British Empire |
| Grand Duke | Grand Duchess | Grand Duchy | Grand Ducal | Today: Luxembourg; historical: Lithuania, Baden, Finland, Tuscany et al. |
| Archduke | Archduchess | Archduchy | Archducal | Historical: Unique only in Austria, Archduchy of Austria; title used for member of the Habsburg dynasty |
| Prince | Princess | Principality, Princely state | Princely | Today: Monaco, Liechtenstein; Andorra (Co-Princes). Historical: Principality of Albania, Serbia |
| Duke | Duchess | Duchy, Dukedom | Ducal | There are none left currently. Though historical examples include Normandy. |
| Count | Countess | County | Countly, comital | Most common in the Holy Roman Empire, translated in German as Graf; historical: Barcelona, Brandenburg, Baden, numerous others |
| Baron | Baroness | Barony | Baronial | There are normal baronies and sovereign baronies, a sovereign barony can be compared with a principality, however, this is an historical exception; sovereign barons no longer have a sovereign barony, but only the title and style |
| Pope | Females cannot hold the office of Pope | Papacy | Papal | Monarch of the Papal States and later Sovereign of the State of Vatican City |
The pope is the Bishop of Rome (a celibate office always forbidden to women), in English however, reports of female popes such as (Pope Joan) refer to them as pope and Popess is used, among other things, for the second trump in the Tarot deck; some European languages also have a feminine form of the word pope, such as the Italian papessa, the French papesse, and the German Päpstin.
Titles by region[link]
 |
This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability. |
When a difference exists below, male titles are placed to the left and female titles are placed to the right of the slash.
| Region | Title | Description and use |
|---|---|---|
| Africa | Almami | Fulani people of west Africa |
| Asantehene | Ashanti, title of the king of the Ashanti people in Ghana | |
| Chieftain | Leader of a people | |
| Eze | Igbo people of Nigeria | |
| Kabaka | Baganda people of Buganda in Uganda | |
| Malik | King of Morocco | |
| Mwami | In both Rwanda and Burundi during the Tutsi domination of these countries, now the acknowledged ruling sections of only their fellow Tutsis | |
| Oba | Yoruba and Bini peoples of Nigeria | |
| Omukama | Bunyoro, title of some kings in Uganda | |
| Pharaoh | Emperor of Ancient Egypt | |
| Sarki | King of the Hausa people | |
| Asia | Arasan/Arasi | Tamil Nadu (India), Sri Lanka |
| Chakrawarti Raja | India Sri Lanka | |
| Chogyal | "Divine Ruler"; ruled Sikkim until 1975 | |
| Datu | title of leaders of small kingdoms during Ancient Philippines | |
| Druk Gyalpo | Hereditary title given to the king of Bhutan | |
| Emperor of China | Also known as Huángdì, rule the Imperial China with supreme power. | |
| Engku or Ungku | Malaysia, to denote particular family lineage akin to royalty | |
| Gat | Honorary title of the leaders in the Philippines | |
| Hang | Limbu King of East Nepal Limbuwan | |
| Hari | Filipino title for king | |
| Huángdì | 皇帝 as in Chinese, the Imperial China Emperor | |
| Hwangje | States that unified Korea | |
| Maha Raja | Used in India and Sri Lanka | |
| Maha Raju | Used in Andhra Pradesh (India) | |
| Meurah | Title used in Aceh before Islam | |
| Lakan | title used by the rulers of the Kingdom of Tondo (now part of the Philippines) | |
| Padshah Shahinshah Shah |
Emperor of Iran or Hindustan (India) | |
| Preah Karuna Preah Bat Sâmdech Preah Bâromneath | King of Cambodia Khmer, the title literally means "The feet of the Greatest Lord who is on the heads (of his subjects)" (This royal title does not refer directly to the king himself but to his feet, according to traditions).[citation needed] | |
| Patabenda | Sub- king Sri lanka | |
| Phrabat Somdej Phrachaoyuhua | King of Thailand (Siam), the title literally means "The feet of the Greatest Lord who is on the heads (of his subjects)" (This royal title does not refer directly to the king himself but to his feet, according to traditions.)[citation needed] | |
| Qaghan | Central Asian Tribes | |
| Racha | Thailand same meaning as Raja | |
| Raja | Malaysia, Raja denotes royalty in Perak and certain Selangor royal family lineages, is roughly equivalent to Prince or Princess. | |
| Raja | Nepal King | |
| Raja | pre-colonial Philippines | |
| Rani | Nepali Queen | |
| Rao or Maharao | Used in Indian states | |
| Rawal or Maharawal | Used in northern and western India, Yaduvanshis. | |
| Susuhunan or Sunan | The Indonesian princely state of Surakarta. | |
| Saopha | Shan, king of Shan, today as a part of Myanmar | |
| Sayyid | Honorific title given throughout the Islamic regions. Title given to males accepted as descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Syed/Sharifah in Perlis if suffixed by the royal clan name, is roughly equivalent to Prince or Princess. | |
| Shogun | Japanese military dictator, always a Samurai | |
| Sultan | Aceh, Brunei Darussalam, Java, Oman, Malaysia, Sultan is the title of seven (Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak, Selangor, and Terengganu) of the nine rulers of the Malay states. | |
| Sumeramikoto,Okimi | Japan, king | |
| Tengku | Malaysia, Tengku (also spelled Tunku in Johor), Negeri Sembilan and Kedah is roughly equivalent to Prince or Princess | |
| Tennō or Mikado | Japan | |
| Veyndhan, ko/Arasi | Tamil Nadu (India) | |
| Wang | Pre-Imperial China. "King" is the usual translation for the Chinese term wang 王. | |
| Wang | The king of Korea that control over all of Korea. It is called 'Im-Geum-nym' or 'Im-Geum' | |
| Yang di-Pertuan Agong | Monarch of Malaysia who is elected every five years by the reigning kings of the Malaysian constituent states, all of whom also serve as the only electoral candidates in each of the elections | |
| Europe | ||
| Autocrator | Greek term for the Byzantine Emperor | |
| Ban |
Croatia, medieval Romania (Wallachia, Oltenia), medieval Bosnia | |
| Basileus | Greek King | |
| Brenin/Brenhines, | Welsh for king and queen; used in Wales by the petty kinglets during the Early Middle Ages. During the High Middle Ages, the kinglets mediatised into principalities and employed the title 'prince/princess' (tywysog/tywysoges). Brenhines is the title used in Welsh for Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. | |
| Despot | Medieval Romania, Serbia (originating from Byzantium) | |
| Domn |
Medieval Romania (Moldova, Wallachia) | |
| Fejedelem | Ancient/Medieval Hungarian | |
| Germanic king | ||
| Giray | Crimean King | |
| Imperator | The Ruler of Imperial Russia | |
| Jupan | Romania | |
| Kung | Sweden | |
| Konge | Norway | |
| Koning | Netherlands | |
| Kaiser | Imperial Germany | |
| Knyaz, Knez | Kievan Rus', Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Generally translated as "prince" or "duke". | |
| Kralj | Bosnia, Croatia, Serbia | |
| Kunigaikshtis (Kunigaikštis) | duke as in Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In official Old Belarusian language documentation the title has been Knyaz (Belarusian: Князь) or grand duke, Vialiki kniaz (Belarusian: Вялікі князь) | |
| Mbret | Albanian King | |
| Mepe/Dedopali | Georgian King, Queen | |
| Rí | Gaelic king. Also Ruiri (regional overking), Rí ruirech (provincial king of overkings), and Ard Rí (pre-eminent Rí ruirech) | |
| Tsar/Tsaritsa/Czar | Bulgaria, pre-imperial Russia, Serbia | |
| Vezér | Ancient Hungarian | |
| Voivode, Voievod | Serbian/Hungarian/Romanian Title | |
| Župan | Serbia, Croatia | |
| Middle-East | ||
| Shah | Persian/Iranian and Afghanistan King
Padishah(Ottoman Empire) Han {Version of Central Asian{Khan} Used by the Ottoman Turks |
|
| Shahenshah | Persian/Iranian "King of Kings" or Emperor | |
| Sheikh | Arabic leader, King or Prince (Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, UAE) | |
| Malik | Arabic King, (Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Jordan) | |
| Emir | Arabic Prince, (Kuwait, Qatar, UAE) | |
| Sultan/Sultana | Arabic King (Oman and Ottoman Empire) | |
| Oceania | ||
| Chieftain | Leader of a tribe or clan. | |
| Houʻeiki, matai, aliʻi, tūlafale, tavana, ariki, Patu-iki | Usually translated as "chief" in various Polynesian countries. | |
| Mo'i | Normally translated as King, a title used by Hawaiian monarchs since unification in 1810. The last person to hold that title was Queen Lili'uokalani. | |
| Tuʻi or Tui | Kings in Oceania: Tonga, Wallis and Futuna, Nauru | |
| South America | Imperador | Emperor of Brazil. |
Current monarchs[link]
Main articles: List of current sovereign monarchs and List of current constituent monarchs
Use of titles by non-sovereigns[link]
It is not uncommon that people who are not generally seen as monarchs nevertheless use monarchical titles. There are at least five cases of this:
- Claiming an existing title, challenging the current holder. This has been very common historically. For centuries, the British monarch used, among his other titles, the title King of France, despite the fact that he had had no authority over French territory since the fifteenth century. Such as any one of the numerous antipopes who have claimed the Holy See.
- Retaining the title of an extinct monarchy. This can be coupled with a claim that the monarchy was in fact never, or should never have been, extinct. An example of the first case is the Prince of Seborga. Examples of the second case are several deposed monarchs or otherwise pretenders to thrones of abolished monarchies, e.g., Leka, Crown Prince of Albania who is styled by some as the "King of The Albanians." Retaining the title of an extinct monarchy can, however, be totally free of claims of sovereignty, for example it was customary of numerous European Monarchies to include "King of Jerusalem" in their full titles. When it comes to deposed monarchs, it is customary to continue the usage of their monarchical title (e.g., Constantine II, King of the Hellenes) as a courtesy title, not a constitutional office, for the duration of their lifetime. However the title then dies with them and cannot be used by anyone else unless the crown is restored constitutionally. Monarchs who have freely abdicated lose their right to use their former title. However where a monarch abdicated under duress (e.g., Michael I of Romania), it is customary to see the abdication as invalid and to treat them as deposed monarchs entitled to use their monarchical style for their lifetime.
- Inventing a new title. This is common by founders of micronations, and also may or may not come with a claim of sovereignty. When it does, it is disregarded by state leaders. A notable example is Paddy Roy Bates, styling himself the "Prince of Sealand," but not recognized as such by any national government, thus failing at least the constitutive condition for statehood (see Sealand for a fuller discussion of his claims). Another known example is that of Norton I, who invented the title "Emperor of the United States of America" and later declared himself "Protector of Mexico."
- Usage of a monarchical title by a fictional character. This is common in fairy tales and other works geared to children, as well as works of fantasy. Examples include Princess Leia and Princess Summerfall Winterspring.
- Honorific nicknames in popular music and other aspects of popular culture, such as "King of Rock and Roll".
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ SOU 1977:5 Kvinnlig tronföljd, p. 16.
- ^ Canada: History
- ^ Ferguson, Will; The Lost Kingdom; Macleans, October 27, 2003
- ^ The Four Indian Kings
External links[link]
 |
Look up monarch or kingship in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
http://wn.com/Monarch
Related pages:
http://ru.wn.com/Монарх
http://es.wn.com/Monarca
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| B.B. King | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Background information | |
| Birth name | Riley King |
| Also known as |
B.B. King King of the Blues |
| Born | (1925-09-16) September 16, 1925 (age 86) |
| Origin | Itta Bena, Mississippi, United States |
| Genres | Blues, soul blues, jazz, blues rock, electric blues, rhythm and blues, soul |
| Occupations | Musician, songwriter, producer |
| Instruments | Vocals, guitar, piano |
| Years active | 1949–present |
| Labels | Geffen/Interscope/Universal, Bullet Records, RPM Records, Crown, ABC, MCA, Reprise/Warner Bros., Virgin/EMI |
| Associated acts | Bobby Bland, Eric Clapton, Pappo |
| Website | www.bbking.com |
| Notable instruments | |
| Lucille | |
Riley B. King (born September 16, 1925), known by the stage name B.B. King, is an American songwriter, vocalist, and famed blues guitarist.
Rolling Stone magazine ranked him at No. 6 on its list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time.[1] and No. 17 in in Gibson's Top 50 Guitarists of All Time.[2] According to Edward M. Komara, King "introduced a sophisticated style of soloing based on fluid string bending and shimmering vibrato that would influence virtually every electric blues guitarist that followed."[3] King was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1987.
Contents |
Early life[link]
King was born in a small cabin on a cotton plantation outside of Berclair, Mississippi, to Albert King and Nora Ella Farr on September 16, 1925.
In 1930, when King was four years old, his father abandoned the family, and his mother married another man. Because Nora Ella was too poor to raise her son, King was raised by his maternal grandmother Elnora Farr in Kilmichael, Mississippi.[4] Over the years, King has developed one of the world's most identifiable guitar styles. He borrowed from Blind Lemon Jefferson, T-Bone Walker and others, integrating his precise and complex vocal-like string bends and his left hand vibrato, both of which have become indispensable components of rock guitarist's vocabulary. His economy and phrasing has been a model for thousands of players, from Eric Clapton and George Harrison to Jeff Beck. King has mixed traditional blues, jazz, swing, mainstream pop, and jump into a unique sound. In King's words, "When I sing, I play in my mind; the minute I stop singing orally, I start to sing by playing Lucille." King grew up singing in the gospel choir at Elkhorn Baptist Church in Kilmichael. At age 12, he purchased his first guitar for $15.00[4] although another reference indicates he was given his first guitar by his cousin, Bukka White. In 1943, King left Kilmichael to work as a tractor driver and play guitar with the Famous St. John's Quartet of Inverness, Mississippi, performing at area churches and on WGRM in Greenwood, Mississippi.[5][6]
In 1946, King followed his cousin Bukka White to Memphis, Tennessee. White took him in for the next ten months.[4] However, King shortly returned to Mississippi, where he decided to prepare himself better for the next visit, and returned to West Memphis, Arkansas, two years later in 1948. He performed on Sonny Boy Williamson's radio program on KWEM in West Memphis, Arkansas where he began to develop a local audience for his sound. King's appearances led to steady engagements at the Sixteenth Avenue Grill in West Memphis and later to a ten-minute spot on the legendary Memphis radio station WDIA. King's Spot became so popular, it was expanded and became the Sepia Swing Club.
Initially he worked at the local R&B radio station WDIA as a singer and disc jockey, where he gained the nickname Beale Street Blues Boy, later shortened to Blues Boy and finally to B.B.[7][8] It was there that he first met T-Bone Walker. "Once I'd heard him for the first time, I knew I'd have to have [an electric guitar] myself. 'Had' to have one, short of stealing!", he said.[9]
Career[link]
1949–2005[link]
In 1949, King began recording songs under contract with Los Angeles-based RPM Records. Many of King's early recordings were produced by Sam Phillips, who later founded Sun Records. Before his RPM contract, King had debuted on Bullet Records by issuing the single "Miss Martha King" (1949), which did not chart well. "My very first recordings [in 1949] were for a company out of Nashville called Bullet, the Bullet Record Transcription company," King recalls. "I had horns that very first session. I had Phineas Newborn on piano; his father played drums, and his brother, Calvin, played guitar with me. I had Tuff Green on bass, Ben Branch on tenor sax, his brother, Thomas Branch, on trumpet, and a lady trombone player. The Newborn family were the house band at the famous Plantation Inn in West Memphis."[10]
King assembled his own band; the B.B. King Review, under the leadership of Millard Lee. The band initially consisted of Calvin Owens and Kenneth Sands (trumpet), Lawrence Burdin (alto saxophone), George Coleman (tenor saxophone),[11] Floyd Newman (baritone saxophone), Millard Lee (piano), George Joyner (bass) and Earl Forest and Ted Curry (drums). Onzie Horne was a trained musician elicited as an arranger to assist King with his compositions. By his own admission, he cannot play chords well[12] and always relies on improvisation. This was followed by tours across the USA with performances in major theaters in cities such as Washington, D.C., Chicago, Los Angeles, Detroit and St. Louis, as well as numerous gigs in small clubs and juke joints of the southern US states.
In the winter of 1949, King played at a dance hall in Twist, Arkansas. In order to heat the hall, a barrel half-filled with kerosene was lit, a fairly common practice at the time. During a performance, two men began to fight, knocking over the burning barrel and sending burning fuel across the floor. The hall burst into flames, which triggered an evacuation. Once outside, King realized that he had left his guitar inside the burning building. He entered the blaze to retrieve his beloved guitar, a Gibson semi-hollow electric. Two people died in the fire. The next day, King learned that the two men were fighting over a woman named Lucille. King named that first guitar Lucille, as well as every one he owned since that near-fatal experience, as a reminder never again to do something as stupid as run into a burning building or fight over women.
King meanwhile toured the entire "Chitlin' circuit" and 1956 became a record-breaking year, with 342 concerts booked. The same year he founded his own record label, Blues Boys Kingdom, with headquarters at Beale Street in Memphis. There, among other projects, he produced artists such as Millard Lee and Levi Seabury.
In the 1950s, B.B. King became one of the most important names in R&B music, amassing an impressive list of hits including "3 O'Clock Blues", "You Know I Love You," "Woke Up This Morning," "Please Love Me," "When My Heart Beats like a Hammer," "Whole Lotta Love," "You Upset Me Baby," "Every Day I Have the Blues", "Sneakin' Around," "Ten Long Years," "Bad Luck," "Sweet Little Angel", "On My Word of Honor," and "Please Accept My Love." In 1962, King signed to ABC-Paramount Records, which was later absorbed into MCA Records, and then his current label, Geffen Records. In November 1964, King recorded the Live at the Regal album at the Regal Theater in Chicago, Illinois.
King won a Grammy Award for a tune called "The Thrill Is Gone";[13] his version became a hit on both the pop and R&B charts, which was rare during that time for an R&B artist. It also gained the number 183 spot in Rolling Stone magazine's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. He gained further visibility among rock audiences as an opening act on The Rolling Stones' 1969 American Tour. King's mainstream success continued throughout the 1970s with songs like "To Know You is to Love You" and "I Like to Live the Love".
King was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame in 1980. In 2004 he was awarded the international Polar Music Prize, given to artists "in recognition of exceptional achievements in the creation and advancement of music."[14]
From the 1980s onward he has continued to maintain a highly visible and active career, appearing on numerous television shows and performing 300 nights a year. In 1988, King reached a new generation of fans with the single "When Love Comes to Town", a collaborative effort between King and the Irish band U2 on their Rattle and Hum album. In 2000, King teamed up with guitarist Eric Clapton to record Riding With the King. In 1998, King appeared in The Blues Brothers 2000, playing the part of the lead singer of the Louisiana Gator Boys, along with Clapton, Dr. John, Koko Taylor and Bo Diddley.
2006–present: farewell tour and later activities[link]
Aged 80 at the time, on March 29, 2006, King played at Hallam Arena in Sheffield, England. This was the first date of his United Kingdom and European farewell tour. He played this tour supported by Northern Irish guitarist Gary Moore, with whom King had previously toured and recorded, including the song "Since I Met You Baby". The British leg of the tour ended on April 4 with a concert at Wembley Arena. And on June 28, 2009 King returned to Wembley arena to end a tour around Great Britain with British blues icon John Mayall. When questioned as to why he was embarking on another tour after already completing his farewell stint, King jokingly remarked that he had never actually said the farewell tour would be his last.[15]
In July King went back to Europe, playing twice (July 2 and 3) in the 40th edition of the Montreux Jazz Festival and also in Zürich at the Blues at Sunset on July 14. During his show in Montreux at the Stravinski Hall he jammed with Joe Sample, Randy Crawford, David Sanborn, Gladys Knight, Lella James, Earl Thomas, Stanley Clarke, John McLaughlin, Barbara Hendricks and George Duke. The European leg of the Farewell Tour ended in Luxembourg on September 19, 2006, at the D'Coque Arena (support act: Todd Sharpville).
In November and December, King played six times in Brazil. During a press conference on November 29 in São Paulo, a journalist asked King if that would be the actual farewell tour. He answered: "One of my favorite actors is a man from Scotland named Sean Connery. Most of you know him as James Bond, 007. He made a movie called Never Say Never Again."
In June 2006, King was present at a memorial of his first radio broadcast at the Three Deuces Building in Greenwood, Mississippi, where an official marker of the Mississippi Blues Trail was erected. The same month, a groundbreaking was held for a new museum, dedicated to King.[16] in Indianola, Mississippi.[17] The museum opened on September 13, 2008.
File:BBKing.jpg
B.B. King at Roy Thomson Hall, Toronto, Ontario (May 2007)
In late October 2006, he recorded a concert CD and DVD entitled B.B. King: Live at his B.B. King Blues Clubs in Nashville and Memphis. The four night production featured his regular B.B. King Blues Band and captured his show as he performs it nightly around the world. It was his first live performance recording in 14 years.
On July 28, 2007, King played at Eric Clapton's second Crossroads Guitar Festival with 20 other guitarists to raise money for the Crossroads Centre for addictive disorders. Performing in Chicago, he played "Paying the Cost to Be the Boss", "Rock Me Baby" and "Thrill is Gone" (although the latter was not published on the DVD release) with Robert Cray, Jimmie Vaughan and Hubert Sumlin. In a poignant moment during the live broadcast, he offered a toast to the concert's host, Eric Clapton, and also reflected upon his own life and seniority. Adding to the poignancy, the four-minute speech — which had been underlaid with a mellow chord progression by Robert Cray throughout — made a transition to an emotional rendition of "Thrill is Gone". Parts of this performance were subsequently aired in a PBS broadcast and released on the Crossroads II DVD.
Also in 2007, King accepted an invitation to contribute to Goin' Home: A Tribute to Fats Domino (Vanguard Records). With Ivan Neville's DumpstaPhunk, King contributed his version of the title song, "Goin' Home".
In 2007 King performed "One Shoe Blues" on the Sandra Boynton children's album Blue Moo, accompanied by a pair of sock puppets in the video.
In June 2008, King played at the Bonnaroo Music and Arts Festival in Manchester, Tennessee; he was also the final performer at the 25th annual Chicago Blues Festival on June 8, 2008, and at the Monterey Blues Festival, following Taj Mahal. Another June 2008 event was King's induction into the Hollywood Bowl Hall of Fame alongside Liza Minnelli and Sir James Galway.
In July 2008, Sirius XM Radio's Bluesville channel was renamed B.B. King's Bluesville.
On December 1, 2008, King performed at the Maryland Theater in Hagerstown, Maryland.[18] On December 3, King and John Mayer were the closing act at the 51st Grammy Nomination Concert, playing "Let the Good Times Roll" by Louis Jordan. On December 30, 2008, King played at The Kennedy Center Honors Awards Show; his performance was in honor of actor Morgan Freeman.
.JPG)
In Summer 2009, King started a European Tour with concerts in France, Germany, Belgium, Finland and Denmark.
In March 2010, King contributed to Cyndi Lauper's album Memphis Blues, which was released on June 22, 2010.
King performed at the Mawazine festival in Rabat, Morocco, on May 27, 2010.[19]
On June 25, 2011 King played the pyramid stage at The Glastonbury Music Festival. On the June 28 he opened his new European tour at The Royal Albert Hall, London, supported by Derek Trucks and Susan Tedeschi, Ronnie Wood, Mick Hucknall and Slash.
On February 21st 2012, Barack Obama and Michelle Obama hosted, “In Performance at the White House: Red, White and Blues”, a celebration of blues music held in the East Room of the White House and B.B. King was among the performers. Later on that night, President Obama, encouraged by Buddy Guy and B.B. King, sang part of Sweet Home Chicago.[20]
On March 22, 2012, King played a concert at the Chicago House of Blues, where Benson made a guest appearance and both King & Benson held a jammin' session for over 20 minutes, it was also the celebration of Benson's birthday.
King performed on the debut album of rapper and producer Big K.R.I.T., who also hails from Mississippi.[21]
Over a period of 63 years, King has played in excess of 15,000 performances.[22]
Equipment[link]
- More info about the guitar, see Lucille (guitar)
B.B. King uses simple equipment. King played guitars made by different manufacturers early in his career: he played a Fender Telecaster on most of his recordings with RPM Records (USA).[23] However, he is best known for playing variants of the Gibson ES-355. In 1980 Gibson Guitar Corporation launched the B. B. King Lucille model. In 2005 Gibson made a special run of 80 Gibson Lucilles, referred to as the '80th Birthday Lucille', the first prototype of which was given as a birthday gift to King, which he has been using ever since.[24].
He uses Lab Series L5 2x12" combo amp. King has been using this amp for a long time. The amp was made by Norlin Industries for Gibson in the 70's and 80's. Other popular L5 users are Allan Holdsworth and Ty Tabor of King's X. The L5 has an onboard compressor, parametric EQ, and four inputs. He also has used a Fender Twin Reverb. [25]
He uses his signature model strings Gibson SEG-BBS B.B. King Signature Electric Guitar Strings with gauges: 10-13-17p-32w-45w-54w and D'Andrea 351 MD SHL CX (Medium .71mm, Tortoise Shell, Celluloid) Picks. [25]
B.B. King's Blues Club[link]
In 1991, B.B. King's Blues Club opened on Beale Street in Memphis, and in 1994, a second club was launched at Universal City Walk in Los Angeles. A third club in New York City's Times Square opened in June 2000. Two further clubs opened at Foxwoods Casino in Connecticut in January 2002[26] and another in Nashville in 2003.[27] A club in West Palm Beach opened in the fall of 2009[28] and an additional one, based in the Mirage Hotel, Las Vegas, opened in the winter of 2009.[29] In 2007, a B.B. King's Blues Club in Orlando opened on International Drive. The Memphis, Nashville, Orlando, West Palm Beach and Las Vegas stores are all the same Company.
Legacy[link]
King is widely regarded as one of the most influential blues guitarists of all time, inspiring countless other electric blues and blues-rock guitarists such as Jimi Hendrix, Eric Clapton,Jimmy Page, Buddy Guy, Robert Cray, Peter Green, Derek Trucks, Duane Allman, Elmore James and Stevie Ray Vaughan.[30]
Philanthropy[link]
In 2001, King signed on as an official supporter of Little Kids Rock, a non-profit organization that provides free musical instruments and instruction to children in underprivileged public schools throughout the US. He sits on LKR's Honorary Board of Directors.
TV appearances[link]
B.B. King has made guest appearances in numerous popular television shows, including The Cosby Show, The Young and the Restless, General Hospital,[31] The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, Sesame Street,[32] Married... with Children, Sanford and Son, and Touched by an Angel. He has also made a cameo in the movie Spies Like Us.[33]. He voiced in the last episode of Cow and Chicken.[citation needed]
Personal life[link]
King has been married twice, to Martha Lee Denton, 1946 to 1952, and to Sue Carol Hall, 1958 to 1966. Both marriages ended because of the heavy demands made on the marriage by King's 250 performances a year.[4] It is reported that he has fathered 15 children and, as of 2004, is the grandfather to fifty grandchildren.[4] He has lived with Type II diabetes for over twenty years and is a high-profile spokesman in the fight against the disease, appearing in advertisements for diabetes-management products along with American Idol season 9 contestant Crystal Bowersox.
King is an FAA licensed Private Pilot and learned to fly in 1963 at Chicago Hammond Airport in Lansing, IL (now Lansing Municipal Airport – KIGQ).[34][35] He frequently flew to gigs, but under the advice of his insurance company and manager in 1995, King was asked to fly only with another licensed pilot; and as a result, King stopped flying around age 70.[36]
His favorite singer is Frank Sinatra. In his autobiography King speaks about how he was, and is, a "Sinatra nut" and how he went to bed every night listening to Sinatra's classic album In the Wee Small Hours. King has credited Sinatra for opening doors to black entertainers who were not given the chance to play in "white-dominated" venues; Sinatra got B.B. King into the main clubs in Las Vegas during the 1960s.[37][page needed]
Discography[link]
Main article: B. B. King discography
- Singin' the Blues (1956)
- The Blues (1958)
- B. B. King Wails (1959)
- Sings Spirituals (1959)
- The Great B. B. King (1960)
- My Kind of Blues (1960)
- King of the Blues (1960)
- Blues For Me (1961)
- Blues in My Heart 1962()
- Easy Listening Blues (1962)
- B. B. King (1963)
- Mr. Blues (1963)
- Confessin' the Blues (1966)
- Blues on Top of Blues (1968)
- Lucille (1968)
- Live & Well (1969)
- Completely Well (1969)
- Indianola Mississippi Seeds (1970)
- B. B. King in London (1971)
- L.A. Midnight (1972)
- Guess Who (1972)
- To Know You Is to Love You (1973)
- Friends (1974)
- King Size (1977)
- Midnight Believer (1978)
- Take It Home (1979)
- There Must Be a Better World Somewhere (1981)
- Love Me Tender (1982)
- Blues 'N' Jazz (1983)
- Six Silver Strings (1985)
- King of Blues (1989)
- There is Always One More Time (1991)
- Blues Summit (1993)
- Lucille & Friends (1995)
- Deuces Wild (1997)
- Blues on the Bayou (1998)
- Let the Good Times Roll (1999)
- Riding with the King (2000, with Eric Clapton)
- Makin' Love Is Good for You (2000)
- A Christmas Celebration of Hope (2001)
- Reflections (2003)
- B. B. King & Friends: 80 (2005)
- One Kind Favor (2008)
Honors and awards[link]
- In 1977, he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Music by Yale University
- In 1980, he was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame.[38]
- In 1987, he was inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame.[39]
- In 1990, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts.[40]
- In 1991, he was awarded the National Heritage Fellowship from the NEA.[41]
- King was awarded the Kennedy Center Honors in 1995. This is given to recognize "the lifelong accomplishments and extraordinary talents of our nation's most prestigious artists."[42]
- In 2004, the Royal Swedish Academy of Music awarded him the Polar Music Prize for his "significant contributions to the blues".[14]
- On December 15, 2006, President George W. Bush awarded King the Presidential Medal of Freedom.[43]
- On May 27, 2007, King was awarded an honorary doctorate in music by Brown University.[44]
- On May 14, 2008, King was presented with the keys to the city of Utica, New York; and on May 18, 2008, the mayor of Portland, Maine, Edward Suslovic, declared the day "B.B. King Day" in the city. Prior to King's performance at the Merrill Auditorium, Suslovic presented King with the keys to the city.[45]
- In 2009, TIME named B.B. King No.3 on its list of the 10 best electric guitarists of all time.[46]
- Each year during the first week in June, a B.B. King Homecoming Festival is held in Indianola, Mississippi.[47]
- A Mississippi Blues Trail marker was added for B.B. King, commemorating his birthplace.[48]
- On May 29, 2010, Sabrosa Park (at the small town of Sabrosa, north of Portugal) was renamed B.B. King Park in honor of King and the free concert he played before 20,000 people.
Grammy Awards[link]
Years reflect the year in which the Grammy was awarded, for music released in the previous year.
1971: Best Male R&B Vocal Performance for "The Thrill Is Gone".
1982: Best Ethnic or Traditional Recording for "There Must Be a Better World Somewhere".
1984: Best Traditional Blues Recording for "Blues 'n Jazz".
1986: Best Traditional Blues Recording for "My Guitar Sings the Blues".
1991: Best Traditional Blues Recording for "Live at San Quentin".
1992: Best Traditional Blues Album for "Live at the Apollo".
1994: Best Traditional Blues Album for "Blues Summit".
1997: Best Rock Instrumental Performance for "SRV Shuffle".
2000: Best Traditional Blues Album for "Blues on the Bayou".
2001: Best Traditional Blues Album for "Riding with the King".
2001: Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals for "Is You or Is You Ain't (Baby)".
2003: Best Traditional Blues Album for "A Christmas Celebration of Hope".
2003: Best Pop Instrumental Performance for "Auld Lang Syne".
2006: Best Traditional Blues Album for "80".
2009: Best Traditional Blues Album for "One Kind Favor".
King was given a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1987.[49]
A Grammy Hall of Fame Award was given to "The Thrill is Gone" in 1998, an award given to recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have "qualitative or historical significance."[50]
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time, Rolling Stone magazine
- ^ Gibson.com’s Top 50 Guitarists of All Time, Gibson Guitar Corporation
- ^ Komara, Edward M. Encyclopedia of the Blues, Routledge, 2006, p. 385.
- ^ a b c d e "BB King biography at Jazz and Blues Masters". Jazzandbluesmasters.com. June 4, 1958. http://www.jazzandbluesmasters.com/bbking.htm. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ "B.B. King: National Visionary". National Visionary Leadership Project. http://www.visionaryproject.org/kingbb/. Retrieved June 3, 2011.
- ^ "Historical marker placed on Mississippi Blues Trail". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Associated Press. January 25, 2007. http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/07025/756420-37.stm. Retrieved June 3, 2011.
- ^ B.B. is normally written with periods, but no space between the letters.
- ^ History of Rock & Roll. By Thomas E. Larson. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa. Copyright 2004. Page 25
- ^ Dance, Helen Oakley; and B.B. King. Stormy Monday, p. 164
- ^ Blues Access Interview by Wayne Robins, Spring 1999. Retrieved January 23, 2009.
- ^ "George Coleman: This Gentleman can PLAY". All About Jazz. http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/article.php?id=1078. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ U2 Rattle and Hum DVD, 1988
- ^ Rees, Dafydd & Crampton, Luke (1991). Rock Movers & Shakers, ABC-CLIO, p.287. ISBN 0-87436-661-5
- ^ a b Polar Music Prize Winners[dead link]
- ^ BBC Newsnight interview, April 30, 2009
- ^ "B.B. King Museum and Delta Interpretive Center". Bbkingmuseum.org. http://www.bbkingmuseum.org/. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ John F. Ross "B.B. Gets His Own Museum," American Heritage, Winter 2009.
- ^ McMillion, Dave (December 1, 2008). "B.B. King Rules". Herald Mail. http://www.herald-mail.com?cmd=displaystory&story_id=211274. Retrieved March 18, 2009.
- ^ "Official Site". B.B. King. http://www.bbking.com/events/. Retrieved 2011-12-30.
- ^ "'President Obama sings Sweet Home Chicago".
- ^ Kelley, Frannie. "First Listen: Big K.R.I.T., 'Live From The Underground'". NPR. http://www.npr.org/2012/05/27/153604174/first-listen-big-k-r-i-t-live-from-the-underground. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
- ^ ""Delta Diary" by Charlie Sawyer". Courses.dce.harvard.edu. http://courses.dce.harvard.edu/~musie139/DeltaDiary.html. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ Burrows, Terry. "The Complete Book of the Guitar" p. 111 Carlton Books Limited, 1998 ISBN 1-85868-529-X
- ^ "One Customer’s Pawnshop Treasure". Guitarcenterblog.com. December 3, 2009. http://www.guitarcenterblog.com/?p=746. Retrieved May 16, 2011.
- ^ a b http://www.uberproaudio.com/who-plays-what/232-bb-kings-guitar-gear-rig-and-equipment
- ^ "The Official Website". Bbking.com. September 16, 1925. http://www.bbking.com/bio/. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ "Bb King: King's Clubs: 'good Memories, Good Times'". Allbusiness.com. http://www.allbusiness.com/retail-trade/miscellaneous-retail-retail-stores-not/4555293-1.html. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ "West Palm Beach". Bbkingclubs.com. http://www.bbkingclubs.com/index.php?page=wpbhome. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ "Job Fair at B.B. King’s Blues Club". Lasvegassun.com. September 3, 2009. http://www.lasvegassun.com/events/2009/sep/09/7150/. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ Dahl, Bill (1925-09-16). "B.B. King". AllMusic. http://www.allmusic.com/artist/bb-king-p93923. Retrieved 2011-12-30.
- ^ "BB King Performs At Luke's — February 3, 1995". http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XP3bUh4BOCk. Retrieved June 8, 2007.
- ^ Sesame Workshop. "Sesame Street Beat Newsletter Archive". Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070930180403/http://www.sesameworkshop.org/aboutus/newsletter_article.php?contentId=108003&type=sesame. Retrieved June 8, 2007.
- ^ IMDB. "B.B. King". http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0454475/. Retrieved February 6, 2007.
- ^ West, Rebecca (April 20, 2000). "Interview with B.B. King". Blues on Stage. http://www.mnblues.com/review/bbking-intv-rw4-00.html. Retrieved March 14, 2010.
- ^ "You and Me with B.B. King." SIRIUS Channel 74. May. 12, 2009.
- ^ Mitchell, Gail (June 29, 2007). "On the road again, B.B. King preps new album". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN2930832820070630.
- ^ King, B.B. and Daniel Ritz. Blue All Around Me, 1999.
- ^ "B. B. King" The Blues Foundation Hall of Fame
- ^ "B. B. King" Rock & Roll Hall of Fame
- ^ "List of National Medal of Arts Recipients". Nea.gov. http://www.nea.gov/honors/medals/medalists_year.html. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ "1991 NEA National Heritage Fellowships". Nea.gov. http://www.nea.gov/honors/heritage/fellows/NHFIntro.php?year=1991. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ "Kennedy Center Records". Kennedy-center.org. September 16, 1925. http://www.kennedy-center.org/calendar/index.cfm?fuseaction=showIndividual&entitY_id=3696&source_type=A. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ "List of Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients". Senate.gov. http://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/reference/two_column_table/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom_Recipients.htm. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ "Brown University to Confer Nine Honorary Degrees May 27". Brown.edu. http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/2006-07/06-142.html. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ "King of Portland" – Portland Press Herald, May 19, 2008
- ^ Tyrangiel, Josh. “The 10 Greatest Electric-Guitar Players,” TIME. August 14, 2009. (Retrieved January 6, 2011.)
- ^ ""The Blues Heritage" Indianola, Mississippi Chamber of Commerce". Indianolams.org. http://www.indianolams.org/blues.html. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ Mississippi Blues Commission. "B.B. King Birthplace". msbluestrail.org. http://www.msbluestrail.org/CustomContentRetrieve.aspx?ID=1083611. Retrieved February 2, 2010.
- ^ "Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award Winners". Grammy.com. February 8, 2009. http://www.grammy.com/Recording_Academy/Awards/Lifetime_Awards/. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
- ^ "Grammy Database". Grammy.com. February 8, 2009. http://www.grammy.com/GRAMMY%5FAwards/Winners/. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: B. B. King |
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | King, Riley |
| Alternative names | King, B.B. |
| Short description | American blues guitarist and singer-songwriter |
| Date of birth | September 16, 1925 |
| Place of birth | Itta Bena, Mississippi, United States |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/B.B._King
Related pages:
http://ru.wn.com/Би Би Кинг
http://es.wn.com/B. B. King
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.B._King
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
"Martin Luther King" and "MLK" redirect here. For other uses, see Martin Luther King (disambiguation) and MLK (disambiguation).
| Martin Luther King, Jr. | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Born | Michael King, Jr. (1929-01-15)January 15, 1929 Atlanta, Georgia, United States |
| Died | April 4, 1968(1968-04-04) (aged 39) Memphis, Tennessee, United States |
| Monuments | Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial |
| Alma mater | Morehouse College (B.A.) Crozer Theological Seminary (B.D.) Boston University (Ph.D.) |
| Organization | Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) |
| Influenced by | Jesus, Abraham Lincoln, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Benjamin Mays, Hosea Williams, Bayard Rustin, Henry David Thoreau, Howard Thurman, Leo Tolstoy |
| Political movement | African-American Civil Rights Movement, Peace movement |
| Religion | Baptist (Progressive National Baptist Convention) |
| Spouse | Coretta Scott King (m. 1953–68) |
| Children | Yolanda Denise-King (deceased) Martin Luther King III Dexter Scott King Bernice Albertine King |
| Parents | Martin Luther King, Sr. Alberta Williams King |
| Awards | Nobel Peace Prize (1964), Presidential Medal of Freedom (1977, posthumous), Congressional Gold Medal (2004, posthumous) |
| Signature |  |
Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968) was an American clergyman, activist, and prominent leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement.[1] He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights in the United States and around the world, using nonviolent methods following the teachings of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.[2] King has become a national icon in the history of modern American liberalism.[3]
A Baptist minister, King became a civil rights activist early in his career.[4] He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957, serving as its first president. King's efforts led to the 1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech. There, he established his reputation as one of the greatest orators in American history.
In 1964, King became the youngest person to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for his work to end racial segregation and racial discrimination through civil disobedience and other nonviolent means. By the time of his death in 1968, he had refocused his efforts on ending poverty and stopping the Vietnam War.
King was assassinated on April 4, 1968, in Memphis, Tennessee. He was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1977 and Congressional Gold Medal in 2004; Martin Luther King, Jr. Day was established as a U.S. federal holiday in 1986.
Contents
|
Early life and education[link]
For more details on this topic, see Martin Luther King, Jr. authorship issues.
Martin Luther King, Jr. was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia, the middle child of the Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr. and Alberta Williams King.[5] King Jr. had an older sister, Willie Christine King, and a younger brother, Alfred Daniel Williams King.[6]:76 King sang with his church choir at the 1939 Atlanta premiere of the movie Gone with the Wind.[7]
King was originally skeptical of many of Christianity's claims.[8] Most striking, perhaps, was his initial denial of the bodily resurrection of Jesus during Sunday school at the age of thirteen. From this point, he stated, "doubts began to spring forth unrelentingly".[9] However, he later concluded that the Bible has "many profound truths which one cannot escape" and decided to enter the seminary.[8]
Growing up in Atlanta, King attended Booker T. Washington High School. A precocious student, he skipped both the ninth and the twelfth grade and entered Morehouse College at age fifteen without formally graduating from high school.[10] In 1948, he graduated from Morehouse with a Bachelor of Arts degree in sociology, and enrolled in Crozer Theological Seminary in Chester, Pennsylvania, from which he graduated with a Bachelor of Divinity degree in 1951.[11][12] King married Coretta Scott, on June 18, 1953, on the lawn of her parents' house in her hometown of Heiberger, Alabama.[13] They became the parents of four children; Yolanda King, Martin Luther King III, Dexter Scott King, and Bernice King.[14] King became pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama, when he was twenty-five years old, in 1954.[15] King then began doctoral studies in systematic theology at Boston University and received his Doctor of Philosophy on June 5, 1955, with a dissertation on "A Comparison of the Conceptions of God in the Thinking of Paul Tillich and Henry Nelson Wieman". A 1980s inquiry concluded portions of his dissertation had been plagiarized and he had acted improperly but that his dissertation still "makes an intelligent contribution to scholarship",[16][17][18]
Influences[link]
Thurman[link]
Civil rights leader, theologian, and educator Howard Thurman was an early influence on King. A classmate of King's father at Morehouse College,[19] Thurman mentored the young King and his friends.[20] Thurman's missionary work had taken him abroad where he had met and conferred with Mahatma Gandhi.[21] When he was a student at Boston University, King often visited Thurman, who was the dean of Marsh Chapel.[22] Walter Fluker, who has studied Thurman's writings, has stated, "I don't believe you'd get a Martin Luther King, Jr. without a Howard Thurman".[23]
Gandhi and Rustin[link]
With assistance from the Quaker group the American Friends Service Committee, and inspired by Gandhi's success with non-violent activism, King visited Gandhi's birthplace in India in 1959.[6]:3 The trip to India affected King in a profound way, deepening his understanding of non-violent resistance and his commitment to America's struggle for civil rights. In a radio address made during his final evening in India, King reflected, "Since being in India, I am more convinced than ever before that the method of nonviolent resistance is the most potent weapon available to oppressed people in their struggle for justice and human dignity. In a real sense, Mahatma Gandhi embodied in his life certain universal principles that are inherent in the moral structure of the universe, and these principles are as inescapable as the law of gravitation."[6]:135–6 African American civil rights activist Bayard Rustin had studied Gandhi's teachings.[24] Rustin counseled King to dedicate himself to the principles of non-violence,[25] served as King's main advisor and mentor throughout his early activism,[26] and was the main organizer of the 1963 March on Washington.[27] Rustin's open homosexuality, support of democratic socialism, and his former ties to the Communist Party USA caused many white and African-American leaders to demand King distance himself from Rustin.[28]
Public stance on political parties[link]
As the leader of the SCLC, King maintained a policy of not publicly endorsing a U.S. political party or candidate: "I feel someone must remain in the position of non-alignment, so that he can look objectively at both parties and be the conscience of both—not the servant or master of either."[29]
In a 1958 interview, he expressed his view that neither party was perfect, saying, "I don't think the Republican party is a party full of the almighty God nor is the Democratic party. They both have weaknesses ... And I'm not inextricably bound to either party."[30]
King critiqued both parties' performance on promoting racial equality:
Actually, the Negro has been betrayed by both the Republican and the Democratic party. The Democrats have betrayed him by capitulating to the whims and caprices of the Southern Dixiecrats. The Republicans have betrayed him by capitulating to the blatant hypocrisy of reactionary right wing northern Republicans. And this coalition of southern Dixiecrats and right wing reactionary northern Republicans defeats every bill and every move towards liberal legislation in the area of civil rights.[31]
Personal political advocacy[link]
Although King never publicly supported a political party or candidate for president, in a letter to a civil rights supporter in October 1956 he said that he was undecided as to whether he would vote for the Adlai Stevenson or Dwight Eisenhower, but that "In the past I always voted the Democratic ticket."[32]
In his autobiography, King says that in 1960 he privately voted for Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy: "I felt that Kennedy would make the best president. I never came out with an endorsement. My father did, but I never made one." King adds that he likely would have made an exception to his non-endorsement policy in 1964, saying "Had President Kennedy lived, I would probably have endorsed him in 1964."[33]
Sermons and speeches[link]
Main article: Sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr.
|
|
|
| Problems listening to this file? See media help. | |
All I'm saying is simply this, that all life is interrelated, that somehow we're caught in an inescapable network of mutuality tied in a single garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly affects all indirectly. For some strange reason, I can never be what I ought to be until you are what you ought to be. You can never be what you ought to be until I am what I ought to be. This is the interrelated structure of reality.—Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.[34]
Throughout his career of service, King wrote and spoke frequently, drawing on his experience as a preacher. His "Letter from Birmingham Jail", written in 1963, is a "passionate" statement of his crusade for justice.[35] His I Have a Dream speech is a 17 minute public speech delivered on August 28, 1963, in which he called for racial equality and an end to discrimination. On October 14, 1964, King became the youngest recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, which was awarded to him for leading non-violent resistance to racial prejudice in the United States.[36]
Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955[link]
In March 1955, a fifteen-year-old school girl, Claudette Colvin, refused to give up her bus seat to a white man in compliance with the Jim Crow laws. King was on the committee from the Birmingham African-American community that looked into the case; because Colvin was pregnant and unmarried, E.D. Nixon and Clifford Durr decided to wait for a better case to pursue.[37] On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat.[38] The Montgomery Bus Boycott, urged and planned by Nixon and led by King, soon followed.[39] The boycott lasted for 385 days,[40] and the situation became so tense that King's house was bombed.[41] King was arrested during this campaign, which ended with a United States District Court ruling in Browder v. Gayle that ended racial segregation on all Montgomery public buses.[6]:9[42]:53
Southern Christian Leadership Conference[link]
In 1957, King, Ralph Abernathy, and other civil rights activists founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The group was created to harness the moral authority and organizing power of black churches to conduct non-violent protests in the service of civil rights reform. King led the SCLC until his death.[43]
On September 20, 1958, while signing copies of his book Stride Toward Freedom in Blumstein's department store on 125th Street, in Harlem,[44][45] King was stabbed in the chest with a letter opener by Izola Curry, a deranged black woman, and narrowly escaped death.[46]
Gandhi's nonviolent techniques were useful to King's campaign to change the civil rights laws implemented in Alabama.[47] King applied non-violent philosophy to the protests organized by the SCLC. In 1959, he wrote The Measure of A Man, from which the piece What is Man?, an attempt to sketch the optimal political, social, and economic structure of society, is derived.[48] His SCLC secretary and personal assistant in this period was Dora McDonald.
The FBI, under written directive from Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, began telephone tapping King in the fall of 1963.[49] Concerned that allegations (of Communists in the SCLC), if made public, would derail the Administration's civil rights initiatives, Kennedy warned King to discontinue the suspect associations, and later felt compelled to issue the written directive authorizing the FBI to wiretap King and other leaders of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference.[50] J Edgar Hoover feared Communists were trying to infiltrate the Civil Rights Movement, but when no such evidence emerged, the bureau used the incidental details caught on tape over the next five years in attempts to force King out of the preeminent leadership position.[51]
King believed that organized, nonviolent protest against the system of southern segregation known as Jim Crow laws would lead to extensive media coverage of the struggle for black equality and voting rights. Journalistic accounts and televised footage of the daily deprivation and indignities suffered by southern blacks, and of segregationist violence and harassment of civil rights workers and marchers, produced a wave of sympathetic public opinion that convinced the majority of Americans that the Civil Rights Movement was the most important issue in American politics in the early 1960s.[52][53]
King organized and led marches for blacks' right to vote, desegregation, labor rights and other basic civil rights.[42]:85 Most of these rights were successfully enacted into the law of the United States with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the 1965 Voting Rights Act.[54][55]
King and the SCLC put into practice many of the principles of the Christian Left and applied the tactics of nonviolent protest with great success by strategically choosing the method of protest and the places in which protests were carried out. There were often dramatic stand-offs with segregationist authorities. Sometimes these confrontations turned violent.[56]:190
Albany movement[link]
Main article: Albany movement
The Albany Movement was a desegregation coalition formed in Albany, Georgia in November 1961. In December, King and the SCLC became involved. The movement mobilized thousands of citizens for a broad-front nonviolent attack on every aspect of segregation within the city and attracted nationwide attention. When King first visited on December 15, 1961, he "had planned to stay a day or so and return home after giving counsel."[9][page needed] But the following day he was swept up in a mass arrest of peaceful demonstrators, and he declined bail until the city made concessions. "Those agreements", said King, "were dishonored and violated by the city," as soon as he left town[9][page needed]. King returned in July 1962, and was sentenced to forty-five days in jail or a $178 fine. He chose jail. Three days into his sentence, Chief Pritchett discreetly arranged for King's fine to be paid and ordered his release. "We had witnessed persons being kicked off lunch counter stools... ejected from churches... and thrown into jail... But for the first time, we witnessed being kicked out of jail."[9][page needed]
After nearly a year of intense activism with few tangible results, the movement began to deteriorate. King requested a halt to all demonstrations and a "Day of Penance" to promote non-violence and maintain the moral high ground. Divisions within the black community and the canny, low-key response by local government defeated efforts.[56]:190–3 However, it was credited as a key lesson in tactics for the national civil rights movement.[57]
Birmingham campaign[link]
Main article: Birmingham campaign
The Birmingham campaign was a strategic effort by the SCLC to promote civil rights for African Americans. Many of its tactics of "Project C" were developed by Rev. Wyatt Tee Walker, Executive Director of SCLC from 1960–64. Based on actions in Birmingham, Alabama, its goal was to end the city's segregated civil and discriminatory economic policies. The campaign lasted for more than two months in the spring of 1963. To provoke the police into filling the city's jails to overflowing, King and black citizens of Birmingham employed nonviolent tactics to flout laws they considered unfair. King summarized the philosophy of the Birmingham campaign when he said, "The purpose of ... direct action is to create a situation so crisis-packed that it will inevitably open the door to negotiation".[58]
Protests in Birmingham began with a boycott to pressure businesses to offer sales jobs and other employment to people of all races, as well as to end segregated facilities in the stores. When business leaders resisted the boycott, King and the SCLC began what they termed Project C, a series of sit-ins and marches intended to provoke arrest. After the campaign ran low on adult volunteers, SCLC's strategist, James Bevel, initiated the action and recruited the children for what became known as the "Children's Crusade". During the protests, the Birmingham Police Department, led by Eugene "Bull" Connor, used high-pressure water jets and police dogs to control protesters, including children. Not all of the demonstrators were peaceful, despite the avowed intentions of the SCLC. In some cases, bystanders attacked the police, who responded with force. King and the SCLC were criticized for putting children in harm's way. By the end of the campaign, King's reputation improved immensely, Connor lost his job, the "Jim Crow" signs in Birmingham came down, and public places became more open to blacks.[59]
St. Augustine, Florida, and Selma, Alabama[link]
King and SCLC were also driving forces behind the protest in St. Augustine, Florida, in 1964.[60] The movement engaged in nightly marches in the city met by white segregationists who violently assaulted them. Hundreds of the marchers were arrested and jailed.
King and the SCLC joined forces with the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in Selma, Alabama, in December 1964, where SNCC had been working on voter registration for several months.[61] A sweeping injunction issued by a local judge barred any gathering of 3 or more people under sponsorship of SNCC, SCLC, or DCVL, or with the involvement of 41 named civil rights leaders. This injunction temporarily halted civil rights activity until King defied it by speaking at Brown Chapel on January 2, 1965.[62]
March on Washington, 1963[link]
Main article: March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
King, representing SCLC, was among the leaders of the so-called "Big Six" civil rights organizations who were instrumental in the organization of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, which took place on August 28, 1963. The other leaders and organizations comprising the Big Six were: Roy Wilkins from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; Whitney Young, National Urban League; A. Philip Randolph, Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters; John Lewis, SNCC; and James L. Farmer, Jr. of the Congress of Racial Equality.[63] The primary logistical and strategic organizer was King's colleague Bayard Rustin.[64] For King, this role was another which courted controversy, since he was one of the key figures who acceded to the wishes of President John F. Kennedy in changing the focus of the march.[65][66] Kennedy initially opposed the march outright, because he was concerned it would negatively impact the drive for passage of civil rights legislation, but the organizers were firm that the march would proceed.[67]
The march originally was conceived as an event to dramatize the desperate condition of blacks in the southern United States and a very public opportunity to place organizers' concerns and grievances squarely before the seat of power in the nation's capital. Organizers intended to denounce and then challenge the federal government for its failure to safeguard the civil rights and physical safety of civil rights workers and blacks, generally, in the South. However, the group acquiesced to presidential pressure and influence, and the event ultimately took on a far less strident tone.[68] As a result, some civil rights activists felt it presented an inaccurate, sanitized pageant of racial harmony; Malcolm X called it the "Farce on Washington," and the Nation of Islam forbade its members from attending the march.[68][69]
|
30-second sample from "I Have a Dream" speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963
|
|
| Problems listening to this file? See media help. | |
The march did, however, make specific demands: an end to racial segregation in public schools; meaningful civil rights legislation, including a law prohibiting racial discrimination in employment; protection of civil rights workers from police brutality; a $2 minimum wage for all workers; and self-government for Washington, D.C., then governed by congressional committee.[70][71][72] Despite tensions, the march was a resounding success. More than a quarter million people of diverse ethnicities attended the event, sprawling from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial onto the National Mall and around the reflecting pool. At the time, it was the largest gathering of protesters in Washington's history.[73] King's "I Have a Dream" speech electrified the crowd. It is regarded, along with Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address and Franklin D. Roosevelt's Infamy Speech, as one of the finest speeches in the history of American oratory.[74]
The March, and especially King's speech, helped put civil rights at the very top of the liberal political agenda in the United States and facilitated passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[75][76]
Stance on compensation[link]
Martin Luther King Jr. expressed a view that black Americans, as well as other disadvantaged Americans, should be compensated for historical wrongs. In an interview conducted for Playboy in 1965, he said that granting black Americans only equality could not realistically close the economic gap between them and whites. King said that he did not seek a full restitution of wages lost to slavery, which he believed impossible, but proposed a government compensatory program of $50 billion over ten years to all disadvantaged groups. He posited that "the money spent would be more than amply justified by the benefits that would accrue to the nation through a spectacular decline in school dropouts, family breakups, crime rates, illegitimacy, swollen relief rolls, rioting and other social evils".[77]:365–7 He presented this idea as an application of the common law regarding settlement of unpaid labor, but clarified that he felt that the money should not be spent exclusively on blacks. He stated, "It should benefit the disadvantaged of all races".[77]:367–8
"Bloody Sunday", 1965[link]
Main article: Selma to Montgomery marches
King, James Bevel, and the SCLC, in partial collaboration with SNCC, attempted to organize a march from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery, for March 7, 1965. The first attempt to march on March 7 was aborted because of mob and police violence against the demonstrators. This day has since become known as Bloody Sunday. Bloody Sunday was a major turning point in the effort to gain public support for the Civil Rights Movement, the clearest demonstration up to that time of the dramatic potential of King's nonviolence strategy. King, however, was not present. King met with officials in the Johnson administration on March 5 in order to request an injunction against any prosecution of the demonstrators. He did not attend the march due to church duties, but he later wrote, "If I had any idea that the state troopers would use the kind of brutality they did, I would have felt compelled to give up my church duties altogether to lead the line."[9]:276–9 Footage of police brutality against the protesters was broadcast extensively and aroused national public outrage.[42]:222–3
King next attempted to organize a march for March 9. The SCLC petitioned for an injunction in federal court against the State of Alabama; this was denied and the judge issued an order blocking the march until after a hearing. Nonetheless, King led marchers on March 9 to the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, then held a short prayer session before turning the marchers around and asking them to disperse so as not to violate the court order. The unexpected ending of this second march aroused the surprise and anger of many within the local movement.[42]:223 The march finally went ahead fully on March 25, 1965.[78][79] At the conclusion of the march and on the steps of the state capitol, King delivered a speech that has become known as "How Long, Not Long".[80]
Chicago, 1966[link]
In 1966, after several successes in the South, King and others in the civil rights organizations tried to spread the movement to the North, with Chicago as its first destination. King and Ralph Abernathy, both from the middle class, moved into a building at 1550 S. Hamlin Ave., in the slums of North Lawndale[81] on the West Side of Chicago, as an educational experience and to demonstrate their support and empathy for the poor.[82]:360–2
The SCLC formed a coalition with CCCO, Coordinating Council of Community Organizations, an organization founded by Albert Raby, and the combined organizations' efforts were fostered under the aegis of The Chicago Freedom Movement.[83]:1 During that spring, several dual white couple/black couple tests on real estate offices uncovered the practice (now banned in the U.S.) of racial steering. These tests revealed the racially selective processing of housing requests by couples who were exact matches in income, background, number of children, and other attributes, with the only difference being their race.[82]:347
The needs of the movement for radical change grew, and several larger marches were planned and executed, including those in the following neighborhoods: Bogan, Belmont Cragin, Jefferson Park, Evergreen Park (a suburb southwest of Chicago), Gage Park and Marquette Park among others.[82]:416[83]:1[84]
In Chicago, Abernathy later wrote that they received a worse reception than they had in the South. Their marches, especially the one through Marquette Park on August 5, 1966, were met by thrown bottles and screaming throngs, and they were truly afraid of starting a riot.[85][86] King's beliefs militated against his staging a violent event, and he negotiated an agreement with Mayor Richard J. Daley to cancel a march in order to avoid the violence that he feared would result from the demonstration.[87] King, who received death threats throughout his involvement in the civil rights movement, was hit by a brick during one march but continued to lead marches in the face of personal danger.[88]
When King and his allies returned to the south, they left Jesse Jackson, a seminary student who had previously joined the movement in the South, in charge of their organization.[89] Jackson continued their struggle for civil rights by organizing the Operation Breadbasket movement that targeted chain stores that did not deal fairly with blacks.[90]
Opposition to the Vietnam War[link]
Starting in 1965, King began to express doubts about the United States' role in the Vietnam War. In an April 4, 1967 appearance at the New York City Riverside Church—exactly one year before his death—King delivered a speech titled "Beyond Vietnam".[91] He spoke strongly against the U.S.'s role in the war, insisting that the U.S. was in Vietnam "to occupy it as an American colony"[92]:107 and calling the U.S. government "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today".[92]:102 He also argued that the country needed larger and broader moral changes:
A true revolution of values will soon look uneasily on the glaring contrast of poverty and wealth. With righteous indignation, it will look across the seas and see individual capitalists of the West investing huge sums of money in Asia, Africa and South America, only to take the profits out with no concern for the social betterment of the countries, and say: "This is not just."[92]:109
King also was opposed to the Vietnam War on the grounds that the war took money and resources that could have been spent on social welfare services like the War on Poverty. The United States Congress was spending more and more on the military and less and less on anti-poverty programs at the same time. He summed up this aspect by saying, "A nation that continues year after year to spend more money on military defense than on programs of social uplift is approaching spiritual death".[92]:109
King's opposition cost him significant support among white allies, including President Johnson, union leaders and powerful publishers. "The press is being stacked against me," King complained.[93] Life magazine called the speech "demagogic slander that sounded like a script for Radio Hanoi",[92]:109 and The Washington Post declared that King had "diminished his usefulness to his cause, his country, his people."[94]:148
King stated that North Vietnam "did not begin to send in any large number of supplies or men until American forces had arrived in the tens of thousands".[92]:106 King also criticized the United States' resistance to North Vietnam's land reforms.[95] He accused the United States of having killed a million Vietnamese, "mostly children."[96]
The speech was a reflection of King's evolving political advocacy in his later years, which paralleled the teachings of the progressive Highlander Research and Education Center, with whom King was affiliated.[97][98] King began to speak of the need for fundamental changes in the political and economic life of the nation. Towards the time of his murder, King more frequently expressed his opposition to the war and his desire to see a redistribution of resources to correct racial and economic injustice.[99] Though his public language was guarded, so as to avoid being linked to communism by his political enemies, in private he sometimes spoke of his support for democratic socialism. In one speech, he stated that "something is wrong with capitalism" and claimed, "There must be a better distribution of wealth, and maybe America must move toward a democratic socialism."[100]
King had read Marx while at Morehouse, but while he rejected "traditional capitalism," he also rejected Communism because of its "materialistic interpretation of history" that denied religion, its "ethical relativism," and its "political totalitarianism."[101]
King also stated, in his "Beyond Vietnam", speech that "true compassion is more than flinging a coin to a beggar ... it comes to see that an edifice which produces beggars needs restructuring".[102]:122 King quoted a United States official who said that, from Vietnam to Latin America, the country was "on the wrong side of a world revolution."[102]:122 King condemned America's "alliance with the landed gentry of Latin America," and said that the United States should support "the shirtless and barefoot people" in the Third World rather than suppressing their attempts at revolution.[102]:122–3
King spoke at an Anti-Vietnam demonstration where he also brought up issues of civil rights and the draft.
I have not urged a mechanical fusion of the civil rights and peace movements. There are people who have come to see the moral imperative of equality, but who cannot yet see the moral imperative of world brotherhood. I would like to see the fervor of the civil-rights movement imbued into the peace movement to instill it with greater strength. And I believe everyone has a duty to be in both the civil-rights and peace movements. But for those who presently choose but one, I would hope they will finally come to see the moral roots common to both.[103]
In 1967, King gave another speech, in which he lashed out against what he called the "cruel irony" of American blacks fighting and dying for a country which treated them as second class citizens:
We were taking the young black men who had been crippled by our society and sending them eight thousand miles away to guarantee liberties which they had not found in Southwest Georgia and East Harlem. ... We have been repeatedly faced with the cruel irony of watching Negro and white boys on TV screens as they kill and die together for a nation that has been unable to seat them in the same schools.[104][105]
On January 13, 1968, the day after President Johnson's State of the Union Address, King called for a large march on Washington against "one of history's most cruel and senseless wars".[106][107]
We need to make clear in this political year, to congressmen on both sides of the aisle and to the president of the United States, that we will no longer tolerate, we will no longer vote for men who continue to see the killings of Vietnamese and Americans as the best way of advancing the goals of freedom and self-determination in Southeast Asia.[106][107]
Poor People's Campaign, 1968[link]
Main article: Poor People's Campaign
In 1968, King and the SCLC organized the "Poor People's Campaign" to address issues of economic justice. The campaign culminated in a march on Washington, D.C., demanding economic aid to the poorest communities of the United States. King traveled the country to assemble "a multiracial army of the poor" that would march on Washington to engage in nonviolent civil disobedience at the Capitol until Congress created a bill of rights for poor Americans.[108][109]
However, the campaign was not unanimously supported by other leaders of the Civil Rights Movement. Rustin resigned from the march stating that the goals of the campaign were too broad, the demands unrealizable, and thought these campaigns would accelerate the backlash and repression on the poor and the black.[110] Throughout his participation in the civil rights movement, King was criticized by many groups. This included opposition by more militant blacks and such prominent critics as Nation of Islam member Malcolm X.[111] Stokely Carmichael was a separatist and disagreed with King's plea for racial integration because he considered it an insult to a uniquely African-American culture.[112] Omali Yeshitela urged Africans to remember the history of violent European colonization and how power was not secured by Europeans through integration, but by violence and force.[113]
King and the SCLC called on the government to invest in rebuilding America's cities. He felt that Congress had shown "hostility to the poor" by spending "military funds with alacrity and generosity". He contrasted this with the situation faced by poor Americans, claiming that Congress had merely provided "poverty funds with miserliness".[109] His vision was for change that was more revolutionary than mere reform: he cited systematic flaws of "racism, poverty, militarism and materialism", and argued that "reconstruction of society itself is the real issue to be faced".[94]:148–9
Assassination and its aftermath[link]
Main article: Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
|
Final 30 seconds of "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech by Martin Luther King, Jr.
|
|
| Problems listening to this file? See media help. | |
On March 29, 1968, King went to Memphis, Tennessee, in support of the black sanitary public works employees, represented by AFSCME Local 1733, who had been on strike since March 12 for higher wages and better treatment. In one incident, black street repairmen received pay for two hours when they were sent home because of bad weather, but white employees were paid for the full day.[114][115][116]
On April 3, King addressed a rally and delivered his "I've Been to the Mountaintop" address at Mason Temple, the world headquarters of the Church of God in Christ. King's flight to Memphis had been delayed by a bomb threat against his plane.[117] In the close of the last speech of his career, in reference to the bomb threat, King said the following:
And then I got to Memphis. And some began to say the threats, or talk about the threats that were out. What would happen to me from some of our sick white brothers? Well, I don't know what will happen now. We've got some difficult days ahead. But it doesn't matter with me now. Because I've been to the mountaintop. And I don't mind. Like anybody, I would like to live a long life. Longevity has its place. But I'm not concerned about that now. I just want to do God's will. And He's allowed me to go up to the mountain. And I've looked over. And I've seen the promised land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the promised land. So I'm happy, tonight. I'm not worried about anything. I'm not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord.[118]
King was booked in room 306 at the Lorraine Motel, owned by Walter Bailey, in Memphis. The Reverend Ralph Abernathy, King's close friend and colleague who was present at the assassination, testified under oath to the United States House Select Committee on Assassinations that King and his entourage stayed at room 306 at the Lorraine Motel so often it was known as the "King-Abernathy suite."[119]
According to Jesse Jackson, who was present, King's last words on the balcony prior to his assassination were spoken to musician Ben Branch, who was scheduled to perform that night at an event King was attending: "Ben, make sure you play 'Take My Hand, Precious Lord' in the meeting tonight. Play it real pretty."[120]
Then, at 6:01 p.m., April 4, 1968, a shot rang out as King stood on the motel's second floor balcony. The bullet entered through his right cheek, smashing his jaw, then traveled down his spinal cord before lodging in his shoulder.[121][122] Abernathy heard the shot from inside the motel room and ran to the balcony to find King on the floor.[123] The events following the shooting have been disputed, as some people have accused Jackson of exaggerating his response.[124]
After emergency chest surgery, King was pronounced dead at St. Joseph's Hospital at 7:05 p.m.[125] According to biographer Taylor Branch, King's autopsy revealed that though only 39 years old, he had the heart of a 60-year-old man, perhaps a result of the stress of 13 years in the civil rights movement.[126][clarification needed]
The assassination led to a nationwide wave of race riots in Washington D.C., Chicago, Baltimore, Louisville, Kentucky, Kansas City, and dozens of other cities.[127][128] Presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy was on his way to Indianapolis for a campaign rally when he was informed of King's death. He gave a short speech to the gathering of supporters informing them of the tragedy and urging them to continue King's ideal of non-violence.[129] James Farmer, Jr. and other civil rights leaders also called for non-violent action,[130] while the more militant Stokely Carmichael called for a more forceful response.[130]
President Lyndon B. Johnson declared April 7 a national day of mourning for the civil rights leader.[131] Vice-President Hubert Humphrey attended King's funeral on behalf of the President, as there were fears that Johnson's presence might incite protests and perhaps violence.[132]
At his widow's request, King's last sermon at Ebenezer Baptist Church was played at the funeral,[133] a recording of his "Drum Major" sermon, given on February 4, 1968. In that sermon, King made a request that at his funeral no mention of his awards and honors be made, but that it be said that he tried to "feed the hungry", "clothe the naked", "be right on the [Vietnam] war question", and "love and serve humanity".[134] His good friend Mahalia Jackson sang his favorite hymn, "Take My Hand, Precious Lord", at the funeral.[135]
The city of Memphis quickly settled the strike on terms favorable to the sanitation workers.[136][137]
Two months after King's death, escaped convict James Earl Ray was captured at London Heathrow Airport while trying to leave the United Kingdom on a false Canadian passport in the name of Ramon George Sneyd on his way to white-ruled Rhodesia.[138] Ray was quickly extradited to Tennessee and charged with King's murder. He confessed to the assassination on March 10, 1969, though he recanted this confession three days later.[139] On the advice of his attorney Percy Foreman, Ray pleaded guilty to avoid a trial conviction and thus the possibility of receiving the death penalty. Ray was sentenced to a 99-year prison term.[139][140] Ray fired Foreman as his attorney, from then on derisively calling him "Percy Fourflusher".[141] He claimed a man he met in Montreal, Quebec, with the alias "Raoul" was involved and that the assassination was the result of a conspiracy.[142][143] He spent the remainder of his life attempting, unsuccessfully, to withdraw his guilty plea and secure the trial he never had.[140] On June 10, 1977, shortly after Ray had testified to the House Select Committee on Assassinations that he did not shoot King, he and six other convicts escaped from Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary in Petros, Tennessee. They were recaptured on June 13 and returned to prison.[144]
Allegations of conspiracy[link]
Ray's lawyers maintained he was a scapegoat similar to the way that John F. Kennedy assassin Lee Harvey Oswald is seen by conspiracy theorists.[145] One of the claims used to support this assertion is that Ray's confession was given under pressure, and he had been threatened with the death penalty.[140][146] Ray was a thief and burglar, but he had no record of committing violent crimes with a weapon.[143]
Those suspecting a conspiracy in the assassination point to the two successive ballistics tests which while proving that a rifle similar to Ray's Remington Gamemaster had been the murder weapon, did not prove that his specific rifle had been the one used.[140][147] Moreover, witnesses surrounding King at the moment of his death say the shot came from another location, from behind thick shrubbery near the rooming house—which had been inexplicably cut away in the days following the assassination—and not from the rooming house window.[148]
In 1997, King's son Dexter Scott King met with Ray, and publicly supported Ray's efforts to obtain a new trial.[149] Two years later, Coretta Scott King, King's widow, along with the rest of King's family, won a wrongful death claim against Loyd Jowers and "other unknown co-conspirators". Jowers claimed to have received $100,000 to arrange King's assassination. The jury of six whites and six blacks found Jowers guilty and that government agencies were party to the assassination.[150] William F. Pepper represented the King family in the trial.[151]
In 2000, the United States Department of Justice completed the investigation about Jowers' claims but did not find evidence to support allegations about conspiracy. The investigation report recommended no further investigation unless some new reliable facts are presented.[152] In 2002, The New York Times reported a church minister, Rev. Ronald Denton Wilson, claimed his father, Henry Clay Wilson—not James Earl Ray—assassinated Martin Luther King, Jr. He stated, "It wasn't a racist thing; he thought Martin Luther King was connected with communism, and he wanted to get him out of the way." Wilson provided no evidence to back up his claims.[153] King biographer David Garrow disagrees with William F. Pepper's claims that the government killed King. He is supported by author Gerald Posner who has researched and written about the assassination.[154] In 2003, William Pepper published a book about the long investigation and trial, as well as his representation of James Earl Ray in his bid for a trial, laying out the evidence and refuting other accounts.[155]
King's friend and colleague, James Bevel, disputed the argument that Ray acted alone, stating, "There is no way a ten-cent white boy could develop a plan to kill a million-dollar black man."[156] In 2004, Jesse Jackson, who was with King at the time of his death, noted:
The fact is there were saboteurs to disrupt the march. And within our own organization, we found a very key person who was on the government payroll. So infiltration within, saboteurs from without and the press attacks. ... I will never believe that James Earl Ray had the motive, the money and the mobility to have done it himself. Our government was very involved in setting the stage for and I think the escape route for James Earl Ray.[157]
Personality and public image[link]
FBI surveillance and wiretapping[link]
J. Edgar Hoover, the director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, for years had been suspicious about potential influence of communists in social movements such as labor unions and civil rights.[158] Hoover directed the FBI to track King in 1957, and the SCLC as it was established (it did not have a full-time executive director until 1960);[51] its investigations were largely superficial until 1962, when it learned that one of King's most trusted advisers was New York City lawyer Stanley Levison. The FBI found Levison had been involved with the Communist Party USA.[159]: 233 The FBI feared Levison was working as an "agent of influence" over King, in spite of its own reports in 1963 that Levison had left the Party and was no longer associated in business dealings with them.[159]:71–3[159]:70–4 Another King lieutenant, Hunter Pitts O'Dell, was also linked to the Communist Party by sworn testimony before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC).[160] However, by 1976 the FBI had acknowledged that it had not obtained any evidence that King himself or the SCLC were actually involved with any communist organizations.[161]
The Bureau received authorization to proceed with wiretapping from Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy in the fall of 1963[162] and informed President John F. Kennedy, both of whom unsuccessfully tried to persuade King to dissociate himself from Levison.[163] Although Robert Kennedy only gave written approval for limited wiretapping of King's phones "on a trial basis, for a month or so",[164]:372 Hoover extended the clearance so his men were "unshackled" to look for evidence in any areas of King's life they deemed worthy.[164]:372–4 The Bureau placed wiretaps on Levison's and King's home and office phones, and bugged King's rooms in hotels as he traveled across the country.[163][165]
For his part, King adamantly denied having any connections to Communism, stating in a 1965 Playboy interview that "there are as many Communists in this freedom movement as there are Eskimos in Florida",[77]:362 and claiming that Hoover was "following the path of appeasement of political powers in the South" and that his concern for communist infiltration of the civil rights movement was meant to "aid and abet the salacious claims of southern racists and the extreme right-wing elements".[161] Hoover did not believe his pledge of innocence and replied by saying that King was "the most notorious liar in the country."[166] After King gave his "I Have A Dream" speech during the March on Washington on August 28, 1963, the FBI described King as "the most dangerous and effective Negro leader in the country".[165] They alleged that King was "knowingly, willingly and regularly cooperating with and taking guidance from communists".[159]:83
The attempt to prove that King was a Communist was related to the feeling of many segregationists that blacks in the South were happy with their lot but had been stirred up by "communists" and "outside agitators".[167] However, the civil rights movement arose from activism within the black community dating back to before World War I. King said that "the Negro revolution is a genuine revolution, born from the same womb that produces all massive social upheavals—the womb of intolerable conditions and unendurable situations."[77]:363
Allegations of adultery[link]
Having concluded that King was dangerous due to communist infiltration, the FBI shifted to attempting to discredit King through revelations regarding his private life. FBI surveillance of King, some of it since made public, attempted to demonstrate that he also engaged in numerous extramarital affairs.[165] Lyndon Johnson once said that King was a "hypocritical preacher".[168] Ralph Abernathy, a close associate of King's, stated in his 1989 autobiography And the Walls Came Tumbling Down that King had a "weakness for women".[169] In a later interview, Abernathy said he only wrote the term "womanizing", did not specifically say King had extramarital sex and that the infidelities King had were emotional rather than sexual.[170][171] King's biographer David Garrow wrote about a number of extramarital affairs, including one woman King saw almost daily. According to Garrow, "that relationship, rather than his marriage, increasingly became the emotional centerpiece of King's life, but it did not eliminate the incidental couplings...of King's travels." King explained his extramarital affairs as "a form of anxiety reduction." Garrow noted that King's promiscuity was the cause of "painful and overwhelming guilt".[172]
The FBI distributed reports regarding such affairs to the executive branch, friendly reporters, potential coalition partners and funding sources of the SCLC, and King's family.[173] The Bureau also sent anonymous letters to King threatening to reveal information if he did not cease his civil rights work.[174] One anonymous letter sent to King just before he received the Nobel Peace Prize read, in part, "The American public, the church organizations that have been helping—Protestants, Catholics and Jews will know you for what you are—an evil beast. So will others who have backed you. You are done. King, there is only one thing left for you to do. You know what it is. You have just 34 days in which to do (this exact number has been selected for a specific reason, it has definite practical significant [sic]). You are done. There is but one way out for you. You better take it before your filthy fraudulent self is bared to the nation."[175] King interpreted this as encouragement for him to commit suicide,[176] although William Sullivan, head of the Domestic Intelligence Division at the time, argued that it may have only been intended to "convince Dr. King to resign from the SCLC."[161] King refused to give in to the FBI's threats.[177] Judge John Lewis Smith, Jr. in 1977 ordered that all known copies of the recorded audiotapes and written transcripts resulting from the FBI's electronic surveillance of King between 1963 and 1968 to be held in the National Archives and sealed from public access until 2027.[178]
Across from the Lorraine Motel, next to the boarding house in which James Earl Ray was staying, was a fire station. Police officers were stationed in the fire station to keep King under surveillance.[179] Using papered-over windows with peepholes cut into them, the agents were watching the scene while Martin Luther King was shot.[180] Immediately following the shooting, officers rushed out of the station to the motel, and Marrell McCollough, an undercover police officer, was the first person to administer first aid to King.[181] The antagonism between King and the FBI, the lack of an all points bulletin to find the killer, and the police presence nearby have led to speculation that the FBI was involved in the assassination.[182]
Legacy[link]
King's main legacy was to secure progress on civil rights in the United States. Just days after King's assassination, the U.S. Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1968.[183] Title VIII of the Act, commonly known as the Fair Housing Act, prohibited discrimination in housing and housing-related transactions on the basis of race, religion, or national origin (later expanded to include sex, familial status, and disability). This legislation is seen as a fitting tribute to King's struggle in his final years to combat residential discrimination in the U.S.[183]
King continues to be frequently referenced as a human rights icon. His name and legacy have often been invoked since his death as people have debated his likely position on various modern political issues.
On the international scene, King's legacy included influences on the Black Consciousness Movement and Civil Rights Movement in South Africa.[184][185] King's work was cited by and served as an inspiration for South African leader Albert Lutuli, another black Nobel Peace prize winner who fought for racial justice in his country.[6]:307–8 The day following King's assassination, school teacher Jane Elliott conducted her first "Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes" exercise with her class of elementary school students in Riceville, Iowa. Her purpose was to help them understand King's death as it related to racism, something they little understood from having lived in a predominately white community.[186]
King's wife, Coretta Scott King, followed her husband's footsteps and was active in matters of social justice and civil rights until her death in 2006. The same year that Martin Luther King was assassinated, she established the King Center in Atlanta, Georgia, dedicated to preserving his legacy and the work of championing nonviolent conflict resolution and tolerance worldwide.[187] Their son, Dexter King, currently serves as the center's chairman.[188][189] Daughter Yolanda King, who died in 2007, was a motivational speaker, author and founder of Higher Ground Productions, an organization specializing in diversity training.[190]
There are opposing views, even within the King family, of the slain civil rights leader's religious and political views about gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender people. King's widow Coretta said publicly that she believed her husband would have supported gay rights. However, his daughter Bernice believed he would have been opposed to gay marriage.[191] The King Center includes discrimination, and lists homophobia as one of its examples, in its list of "The Triple Evils" that should be opposed.[192]
In 1980, the Department of Interior designated King's boyhood home in Atlanta and several nearby buildings the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site. In 1996, United States Congress authorized the Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity to establish a foundation to manage fund raising and design of a national Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial on the Mall in Washington, D.C.[193] King was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, established by and for African Americans.[194] King was the first African American honored with his own memorial in the National Mall area and the first non-President to be commemorated in such a way.[195] The King Memorial will be administered by the National Park Service.[196]
King's life and assassination inspired many artistic works. A 1976 Broadway production, I Have a Dream, was directed by Robert Greenwald and starred Billy Dee Williams as King.[197] In spring of 2006, a stage play Passages of Martin Luther King about King was produced in Beijing, China with King portrayed by Chinese actor, Cao Li. The play was written by Stanford University professor, Clayborne Carson.[198][199]
King spoke earlier about what people should remember him for if they are around for his funeral. He said rather than his awards and where he went to school, people should talk about how he fought peacefully for justice:
I'd like somebody to mention that day that Martin Luther King Jr. tried to give his life serving others. I'd like for somebody to say that day that Martin Luther King Jr. tried to love somebody.I want you to say that day that I tried to be right on the war question. I want you to be able to say that day that I did try to feed the hungry. I want you to be able to say that day that I did try in my life to clothe those who were naked. I want you to say on that day that I did try in my life to visit those who were in prison. And I want you to say that I tried to love and serve humanity.
Yes, if you want to say that I was a drum major. Say that I was a drum major for justice. Say that I was a drum major for peace. I was a drum major for righteousness. And all of the other shallow things will not matter.[130]
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day[link]
Main article: Martin Luther King, Jr. Day
At the White House Rose Garden on November 2, 1983, President Ronald Reagan signed a bill creating a federal holiday to honor King. Observed for the first time on January 20, 1986, it is called Martin Luther King, Jr. Day. Following President George H. W. Bush's 1992 proclamation, the holiday is observed on the third Monday of January each year, near the time of King's birthday.[200][201] On January 17, 2000, for the first time, Martin Luther King Jr. Day was officially observed in all fifty U.S. states.[202] Arizona (1992), New Hampshire (1999) and Utah (2000) were the last three states to recognize the holiday.[203]
Awards and recognition[link]
King was awarded at least fifty honorary degrees from colleges and universities in the U.S. and elsewhere.[204][205] Besides winning the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize, in 1965 King was awarded the American Liberties Medallion by the American Jewish Committee for his "exceptional advancement of the principles of human liberty".[205][206][207] In his acceptance remarks, King said, "Freedom is one thing. You have it all or you are not free."[208] King was also awarded the Pacem in Terris Award, named after a 1963 encyclical letter by Pope John XXIII calling for all people to strive for peace.[209]
In 1959, King was awarded the Anisfield-Wolf Book Award for his book Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story.[210]
In 1966, the Planned Parenthood Federation of America awarded King the Margaret Sanger Award for "his courageous resistance to bigotry and his lifelong dedication to the advancement of social justice and human dignity".[211] King was posthumously awarded the Marcus Garvey Prize for Human Rights by Jamaica in 1968.[204]
In 1971, King was posthumously awarded the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for his Why I Oppose the War in Vietnam.[212] Six years later, the Presidential Medal of Freedom was awarded to King by Jimmy Carter. King and his wife were also awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 2004.[213]
King was second in Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century.[214] In 1963, King was named Time Person of the Year and in 2000, King was voted sixth in the Person of the Century poll by the same magazine.[215] King was elected third in the Greatest American contest conducted by the Discovery Channel and AOL.[216]
More than 730 cities in the United States have streets named after King.[217] King County, Washington rededicated its name in his honor in 1986, and changed its logo to an image of his face in 2007.[218] The city government center in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, is named in honor of King.[219] King is remembered as a martyr by the Episcopal Church in the United States of America (feast day April 4)[220][221] and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (feast day January 15).[222]
In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed King on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.[223]
In 2011, comparing the record of the leaderless Occupy movement in creating meaningful change with the civil rights movement, Malcolm Gladwell described King as "one of the foremost tacticians of the 20th century." [224]
Capital memorial[link]
Main article: Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial
A memorial to King has been constructed along the Tidal Basin at the National Mall in Washington, D.C., by the Martin Luther King Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation. The official address of the monument, 1964 Independence Avenue, S.W., commemorates the year that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 became law.[225]
Film portrayals[link]
Martin Luther King, Jr. has been portrayed in film and television through the years. He has been portrayed by:
- Raymond St. Jacques in The Private Files of J. Edgar Hoover (1977)
- Paul Winfield in King (1978)
- James Earl Jones in Freedom to Speak (1982)
- Charles Brown in Kennedy (1983)
- Fred Perron and Walter Franks in The Boy King (1986) which focuses on King's early life.
- Leland Gantt in Hoover vs. the Kennedys: The Second Civil War (1987)
- Larry Riley in Unconquered (1989)
- Eric Ware in The Vernon Johns Story (1994)
- Voiced by his son Dexter Scott King and Jaleel White in the animated biography Our Friend, Martin (1999)
- Reuben Yabuku in Timequest (2000)
- Jeffrey Wright in Boycott (2001)
- LeVar Burton in Ali (2001)
- Portrayed again by his son Dexter Scott King in The Rosa Parks Story (2002)
Bibliography[link]
- Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story (1958) ISBN 978-0-06-250490-6
- The Measure of a Man (1959) ISBN 978-0-8006-0877-4
- Strength to Love (1963) ISBN 978-0-8006-9740-2
- Why We Can't Wait (1964) ISBN 978-0-8070-0112-7
- Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community? (1967) ISBN 978-0-8070-0571-2
- The Trumpet of Conscience (1968) ISBN 978-0-8070-0170-7
- A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. (1986) ISBN 978-0-06-250931-4
- The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. (1998), ed. Clayborne Carson ISBN 978-0-446-67650-2
- "All Labor Has Dignity" (2011) ed. Michael Honey ISBN 978-0-8070-8600-1
- "Thou, Dear God": Prayers That Open Hearts and Spirits Collection of Dr. King's prayers. (2011), ed. Dr. Lewis Baldwin ISBN 978-0-8070-8603-2
- MLK: A Celebration in Word and Image Photographed by Bob Adelman, introduced by Charles Johnson ISBN 978-0-8070-0316-9
See also[link]
- Anti-racism
- American philosophy
- Martin Luther King, Jr. authorship issues
- Christian left
- Christian pacifism
- Christian radicalism
- Equal opportunity
- List of African Americans
- List of American philosophers
- List of black Nobel Laureates
- List of civil rights leaders
- List of Congressional Gold Medal recipients
- List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates
- List of protest marches on Washington, D.C.
- Opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War
- Racism in the United States
- Religious leaders by year
- Sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr.
Notes[link]
- ^ Schlesinger, Arthur M. (2002) [1965], A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House, p. xiv .
- ^ D'Souza, Placido P. (January 20, 2003). "Commemorating Martin Luther King Jr.: Gandhi's influence on King". San Francisco Chronicle. http://articles.sfgate.com/2003-01-20/opinion/17474454_1_nonviolence-philosophy-king.
- ^ Krugman, Paul R. (2009), The Conscience of a Liberal, p. 84 .
- ^ Lischer, Richard. (2001). The Preacher King, p. 3.
- ^ Ogletree, Charles J. (2004). All Deliberate Speed: Reflections on the First Half Century of Brown v. Board of Education. WW Norton & Co. p. 138. ISBN 0-393-05897-2.
- ^ a b c d e King, Jr., Martin Luther; Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph; Russell, Penny A. (1992). The papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07950-7.
- ^ Katznelson, Ira (2005). When Affirmative Action was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America. WW Norton & Co. p. 5. ISBN 0-393-05213-3.
- ^ a b "King’s God: The Unknown Faith of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr". Tikkun. 2001-11–2. http://www.tikkun.org/article.php/nov_dec_09_scofield. Retrieved 2010-02-08.
- ^ a b c d e King, Jr., Martin Luther (1998). Carson, Clayborne. ed. Autobiography. Warner Books. p. 6. ISBN 0-446-52412-3.
- ^ Ching, Jacqueline (2002). The Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Rosen Publishing. p. 18. ISBN 0-8239-3543-4.
- ^ Downing, Frederick L. (1986). To See the Promised Land: The Faith Pilgrimage of Martin Luther King, Jr. Mercer University Press. p. 150. ISBN 0-86554-207-4.
- ^ Nojeim, Michael J. (2004). Gandhi and King: The Power of Nonviolent Resistance. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 179. ISBN 0-275-96574-0.
- ^ "Coretta Scott King". Daily Telegraph (UK). 2006-02-01. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1509338/Coretta-Scott-King.html. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ Warren, Mervyn A. (2001). King Came Preaching: The Pulpit Power of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. InterVarsity Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-8308-2658-0.
- ^ Fuller, Linda K. (2004). National Days, National Ways: Historical, Political, And Religious Celebrations around the World. Greenwood Publishing. p. 314. ISBN 0-275-97270-4.
- ^ Baldwin, Lewis V. (1992). To Make the Wounded Whole: The Cultural Legacy of Martin Luther King, Jr. Fortress Press. p. 298. ISBN 0-8006-2543-9.
- ^ "Boston U. Panel Finds Plagiarism by Dr. King". The New York Times. 1991-10-11. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CEFD61030F932A25753C1A967958260. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Heller, Steven; Vienne, Veronique (2003). Citizen Designer: Perspectives on Design Responsibility. Allworth Communications. p. 156. ISBN 1-58115-265-5.
- ^ Thurman, Howard (1981). With Head and Heart: The Autobiography of Howard Thurman. Harcourt. p. 254. ISBN 0-15-697648-X.
- ^ Thurman, Howard; Fluker, Walter E.; Tumber, Catherine (1998). A Strange Freedom: The Best of Howard Thurman on Religious Experience and Public Life. Beacon Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-8070-1057-X.
- ^ Curtis, Nancy C. (1996). Black Heritage Sites: An African American Odyssey and Finder's Guide. ALA Editions. p. 62. ISBN 0-8389-0643-5.
- ^ Marsh, Charles (1999). God's Long Summer: Stories of Faith and Civil Rights. Princeton University Press. p. 122. ISBN 0-691-02940-7.
- ^ "The Legacy of Howard Thurman — Mystic and Theologian". Religion & Ethics Newsweekly. PBS. 2002-01-18. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/week520/feature.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Kahlenberg, Richard D. (1997). "Book Review: Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen". Washington Monthly. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1316/is_n4_v29/ai_19279952. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
- ^ Bennett, Scott H. (2003). Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963. Syracuse University Press. p. 217. ISBN 0-8156-3003-4.
- ^ Farrell, James J. (1997). The Spirit of the Sixties: Making Postwar Radicalism. Routledge. p. 90. ISBN 0-415-91385-3.
- ^ De Leon, David (1994). Leaders from the 1960s: a biographical sourcebook of American activism. Greenwood Publishing. p. 138. ISBN 0-313-27414-2.
- ^ Arsenault, Raymond (2006). Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 62. ISBN 0-19-513674-8.
- ^ Oates, Stephen B. (December 13, 1993). Let the Trumpet Sound: A Life of Martin Luther King, Jr. HarperCollins. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-06-092473-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=85fOOMQaNaQC&pg=PA159. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (2000). Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph et al.. eds. The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr: Symbol of the Movement, January 1957 – December 1958. University of California Press. p. 364. ISBN 978-0-520-22231-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=qW-NYdIefPgC&pg=PA364. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (2000). Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph et al.. eds. The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr: Symbol of the Movement, January 1957 – December 1958. University of California Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-520-22231-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=qW-NYdIefPgC&pg=PA84. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (1992). Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph et al.. eds. The papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. University of California Press. p. 384. ISBN 978-0-520-07951-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=4ysIWgsSr9AC&pg=PA384. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther; Carson, Clayborne (1998). The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. Hachette Digital. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-446-52412-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=pynSnGuC964C&pg=PT187. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
- ^ Warren, Mervyn A.; Taylor, Gardner C. (2008). King Came Preaching: The Pulpit Power of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. InterVarsity Press. p. 174. ISBN 0-8308-3253-X
- ^ Galchutt, Kathryn M. (2005). The Career of Andrew Schulze, 1924–1968: Lutherans And Race in the Civil Rights Era. Mercer University Press. p. 194. ISBN 0-86554-946-X.
- ^ Wintle, Justin (2001). Makers of Modern Culture: Makers of Culture. Routledge. p. 272. ISBN 0-415-26583-5.
- ^ Manheimer, Ann S. (2004). Martin Luther King Jr.: Dreaming of Equality. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 103. ISBN 1-57505-627-5.
- ^ "December 1, 1955: Rosa Parks arrested". CNN. 2003-03-11. http://www.cnn.com/2003/US/03/10/sprj.80.1955.parks/. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
- ^ Walsh, Frank (2003). The Montgomery Bus Boycott. Gareth Stevens. p. 24. ISBN 0-8368-5403-9.
- ^ McMahon, Thomas F. (2004). Ethical Leadership Through Transforming Justice. University Press of America. p. 25. ISBN 0-7618-2908-3.
- ^ Fisk, Larry J.; Schellenberg, John (1999). Patterns of Conflict, Paths to Peace. Broadview Press. p. 115. ISBN 1-55111-154-3.
- ^ a b c d Jackson, Thomas F. (2007). From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Struggle for Economic Justice. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3969-5.
- ^ Marable, Manning; Mullings, Leith (2000). Let Nobody Turn Us Around: Voices of Resistance, Reform, and Renewal: an African American Anthology. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 391–2. ISBN 0-8476-8346-X.
- ^ Pearson, Hugh (2002). When Harlem Nearly Killed King: The 1958 Stabbing of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. New York: Seven Stories Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-58322-614-8
- ^ Extract of Pearson. Google Books. 2004-01-01. ISBN 978-1-58322-614-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=wiuTfo66SO0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=harlem+1958+martin+luther+king+jr&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ Vivian, Octavia (2006). Coretta: The Story of Coretta Scott King. Fortress Press. p. 45. ISBN 0-8006-3855-7.
- ^ "New Sitdowns Stir Violence in Tennessee". The Chicago Daily Tribune. April 12, 1960.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (1988). The Measure of a Man. Fortress Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-8006-0877-1.
- ^ Theoharis, Athan G.; Poveda, Tony G.; Powers, Richard Gid; Rosenfeld, Susan (1999). The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing. p. 148. ISBN 0-89774-991-X.
- ^ Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s, Basic Books: New York, New York. ISBN 0-465-04195-7, p. 41
- ^ a b Theoharis, Athan G.; Poveda, Tony G.; Powers, Richard Gid; Rosenfeld, Susan (1999). The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 123. ISBN 0-89774-991-X.
- ^ Wilson, Joseph; Marable, Manning; Ness, Immanuel (2006). Race and Labor Matters in the New U.S. Economy. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 47. ISBN 0-7425-4691-8.
- ^ Schofield, Norman (2006). Architects of Political Change: Constitutional Quandaries and Social Choice Theory. Cambridge University Press. p. 189. ISBN 0-521-83202-0.
- ^ Shafritz, Jay M. (1998). International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Administration. Westview Press. p. 1242. ISBN 0-8133-9974-2.
- ^ Loevy, Robert D.; Humphrey, Hubert H.; Stewart, John G. (1997). The Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Passage of the Law that Ended Racial Segregation. SUNY Press. p. 337. ISBN 0-7914-3361-7.
- ^ a b Glisson, Susan M. (2006). The Human Tradition in the Civil Rights Movement. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-4409-5.
- ^ "Albany, GA Movement". Civil Rights Movement Veterans. http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis61.htm#1961albany. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ Garrow, (1986) p. 246.
- ^ Harrell, David Edwin; Gaustad, Edwin S.; Miller, Randall M.; Boles, John B.; Woods, Randall Bennett; Griffith, Sally Foreman (2005). Unto a Good Land: A History of the American People, Volume 2. Wm B Eerdmans Publishing. p. 1055. ISBN 0-8028-2945-7.
- ^ Jones, Maxine D.; McCarthy, Kevin M. (1993). African Americans in Florida: An Illustrated History. Pineapple Press. pp. 113–5. ISBN 1-56164-031-X.
- ^ Haley, Alex (January 1965). "Martin Luther King". Interview (Playboy). http://www.playboy.com/arts-entertainment/features/mlk/. Retrieved 2008-08-27. [dead link]
- ^ "The Selma Injunction". Civil Rights Movement Veterans. http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis64.htm#1964selmainj. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ Gates, Henry Louis; Appiah, Anthony (1999). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Basic Civitas Books. p. 1251. ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
- ^ Cashman, Sean Dennis (1991). African-Americans and the Quest for Civil Rights, 1900–1990. NYU Press. p. 162. ISBN 0-8147-1441-2.
- ^ Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur M. (2002) [1978]. Robert Kennedy and His Times. Houghton Mifflin Books. p. 351. ISBN 0-618-21928-5.
- ^ Marable, Manning (1991). Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945–1990. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. 74. ISBN 0-87805-493-6.
- ^ Rosenberg, Jonathan; Karabell, Zachary (2003). Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice: The Civil Rights Tapes. WW Norton & Co. p. 130. ISBN 0-393-05122-6.
- ^ a b Boggs, Grace Lee (1998). Living for Change: An Autobiography. U of Minnesota Press. p. 127. ISBN 0-8166-2955-2.
- ^ Aron, Paul (2005). Mysteries in History: From Prehistory to the Present. ABC-CLIO. p. 399. ISBN 1-85109-899-2.
- ^ Singleton, Carl; Wildin, Rowena (1999). The Sixties in America. Salem Press. p. 454. ISBN 0-89356-982-8.
- ^ Bennett, Scott H. (2003). Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963. Syracuse University Press. p. 225. ISBN 0-8156-3003-4.
- ^ Davis, Danny (2007-01-16). "Celebrating the Birthday and Public Holiday for Martin Luther King, Jr.". Congressional Record (Library of Congress). http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?r110:H16JA7-0046:. Retrieved 2011-07-11.
- ^ Powers, Roger S.; Vogele, William B.; Kruegler, Christopher; McCarthy, Ronald M. (1997). Protest, power, and change: an encyclopedia of nonviolent action from ACT-UP to Women's Suffrage. Taylor & Francis. p. 313. ISBN 0-8153-0913-9.
- ^ Moore, Lucinda (2003-08-01). "Dream Assignment". Smithsonian. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/dream-speech.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1974 (Oxford University Press 1996) pp 482-85, 542-46
- ^ Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality (Hill and Wang; 2008) pp 152-53
- ^ a b c d Washington, James M. (1991). A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-064691-8.
- ^ Isserman, Maurice; Kazin, Michael (2000). America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 175. ISBN 0-19-509190-6.
- ^ Azbell, Joe (1968). The Riotmakers. Oak Tree Books. p. 176.
- ^ Leeman, Richard W. (1996). African-American Orators: A Bio-critical Sourcebook. Greenwood Publishing. p. 220. ISBN 0-313-29014-8.
- ^ "North Lawndale". Encyclopedia. Chicago History. http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/901.html. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ a b c Cohen, Adam Seth; Taylor, Elizabeth (2000). Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley: His Battle for Chicago and the Nation. Back Bay. ISBN 0-316-83489-0.
- ^ a b Ralph, James (1993). Northern Protest: Martin Luther King, Jr., Chicago, and the Civil Rights Movement. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-62687-7.
- ^ Fairclough, Adam (1987). To Redeem the Soul of America: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference & Martin Luther King, Jr. University of Georgia Press. p. 299. ISBN 0-8203-2346-2.
- ^ Baty, Chris (2004). Chicago: City Guide. Lonely Planet. p. 52. ISBN 1-74104-032-9.
- ^ Stone, Eddie (1988). Jesse Jackson. Holloway House Publishing. pp. 59–60. ISBN 0-87067-840-X.
- ^ Lentz, Richard (1990). Symbols, the News Magazines, and Martin Luther King. LSU Press. p. 230. ISBN 0-8071-2524-5.
- ^ Isserman, Maurice; Kazin, Michael (2000). America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 200. ISBN 0-19-509190-6. See also: Miller, Keith D. (1998). Voice of Deliverance: The Language of Martin Luther King, Jr., and Its Sources. University of Georgia Press. p. 139. ISBN 0-8203-2013-7.
- ^ Mis, Melody S. (2008). Meet Martin Luther King, Jr. Rosen Publishing Group. p. 20. ISBN 1-4042-4209-0.
- ^ Slessarev, Helene (1997). The Betrayal of the Urban Poor. Temple University Press. p. 140. ISBN 1-56639-543-7.
- ^ Krenn, Michael L. (1998). The African American Voice in U.S. Foreign Policy Since World War II. Taylor & Francis. p. 29. ISBN 0-8153-3418-4.
- ^ a b c d e f Robbins, Mary Susannah (2007). Against the Vietnam War: Writings by Activists. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-5914-9.
- ^ David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross (1986), pp. 440, 445.
- ^ a b Lawson, Steven F.; Payne, Charles M.; Patterson, James T. (2006). Debating the Civil Rights Movement, 1945–1968. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-5109-1.
- ^ Long, Michael G. (2002). Against Us, But for Us: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the State. Mercer University Press. p. 199. ISBN 0-86554-768-8.
- ^ Baldwin, Lewis V. (1992). To Make the Wounded Whole: The Cultural Legacy of Martin Luther King, Jr. Fortress Press. p. 273. ISBN 0-8006-2543-9.
- ^ Harding; Rosenthal, Cindy (2006). Restaging the Sixties: Radical Theaters and Their Legacies. University of Michigan Press. p. 297. ISBN 0-472-06954-3.
- ^ Lentz, Richard (1990). Symbols, the News Magazines, and Martin Luther King. LSU Press. p. 64. ISBN 0-8071-2524-5.
- ^ Ling, Peter J. (2002). Martin Luther King, Jr. Routledge. p. 277. ISBN 0-415-21664-8.
- ^ Franklin, Robert Michael (1990). Liberating Visions: Human Fulfillment and Social Justice in African-American Thought. Fortress Press. p. 125. ISBN 0-8006-2392-4.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther; King, Coretta Scott; King, Dexter Scott (1998). The Martin Luther King, Jr. Companion: Quotations from the Speeches, Essays, and Books of Martin Luther King, Jr. St. Martin's Press. p. 39. ISBN 0-312-19990-2.
- ^ a b c Zinn, Howard (2002). The Power of Nonviolence: Writings by Advocates of Peace. Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-1407-9.
- ^ "1967 Year In Review". UPI. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1967/Protests/12303074818188-15/. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ The Americas: Reconstruction to the 21st Century. Atlas by Rand McNally
- ^ America's Vietnam War: A Narrative History
- ^ a b Kurlansky, Mark (2004). 1968. London, UK: Jonathan Cape (Random House). p. 46. ISBN 0-224-06251-4.
- ^ a b Robinson, Douglas (January 13, 1968). "Dr. King Calls for Antiwar Rally in Capital Feb. 5–6". The New York Times (New York): p. 4. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0B1EFD3C5E1A7B93C1A8178AD85F4C8685F9. Retrieved April 22, 2010.
- ^ Vigil, Ernesto B. (1999). The Crusade for Justice: Chicano Militancy and the Government's War on Dissent. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 54. ISBN 0-299-16224-9.
- ^ a b Kick, Russell (2001). You are Being Lied to: The Disinformation Guide to Media Distortion, Historical Whitewashes and Cultural Myths. The Disinformation Campaign. p. 1991. ISBN 0-9664100-7-6.
- ^ Isserman, Maurice (2001). The Other American: The Life of Michael Harrington. Public Affairs. p. 281. ISBN 1-58648-036-7.
- ^ Bobbitt, David (2007). The Rhetoric of Redemption: Kenneth Burke's Redemption Drama and Martin Luther King, Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" Speech. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 105. ISBN 0-7425-2928-2.
- ^ Ling, Peter J. (2002). Martin Luther King, Jr. Routledge. pp. 250–1. ISBN 0-415-21664-8.
- ^ Yeshitela, Omali. "Abbreviated Report from the International Tribunal on Reparations for Black People in the U.S.". African People's Socialist Party. Archived from the original on 2008-05-17. http://web.archive.org/web/20080517082245/http://www.apspuhuru.org/publications/repnow/ReparationsNow-OCR.txt. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "1,300 Members Participate in Memphis Garbage Strike". AFSCME. February 1968. Archived from the original on 2006-11-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20061102004632/http://www.afscme.org/about/1529.cfm. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ "Memphis Strikers Stand Firm". AFSCME. March 1968. Archived from the original on 2006-11-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20061102004516/http://www.afscme.org/about/1532.cfm. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ Davis, Townsend (1998). Weary Feet, Rested Souls: A Guided History of the Civil Rights Movement. WW Norton & Co. p. 364. ISBN 0-393-31819-2.
- ^ Thomas, Evan (2007-11-19). "The Worst Week of 1968". Newsweek. p. 2. http://www.newsweek.com/id/69542/page/2. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2006). Speeches that Changed the World: The Stories and Transcripts of the Moments that Made History. Quercus. p. 155. ISBN 1-905204-16-7.
- ^ "King V. Jowers Conspiracy Allegations". United States Department of Justice Investigation of Recent Allegations Regarding the Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. U.S. Department of Justice. June 2000. http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/crm/mlk/part6.php#conspire. Retrieved 2011-07-11.
- ^ Pilkington, Ed (2008-04-03). "40 years after King's death, Jackson hails first steps into promised land". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/apr/03/usa.race. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
- ^ Garner, Joe; Cronkite, Walter; Kurtis, Bill (2002). We Interrupt This Broadcast: The Events that Stopped Our Lives... from the Hindenburg Explosion to the Attacks of September 11. Sourcebooks. p. 62. ISBN 1-57071-974-8.
- ^ Pepper, William (2003). An Act of State: The Execution of Martin Luther King. Verso. p. 159. ISBN 1-85984-695-5.
- ^ Kirk, John A. (2005). Martin Luther King Jr. Longman. p. 181. ISBN 0-582-41431-8.
- ^ Purnick, Joyce (1988-04-18). "Koch Says Jackson Lied About Actions After Dr. King Was Slain". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEED7133EF93BA25757C0A96E948260. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
- ^ Lokos, Lionel (1968). House Divided: The Life and Legacy of Martin Luther King. Arlington House. p. 48.
- ^ "Citizen King Transcript". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/mlk/filmmore/pt.html. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
- ^ "1968: Martin Luther King shot dead". On this Day (BBC). 1968-04-04. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/4/newsid_2453000/2453987.stm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Risen, Clay (2009). A Nation on Fire: America in the Wake of the King Assassination. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-470-17710-1.
- ^ Klein, Joe (2006). Politics Lost: How American Democracy was Trivialized by People Who Think You're Stupid. New York: Doubleday. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-385-51027-1
- ^ a b c "1968 Year In Review". UPI. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1968/Martin-Luther-King-Assasination/12303153093431-4/. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ Manheimer, Ann S. (2004). Martin Luther King Jr.: Dreaming of Equality. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 97. ISBN 1-57505-627-5.
- ^ Dickerson, James (1998). Dixie's Dirty Secret: The True Story of how the Government, the Media, and the Mob Conspired to Combat Immigration and the Vietnam Antiwar Movement. ME Sharpe. p. 169. ISBN 0-7656-0340-3.
- ^ Hatch, Jane M.; Douglas, =George William (1978). The American Book of Days. Wilson. p. 321.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (2007). Dream: The Words and Inspiration of Martin Luther King, Jr. Blue Mountain Arts. p. 26. ISBN 1-59842-240-5.
- ^ Werner, Craig (2006). A Change is Gonna Come: Music, Race & the Soul of America. University of Michigan Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-472-03147-3.
- ^ "AFSCME Wins in Memphis". AFSCME The Public Employee. April 1968. Archived from the original on 2006-11-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20061102004802/http://www.afscme.org/about/1533.cfm. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ "1968 Memphis Sanitation Workers' Strike Chronology". AFSCME. Archived from the original on 2006-11-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20061102004657/http://www.afscme.org/about/1548.cfm. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ Ling, Peter J. (2002). Martin Luther King, Jr. Routledge. p. 296. ISBN 0-415-21664-8.
- ^ a b Flowers, R. Barri; Flowers, H. Loraine (2004). Murders in the United States: Crimes, Killers And Victims Of The Twentieth Century. McFarland. p. 38. ISBN 0-7864-2075-8.
- ^ a b c d "James Earl Ray Dead At 70". CBS. 1998-04-23. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/1998/04/23/national/main7900.shtml. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
- ^ Clarke, James W. (2005). Defining Danger: American Assassins And the New Domestic Terrorists. Transaction Publishers. p. 297. ISBN 0-7658-0289-9.
- ^ House Select Committee on Assassinations (2001). Compilation of the Statements of James Earl Ray: Staff Report. The Minerva Group. p. 17. ISBN 0-89875-297-3.
- ^ a b Davis, Lee (1995). Assassination: 20 Assassinations that Changed the World. JG Press. p. 105. ISBN 1-57215-235-4.
- ^ "History of the Knoxville Office". FBI. Archived from the original on 2008-05-24. http://web.archive.org/web/20080524142603/http://knoxville.fbi.gov/hist.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "From small-time criminal to notorious assassin". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/US/9804/03/james.ray.profile/. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
- ^ Knight, Peter (2003). Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 402. ISBN 1-57607-812-4.
- ^ "Questions left hanging by James Earl Ray's death". BBC. 1998-04-23. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/82893.stm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Frank, Gerold (1972). An American Death: The True Story of the Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Greatest Manhunt of our Time. Doubleday. p. 283.
- ^ "James Earl Ray, convicted King assassin, dies". CNN. 1998-04-23. http://edition.cnn.com/US/9804/23/ray.obit/#2. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
- ^ "Trial Transcript Volume XIV". The King Center. Archived from the original on 2008-05-06. http://web.archive.org/web/20080506041106/http://www.thekingcenter.org/tkc/trial/Volume14.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Smith, Robert Charles; Seltzer, Richard (2000). Contemporary Controversies and the American Racial Divide. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 97. ISBN 0-7425-0025-X.
- ^ "Overview". United States Department of Justice Investigation of Recent Allegations Regarding the Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. U.S. Department of Justice. June 2000. http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/crm/mlk/part2.php#over. Retrieved 2011-07-11.
- ^ Canedy, Dana (2002-04-05). "A Minister Says His Father, Now Dead, Killed Dr. King". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/05/us/a-minister-says-his-father-now-dead-killed-dr-king.html.
- ^ Sargent, Frederic O. (2004). The Civil Rights Revolution: Events and Leaders, 1955–1968. McFarland. p. 129. ISBN 0-7864-1914-8.
- ^ Pepper, William (2003). An Act of State: The Execution of Martin Luther King. Verso. p. 182. ISBN 1-85984-695-5.
- ^ Branch, Taylor (2006). At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–68. Simon & Schuster. p. 770. ISBN 978-0-684-85712-1.
- ^ Goodman, Amy; Gonzalez, =Juan (2004-01-15). "Jesse Jackson On 'Mad Dean Disease', the 2000 Elections and Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King". Democracy Now!. http://www.democracynow.org/2004/1/15/rev_jesse_jackson_on_mad_dean. Retrieved 2006-09-18.
- ^ Downing, Frederick L. (1986). To See the Promised Land: The Faith Pilgrimage of Martin Luther King, Jr. Mercer University Press. pp. 246–7. ISBN 0-86554-207-4.
- ^ a b c d Kotz, Nick (2005). Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Laws that Changed America. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0-618-08825-3.
- ^ Woods, Jeff (2004). Black Struggle, Red Scare: Segregation and Anti-communism in the South, 1948–1968. LSU Press. p. 126. ISBN 0-8071-2926-7. See also: Wannall, Ray (2000). The Real J. Edgar Hoover: For the Record. Turner Publishing. p. 87. ISBN 1-56311-553-0.
- ^ a b c Church, Frank (April 23, 1976). "Church Committee Book III". Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Case Study. Church Committee. http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIb.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-01.
- ^ Garrow, David J. (July–August 2002). "The FBI and Martin Luther King". The Atlantic Monthly. http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200207/garrow.
- ^ a b Ryskind, Allan H. (2006-02-27). "JFK and RFK Were Right to Wiretap MLK". Human Events. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200602/ai_n17173432/pg_2. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ a b Herst, Burton (2007). Bobby and J. Edger. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1982-6.
- ^ a b c Christensen, Jen (2008-04-07). "FBI tracked King's every move". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/03/31/mlk.fbi.conspiracy/index.html. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Bruns, Roger (2006). Martin Luther King, Jr.: A Biography. Greenwood Publishing. p. 67. ISBN 0-313-33686-5.
- ^ Gilbert, Alan (1990). Democratic Individuality: A Theory of Moral Progress. Cambridge University Press. p. 435. ISBN 0-521-38709-4.
- ^ Sidey, Hugh (1975-02-10). "L.B.J., Hoover and Domestic Spying". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,912799-2,00.html. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Newsweek, 1998-01-19, p. 62 . Baldwin, Lewis V. (1992). To Make the Wounded Whole: The Cultural Legacy of Martin Luther King, Jr. Fortress Press. p. 296. ISBN 0-8006-2543-9.
- ^ Abernathy, Ralph David (1989-10-29). "And the Walls Came Tumbling Down". Booknotes. Archived from the original on 2007-12-11. http://web.archive.org/web/20071211111242/http://www.booknotes.org/Transcript/index_print.asp?ProgramID=1442. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Abernathy, Ralph David (1989-10-29). "And the Walls Came Tumbling Down". Booknotes. Archived from the original on 2007-12-11. http://web.archive.org/web/20071211111242/http://www.booknotes.org/Transcript/index_print.asp?ProgramID=1442. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. William Morrow & Co. 1986. pp. 375–6. See also: Burrow, Jr., Rufus (Spring 2003). "The humanity of Martin Luther King, Jr.: Vigilance in pursuing his dream". Encounter. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4044/is_200304/ai_n9232227. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Burnett, Thom (2005). Conspiracy Encyclopedia. Collins & Brown. p. 58. ISBN 1-84340-287-4.
- ^ Thragens, William C. (1988). Popular Images of American Presidents. Greenwood Publishing. p. 532. ISBN 0-313-22899-X.
- ^ Kotz, Nick (2005). Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Laws that Changed America. Houghton Mifflin Books. p. 247. ISBN 0-618-08825-3. http://books.google.com/?id=qo9r4_rnrasC&pg=PA247. Retrieved 2011-07-04.
- ^ Wilson, Sondra K. (1999). In Search of Democracy: The NAACP Writings of James Weldon Johnson, Walter White, and Roy Wilkins (1920–1977). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 466. ISBN 0-19-511633-X.
- ^ "FBI tracked King's every move". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/03/31/mlk.fbi.conspiracy/index.html#cnnSTCVideo. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Phillips, Geraldine N. (Summer 1997). "Documenting the Struggle for Racial Equality in the Decade of the Sixties". Prologue Magazine. The National Archives and Records Administration. http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1997/summer/equality-in-the-sixties.html#f3. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "Eyewitness to Murder: The King Assassination Featured Individuals". Black in America. CNN. http://www.hvc-inc.com/clients/cnn/bia/featured.html. Retrieved 2008-06-16.
- ^ McKnight, Gerald (1998). The Last Crusade: Martin Luther King, Jr., the FBI, and the Poor People's Crusade. Boulder: Westview Press. p. 76. ISBN 0-8133-3384-9.
- ^ Martin Luther King, Jr.: The FBI Files. Filiquarian Publishing. 2007. pp. 40–2. ISBN 1-59986-253-0. See also: Polk, James (2008-04-07). "King conspiracy theories still thrive 40 years later". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/03/28/conspiracy.theories/. Retrieved 2008-06-16. and "King's FBI file Part 1 of 2" (pdf). FBI. http://vault.fbi.gov/Martin%20Luther%20King,%20Jr./Martin%20Luther%20King,%20Jr.%20Part%201%20of%202/view. Retrieved 2012-01-16. and "King's FBI file Part 2 of 2" (pdf). FBI. http://vault.fbi.gov/Martin%20Luther%20King,%20Jr./Martin%20Luther%20King,%20Jr.%20Part%202%20of%202/view. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ Knight, Peter (2003). Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 408–9. ISBN 1-57607-812-4.
- ^ a b "The History of Fair Housing". U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/program_offices/fair_housing_equal_opp/aboutfheo/history. Retrieved April 19, 2012.
- ^ Ansell, Gwen (2005). Soweto Blues: Jazz, Popular Music, and Politics in South Africa. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 139. ISBN 0-8264-1753-1.
- ^ Clinton, Hillary Rodham (2007). It Takes a Village: And Other Lessons Children Teach Us. Simon & Schuster. p. 137. ISBN 1-4165-4064-4.
- ^ Peters, William. "A Class Divided: One Friday in April, 1968". Frontline. PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/divided/etc/friday.html. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "The King Center's Mission". The King Center. Archived from the original on 2008-04-12. http://web.archive.org/web/20080412114756/http://www.thekingcenter.org/tkc/mission.asp. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ Copeland, Larry (2006-02-01). "Future of Atlanta's King Center in limbo". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-01-31-king-center_x.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "Chairman's Message: Introduction to the King Center and its Mission". The King Center. Archived from the original on 2008-01-18. http://web.archive.org/web/20080118102950/http://www.thekingcenter.org/tkc/chairman.asp. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "Welcome". Higher Ground Productions. http://www.highergroundproductions.com/index2.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ Williams, Brandt (2005-01-16). "What would Martin Luther King do?". Minnesota Public Radio. http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/2005/01/17_williamsb_wwmlkd/. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "The Triple Evils". The King Center. Archived from the original on 2008-08-03. http://web.archive.org/web/20080803150448/http://www.thekingcenter.org/misc/triple_evils.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "Washington, DC Martin Luther King Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation Breaks Ground On Historic $100 Million Memorial On The National Mall In Washington, D.C.". Washington, DC Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation. 2006-11-06. http://www.mlkmemorial.org/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=hkIUL9MVJxE&b=1601407&ct=3612187. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Mjagkij, Nina (2001). Organizing Black America: An Encyclopedia of African American Associations. Taylor & Francis. p. 30. ISBN 0-8153-2309-3.
- ^ Tobias, Randall L. (January 18, 2007). "Celebrating the Birthday of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 2007-11-15. http://web.archive.org/web/20071115141138/http://www.state.gov/f/releases/remarks2007/87649.htm. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ "History of the Memorial". Washington, DC Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation. http://www.mlkmemorial.org/site/c.hkIUL9MVJxE/b.1190613/k.5EE9/History_of_the_Memorial.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "The Theater: A King in Darkness". Time. 1976-10-04. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,918426,00.html. Retrieved 2009-01-03.
- ^ "National Theatre Company of China Tours Atlanta, Birmingham, and Memphis". The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute. 2007-02-06. http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/China/mlkchina/try2_files/mlkpp_data/Touring_Atlanta_text.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ 2007-06-23, Anthony. "Martin Luther King's Story Plays on Beijing Stage". National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11330396. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "Proclamation 6401 – Martin Luther King, Jr., Federal Holiday". The American Presidency Project. 1992. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=47329. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ "Martin Luther King Day". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 2008-03-28. http://web.archive.org/web/20080328081425/http://exchanges.state.gov/education/engteaching/mlkbday.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ Goldberg, Carey (1999-05-26). "Contrarian New Hampshire To Honor Dr. King, at Last". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A07E0DC1031F935A15756C0A96F958260. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "The History of Martin Luther King Day". Infoplease. 2007. http://www.infoplease.com/spot/mlkhistory1.html. Retrieved 2011-07-04.
- ^ a b "Biographical Outline of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.". The King Center. http://www.thekingcenter.org/DrMLKingJr/Biography.aspx. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
- ^ a b Warren, Mervyn A. (2001). King Came Preaching: The Pulpit Power of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. InterVarsity Press. p. 79. ISBN 0-8308-2658-0.
- ^ "Winner of the 1964 Nobel Prize in Peace". Nobel Prize Committee. http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1964/. Retrieved 2008-06-21.
- ^ Engel, Irving M. "Commemorating Martin Luther King, Jr.: Presentation of American Liberties Medallion". American Jewish Committee. http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=843719&ct=1052921. Retrieved 2008-06-13.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther. "Commemorating Martin Luther King, Jr.: Response to Award of American Liberties Medallion". American Jewish Committee. http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=843719&ct=1052923. Retrieved 2008-06-13.
- ^ "Habitat co-founder to receive Pacem in Terris award tonight". Quad-City Times. 2005-10-23. http://www.qctimes.com/articles/2005/10/23/news/local/doc435b0e9c484dc514864978.txt. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "Martin Luther King Jr.". Anisfield-Wolf Book Awards. http://www.anisfield-wolf.org/books/stride-toward-freedom-the-montgomery-story/?sortby=author&auth=KINGJR.MARTINLUTHER. Retrieved October 2, 2011.
- ^ "The Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. upon accepting The Planned Parenthood Federation Of America Margaret Sanger Award". PPFA. Archived from the original on 2008-02-24. http://web.archive.org/web/20080224104928/http://www.plannedparenthood.org/about-us/who-we-are/the-reverend-martin-luther-king-jr.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Gates, Henry Louis; Appiah, Anthony (1999). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Basic Civitas Books. p. 1348. ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
- ^ "Congressional Gold Medal Recipients (1776 to Present)". Office of the Clerk: U.S. House of Representatives. http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house_history/goldMedal.html. Retrieved 2008-06-16.
- ^ Gallup, George; Gallup, Jr., Alec (2000). The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1999. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 249. ISBN 0-8420-2699-1.
- ^ "The Person of the Century Poll Results". TIME. 2000-01-19. http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/century.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "Reagan voted 'greatest American'". BBC. 2005-06-28. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4631421.stm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Alderman, Derek H. (2006-02-13). "Naming Streets for Martin Luther King, Jr.: No Easy Road". Landscape and Race in the United States. Routledge Press. http://personal.ecu.edu/aldermand/pubs/alderman_chapter.pdf. Retrieved 2011-07-04.
- ^ "King County Was Rededicated For MLK". The Seattle Times. 1998-01-18. http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19980118&slug=2729257. Retrieved 2008-06-13. See also: "New logo is an image of civil rights leader". King County. http://www.kingcounty.gov/operations/logo.aspx. Retrieved 2008-06-13.
- ^ "Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Essay Competition Winners Announced". City of Harrisburg. 2003-01-19. Archived from the original on 2007-12-07. http://web.archive.org/web/20071207045944/http://www.harrisburgpa.gov/pressReleases/prArchives/2003/01/20030119_mlkEssay.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ The Episcopal and Lutheran Churches in the U.S. have feast days dedicated to King, on April 4 and January 15 respectively, as per the Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church in the United States of America), and Calendar of Saints (Lutheran) — neither church has a formal canonization process. There is a statue of King in the Gallery of 20th Century Martyrs at Westminster Abbey, London.
- ^ Flagg, Chuck (2006-02-10). "What it Takes to Become a Saint". The Morgan Hill Times. http://www.morganhilltimes.com/lifestyles/178715-what-it-takes-to-become-a-saint. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "News & Events — January 2008". St. Thomas Evangelical Lutheran Church. http://www.stlconline.org/archive/200801.html. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8.
- ^ Malcolm Gladwell (2011-12-02). "Malcolm Gladwell says the Occupy movement needs to get more Machiavellian". The Globe and Mail. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/arts/books/malcolm-gladwell-says-the-occupy-movement-needs-to-get-more-machiavellian/article2258841/. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
- ^ "Site Location – Build the Dream". Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation, Inc.. http://www.mlkmemorial.org/site/c.hkIUL9MVJxE/b.7548975/k.9356/Site_Location.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
References[link]
- Abernathy, Ralph (1989). And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: An Autobiography. Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-016192-2.
- Ayton, Mel (2005). A Racial Crime: James Earl Ray And The Murder Of Martin Luther King Jr. Archebooks Publishing. ISBN 1-59507-075-3.
- Beito, David; Beito, Linda Royster (2004). "T.R.M. Howard: Pragmatism over Strict Integrationist Ideology in the Mississippi Delta, 1942–1954". In Feldman, Glenn. Before Brown: Civil Rights and White Backlash in the Modern South. University of Alabama Press. pp. 68–95. ISBN 0-8173-5134-5.
- Branch, Taylor (1988). Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-46097-8.
- Branch, Taylor (1998). Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–1965. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80819-6.
- Branch, Taylor (2006). At Canaan's Edge: America In the King Years, 1965–1968. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-85712-X.
- Chernus, Ira (2004). "Chapter 11". American Nonviolence: The History of an Idea. Orbis Books. ISBN 1-57075-547-7.
- Garrow, David J. (1981). The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-006486-9.
- Jackson, Thomas F. (2006). From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Struggle for Economic Justice. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3969-0.
- King, Coretta Scott (1993) [1969]. My Life with Martin Luther King, Jr. Henry Holth & Co. ISBN 0-8050-2445-X.
- Kirk, John A. (2005). Martin Luther King, Jr. Pearson Longman. ISBN 0-582-41431-8.
- Lindgren, Carl Edwin (Spring 1992). "Resurrection City". Southern Exposure 20 (1): 7.
Further reading[link]
- Carson, Clayborne. "Mythology and the Charismatic Leadership of Martin Luther King". In Gerster, Patrick; Cords, Nicholas. Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II. St. James, NY: Brandywine Press. (1997). ISBN 978-1-881089-97-1
- Garrow, David. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (1989). Pulitzer Prize. ISBN 978-0-06-056692-0
- Kirk, John A., ed. Martin Luther King Jr. and the Civil Rights Movement: Controversies and Debates (2007). 224 pp.
- Schulke, Flip; McPhee, Penelope. King Remembered, Foreword by Jesse Jackson (1986). ISBN 978-1-4039-9654-1
- Kotz, Nick, Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King Jr., and the Laws that Changed America (2005). ISBN 978-0-618-64183-3
External links[link]
| Find more about Martin Luther King, Jr. on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
 |
Images and media from Commons |
 |
Learning resources from Wikiversity |
 |
News stories from Wikinews |
 |
Quotations from Wikiquote |
 |
Source texts from Wikisource |
 |
Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- The King Center
- "Martin Luther King Jr. Collection", Morehouse College, RWWL
- The Martin Luther King, Jr. Papers Project
- Martin Luther King Jr., "A New Sense of Direction (1968)"
- "Martin Luther King Jr.", The Seattle Times
- 1956 Comic Book: Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story
- Kirk, John A., "Martin Luther King, Jr.", New Georgia Encyclopedia
- "Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle", online encyclopedia, chronology and document library, The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute, Stanford University.
- "Martin Luther King, Jr.", Encyclopedia of Alabama
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Martin Luther King, Jr. at the Internet Movie Database
- Works by Martin Luther King, Jr. at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Martin Luther King, Jr. in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Images
- Speeches and interviews
- Audio from April 1961 King, "The Church on the Frontier of Racial Tensions", speech at Southern Seminary
- "Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., 1929–1968", one hour documentary report by Democracy Now!
- "Martin Luther King, Jr. Historic Speeches and Interviews"
- The New Negro, King interviewed by J. Waites Waring
- "Interview with Dr. Kenneth Clark", PBS
- "Beyond Vietnam" speech text and audio
- King Institute Encyclopedia multimedia
- Why I Am Oppposed to the War in Vietnam, sermon at the Ebenezer Baptist Church on April 30, 1967 (audio of speech with video 23:31)
| Awards and achievements | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by International Committee of the Red Cross and League of Red Cross Societies |
Nobel Peace Prize Laureate 1964 |
Succeeded by UNICEF |
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||
|
||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||
|
||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | King, Martin Luther, Jr. |
| Alternative names | King, Martin Luther; MLK |
| Short description | Political activist |
| Date of birth | January 15, 1929 |
| Place of birth | Atlanta, Georgia |
| Date of death | April 4, 1968 |
| Place of death | Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee |
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr.
Related pages:
http://ru.wn.com/Кинг, Мартин Лютер
http://es.wn.com/Martin Luther King
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For other people named Martin Luther, see Martin Luther (disambiguation).
| Martin Luther | |
|---|---|
 Luther in 1533 by Lucas Cranach the Elder |
|
| Born | (1483-11-10)10 November 1483 Eisleben, Saxony, Holy Roman Empire |
| Died | 18 February 1546(1546-02-18) (aged 62) Eisleben, Saxony, Holy Roman Empire |
| Occupation | Monk, Priest, Theologian |
| Notable works | The Ninety-Five Theses, Luther's Large Catechism, Luther's Small Catechism, On the Freedom of a Christian |
| Spouse | Katharina von Bora |
| Children | Hans (Johannes), Elisabeth, Magdalena, Martin, Paul, Margarethe |
| Influences | Paul the Apostle, Augustine of Hippo |
| Influenced | Philipp Melanchthon, Lutheranism, John Calvin, Karl Barth |
| Signature | |
 |
|
Martin Luther (help·info) (10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German monk, priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation.[1] He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517. His refusal to retract all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the Emperor.
Luther taught that salvation is not earned by good deeds but received only as a free gift of God's grace through faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from sin. His theology challenged the authority of the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church by teaching that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed knowledge[2] and opposed sacerdotalism by considering all baptized Christians to be a holy priesthood.[3] Those who identify with Luther's teachings are called Lutherans.
His translation of the Bible into the vernacular (instead of Latin) made it more accessible, causing a tremendous impact on the church and on German culture. It fostered the development of a standard version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation,[4] and influenced the translation into English of the King James Bible.[5] His hymns influenced the development of singing in churches.[6] His marriage to Katharina von Bora set a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestant priests to marry.[7]
In his later years, while suffering from several illnesses and deteriorating health, Luther became increasingly antisemitic, writing that Jewish homes should be destroyed, their synagogues burned, money confiscated and liberty curtailed. These statements have contributed to his controversial status.[8]
Contents
|
Early life[link]
Birth and education[link]
Martin Luther was born to Hans Luder (or Ludher, later Luther)[9] and his wife Margarethe (née Lindemann) on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Germany, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic the next morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours. His family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters[10] and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council.[9] The religious scholar Martin Marty describes Luther's mother as a hard-working woman of "trading-class stock and middling means" and notes that Luther's enemies would later wrongly describe her as a whore and bath attendant.[9] He had several brothers and sisters, and is known to have been close to one of them, Jacob.[11] Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family, and he was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended a school operated by a lay group called the Brethren of the Common Life, and Eisenach in 1498.[12] The three schools focused on the so-called "trivium": grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to purgatory and hell.[13]
In 1501, at the age of nineteen, he entered the University of Erfurt – which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse.[14] The schedule called for waking at four every morning for what has been described as "a day of rote learning and often wearying spiritual exercises."[14] He received his master's degree in 1505.[15]
In accordance with his father's wishes, Luther enrolled in law school at the same university that year but dropped out almost immediately, believing that law represented uncertainty.[15] Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, and Gabriel Biel.[15] He was deeply influenced by two tutors, Bartholomaeus Arnoldi von Usingen and Jodocus Trutfetter, who taught him to be suspicious of even the greatest thinkers[15] and to test everything himself by experience.[16] Philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of reason but none about loving God, which to Luther was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, and he thereafter developed a love-hate relationship with Aristotle over the latter's emphasis on reason.[16] For Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine revelation, he believed, and Scripture therefore became increasingly important to him.[16]
He later attributed his decision to an event: on 2 July 1505, he was on horseback during a thunderstorm and a lightning bolt struck near him as he was returning to university after a trip home. Later telling his father he was terrified of death and divine judgment, he cried out, "Help! Saint Anna, I will become a monk!"[17] He came to view his cry for help as a vow he could never break. He left law school, sold his books, and entered a closed Augustinian friary in Erfurt on 17 July 1505.[18] One friend blamed the decision on Luther's sadness over the deaths of two friends. Luther himself seemed saddened by the move. Those who attended a farewell supper walked him to the door of the Black Cloister. "This day you see me, and then, not ever again," he said.[16] His father was furious over what he saw as a waste of Luther's education.[19]
Monastic and academic life[link]
Luther dedicated himself to monastic life, devoting himself to fasting, long hours in prayer, pilgrimage, and frequent confession.[20] He would later remark, "If anyone could have gained heaven as a monk, then I would indeed have been among them."[21] Luther described this period of his life as one of deep spiritual despair. He said, "I lost touch with Christ the Savior and Comforter, and made of him the jailor and hangman of my poor soul."[22]
Johann von Staupitz, his superior, concluded that Luther needed more work to distract him from excessive introspection and ordered him to pursue an academic career. In 1507, he was ordained to the priesthood, and in 1508 began teaching theology at the University of Wittenberg.[23] He received a Bachelor's degree in Biblical studies on 9 March 1508, and another Bachelor's degree in the Sentences by Peter Lombard in 1509.[24] On 19 October 1512, he was awarded his Doctor of Theology and, on 21 October 1512, was received into the senate of the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg, having been called to the position of Doctor in Bible.[25] He spent the rest of his career in this position at the University of Wittenberg.
The start of the Reformation[link]
Further information: History of Protestantism and The Ninety-Five Theses
In 1516, Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar and papal commissioner for indulgences, was sent to Germany by the Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences to raise money to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.[26] Roman Catholic theology stated that faith alone, whether fiduciary or dogmatic, cannot justify man;[27] justification rather depends only on such faith as is active in charity and good works (fides caritate formata) can justify man.[28] The benefits of good works could be obtained by donating money to the church.
On 31 October 1517, Luther wrote to his bishop, Albert of Mainz, protesting the sale of indulgences. He enclosed in his letter a copy of his "Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences," which came to be known as The Ninety-Five Theses. Hans Hillerbrand writes that Luther had no intention of confronting the church, but saw his disputation as a scholarly objection to church practices, and the tone of the writing is accordingly "searching, rather than doctrinaire."[29] Hillerbrand writes that there is nevertheless an undercurrent of challenge in several of the theses, particularly in Thesis 86, which asks: "Why does the pope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build the basilica of St. Peter with the money of poor believers rather than with his own money?"[29]
Luther objected to a saying attributed to Johann Tetzel that "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory [also attested as 'into heaven'] springs."[30]
He insisted that, since forgiveness was God's alone to grant, those who claimed that indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments and granted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said, must not slacken in following Christ on account of such false assurances.
However, this oft-quoted saying of Tetzel was by no means representative of the official Catholic teaching on indulgences, but rather, more a reflection of his capacity to exaggerate. Yet if Tetzel overstated the matter in regard to indulgences for the dead, his teaching on indulgences for the living was pure.[31]
According to scholars Walter Krämer, Götz Trenkler, Gerhard Ritter and Gerhard Prause, the story of the posting on the door, even though it has settled as one of the pillars of history, has little foundation in truth.[32][33][34] The story is based on comments made by Philipp Melanchthon, though it is thought that he was not in Wittenberg at the time.[35]
It was not until January 1518 that friends of Luther translated the 95 Theses from Latin into German, printed, and widely copied, making the controversy one of the first in history to be aided by the printing press.[36] Within two weeks, copies of the theses had spread throughout Germany; within two months throughout Europe.
Luther's writings circulated widely, reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1519. Students thronged to Wittenberg to hear Luther speak. He published a short commentary on Galatians and his Work on the Psalms. This early part of Luther's career was one of his most creative and productive.[37] Three of his best-known works were published in 1520: To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, and On the Freedom of a Christian.
Justification by faith[link]
Main article: Sola fide
From 1510 to 1520, Luther lectured on the Psalms, the books of Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians. As he studied these portions of the Bible, he came to view the use of terms such as penance and righteousness by the Catholic Church in new ways. He became convinced that the church was corrupt in its ways and had lost sight of what he saw as several of the central truths of Christianity. The most important for Luther was the doctrine of justification – God's act of declaring a sinner righteous – by faith alone through God's grace. He began to teach that salvation or redemption is a gift of God's grace, attainable only through faith in Jesus as the Messiah.[38] "This one and firm rock, which we call the doctrine of justification," he wrote, "is the chief article of the whole Christian doctrine, which comprehends the understanding of all godliness."[39]
Luther came to understand justification as entirely the work of God. This teaching by Luther was clearly expressed in his 1525 publication On the Bondage of the Will, which was written in response to On Free Will by Desiderius Erasmus (1524). Luther based his position on Predestination on St. Paul's epistle to the Ephesians 2:8–10. Against the teaching of his day that the righteous acts of believers are performed in cooperation with God, Luther wrote that Christians receive such righteousness entirely from outside themselves; that righteousness not only comes from Christ but actually is the righteousness of Christ, imputed to Christians (rather than infused into them) through faith.[40] "That is why faith alone makes someone just and fulfills the law," he wrote. "Faith is that which brings the Holy Spirit through the merits of Christ."[41] Faith, for Luther, was a gift from God; the experience of being justified by faith was "as though I had been born again." His entry into Paradise, no less, was a discovery about "the righteousness of God" – a discovery that "the just person" of whom the Bible speaks (as in Romans 1:17) lives by faith.[42] He explained his concept of "justification" in the Smalcald Articles:
The first and chief article is this: Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and was raised again for our justification (Romans 3:24–25). He alone is the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29), and God has laid on Him the iniquity of us all (Isaiah 53:6). All have sinned and are justified freely, without their own works and merits, by His grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3:23–25). This is necessary to believe. This cannot be otherwise acquired or grasped by any work, law or merit. Therefore, it is clear and certain that this faith alone justifies us ... Nothing of this article can be yielded or surrendered, even though heaven and earth and everything else falls (Mark 13:31).[43]
Breach with the papacy[link]
Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz and Magdeburg did not reply to Luther's letter containing the 95 Theses. He had the theses checked for heresy and in December 1517 forwarded them to Rome.[44] He needed the revenue from the indulgences to pay off a papal dispensation for his tenure of more than one bishopric. As Luther later noted, "the pope had a finger in the pie as well, because one half was to go to the building of St Peter's Church in Rome".[45]
Pope Leo X was used to reformers and heretics,[46] and he responded slowly, "with great care as is proper."[47] Over the next three years he deployed a series of papal theologians and envoys against Luther, which served only to harden the reformer's anti-papal theology. First, the Dominican theologian Sylvester Mazzolini drafted a heresy case against Luther, whom Leo then summoned to Rome. The Elector Frederick persuaded the pope to have Luther examined at Augsburg, where the Imperial Diet was held.[48] There, in October 1518, Luther informed the papal legate Cardinal Cajetan that he did not consider the papacy part of the biblical Church, and the hearings degenerated into a shouting match. More than his writing the 95 Theses, Luther's confrontation of the church cast him as an enemy of the pope.[49] Cajetan's original instructions had been to arrest Luther if he failed to recant, but he lacked the means in Augsburg, where the Elector guaranteed Luther's security.[50] Luther slipped out of the city at night, without leave from Cajetan.[51]
In January 1519, at Altenburg in Saxony, the papal nuncio Karl von Miltitz adopted a more conciliatory approach. Luther made certain concessions to the Saxon, who was a relative of the Elector, and promised to remain silent if his opponents did.[52] The theologian Johann Maier von Eck, however, was determined to expose Luther's doctrine in a public forum. In June and July 1519, he staged a disputation with Luther's colleague Andreas Karlstadt at Leipzig and invited Luther to speak.[53] Luther's boldest assertion in the debate was that Matthew 16:18 does not confer on popes the exclusive right to interpret scripture, and that therefore neither popes nor church councils were infallible.[54] For this, Eck branded Luther a new Jan Hus, referring to the Czech reformer and heretic burned at the stake in 1415. From that moment, he devoted himself to Luther's defeat.[55]
Excommunication[link]
On 15 June 1520, the Pope warned Luther with the papal bull (edict) Exsurge Domine that he risked excommunication unless he recanted 41 sentences drawn from his writings, including the 95 Theses, within 60 days. That autumn, Johann Eck proclaimed the bull in Meissen and other towns. Karl von Miltitz, a papal nuncio, attempted to broker a solution, but Luther, who had sent the Pope a copy of On the Freedom of a Christian in October, publicly set fire to the bull and decretals at Wittenberg on 10 December 1520,[56] an act he defended in Why the Pope and his Recent Book are Burned and Assertions Concerning All Articles. As a consequence, Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X on 3 January 1521, in the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem.
Diet of Worms[link]
Main article: Diet of Worms
The enforcement of the ban on the 95 Theses fell to the secular authorities. On 18 April 1521, Luther appeared as ordered before the Diet of Worms. This was a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire that took place in Worms, a town on the Rhine. It was conducted from 28 January to 25 May 1521, with Emperor Charles V presiding. Prince Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, obtained a safe conduct for Luther to and from the meeting.
Johann Eck, speaking on behalf of the Empire as assistant of the Archbishop of Trier, presented Luther with copies of his writings laid out on a table and asked him if the books were his, and whether he stood by their contents. Luther confirmed he was their author, but requested time to think about the answer to the second question. He prayed, consulted friends, and gave his response the next day:
Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by clear reason (for I do not trust either in the pope or in councils alone, since it is well known that they have often erred and contradicted themselves), I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. May God help me. Amen.[57]
Luther is sometimes also quoted as saying: "Here I stand. I can do no other". Recent scholars consider the evidence for these words to be unreliable, since they were inserted before "May God help me" only in later versions of the speech and not recorded in witness accounts of the proceedings.[58]
Over the next five days, private conferences were held to determine Luther's fate. The Emperor presented the final draft of the Diet of Worms on 25 May 1521, declaring Luther an outlaw, banning his literature, and requiring his arrest: "We want him to be apprehended and punished as a notorious heretic."[59] It also made it a crime for anyone in Germany to give Luther food or shelter. It permitted anyone to kill Luther without legal consequence.
At Wartburg Castle[link]
Luther's disappearance during his return trip was planned. Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, had him intercepted on his way home by masked horsemen and escorted to the security of the Wartburg Castle at Eisenach.[60] During his stay at Wartburg, which he referred to as "my Patmos",[61] Luther translated the New Testament from Greek into German and poured out doctrinal and polemical writings. These included a renewed attack on Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz, whom he shamed into halting the sale of indulgences in his episcopates,[62] and a "Refutation of the Argument of Latomus," in which he expounded the principle of justification to Jacobus Latomus, an orthodox theologian from Louvain.[63]
In this work, one of his most emphatic statements on faith, he argued that every good work designed to attract God's favor is a sin.[64] All humans are sinners by nature, he explained, and God's grace, which cannot be earned, alone can make them just. On 1 August 1521, Luther wrote to Melanchthon on the same theme: "Be a sinner, and let your sins be strong, but let your trust in Christ be stronger, and rejoice in Christ who is the victor over sin, death, and the world. We will commit sins while we are here, for this life is not a place where justice resides."[65]
In the summer of 1521, Luther widened his target from individual pieties like indulgences and pilgrimages to doctrines at the heart of Church practices. In On the Abrogation of the Private Mass, he condemned as idolatry the idea that the mass is a sacrifice, asserting instead that it is a gift, to be received with thanksgiving by the whole congregation.[66] His essay On Confession, Whether the Pope has the Power to Require It rejected compulsory confession and encouraged private confession and absolution, since "every Christian is a confessor."[67] In November, Luther wrote The Judgement of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows. He assured monks and nuns that they could break their vows without sin, because vows were an illegitimate and vain attempt to win salvation.[68]
Luther made his pronouncements from Wartburg in the context of rapid developments at Wittenberg, of which he was kept fully informed. Andreas Karlstadt, supported by the ex-Augustinian Gabriel Zwilling, embarked on a radical programme of reform there in June 1521, exceeding anything envisaged by Luther. The reforms provoked disturbances, including a revolt by the Augustinian monks against their prior, the smashing of statues and images in churches, and denunciations of the magistracy. After secretly visiting Wittenberg in early December 1521, Luther wrote A Sincere Admonition by Martin Luther to All Christians to Guard Against Insurrection and Rebellion.[69] Wittenberg became even more volatile after Christmas when a band of visionary zealots, the so-called Zwickau prophets, arrived, preaching revolutionary doctrines such as the equality of man, adult baptism, and Christ's imminent return.[70] When the town council asked Luther to return, he decided it was his duty to act.[71]
Return to Wittenberg[link]
See also: Radical Reformation
Luther secretly returned to Wittenberg on 6 March 1522. "During my absence," he wrote to the Elector, "Satan has entered my sheepfold, and committed ravages which I cannot repair by writing, but only by my personal presence and living word."[72] For eight days in Lent, beginning on Invocavit Sunday, 9 March, Luther preached eight sermons, which became known as the "Invocavit Sermons." In these sermons, he hammered home the primacy of core Christian values such as love, patience, charity, and freedom, and reminded the citizens to trust God's word rather than violence to bring about necessary change.[73]
Do you know what the Devil thinks when he sees men use violence to propagate the gospel? He sits with folded arms behind the fire of hell, and says with malignant looks and frightful grin: "Ah, how wise these madmen are to play my game! Let them go on; I shall reap the benefit. I delight in it." But when he sees the Word running and contending alone on the battle-field, then he shudders and shakes for fear.[74]
The effect of Luther's intervention was immediate. After the sixth sermon, the Wittenberg jurist Jerome Schurf wrote to the elector: "Oh, what joy has Dr. Martin’s return spread among us! His words, through divine mercy, are bringing back every day misguided people into the way of the truth."[74]
Luther next set about reversing or modifying the new church practices. By working alongside the authorities to restore public order, he signalled his reinvention as a conservative force within the Reformation.[75] After banishing the Zwickau prophets, he now faced a battle against not only the established Church but also the radical reformers who threatened the new order by fomenting social unrest and violence.[76]
Peasants' War[link]
Main article: German Peasants' War
Despite his victory in Wittenberg, Luther was unable to stifle radicalism further afield. Preachers such as Zwickau prophet Nicholas Storch and Thomas Müntzer helped instigate the German Peasants' War of 1524–25, during which many atrocities were committed, often in Luther's name. There had been revolts by the peasantry on a smaller scale since the 15th century.[77] Luther's pamphlets against the Church and the hierarchy, often worded with "liberal" phraseology, now led many peasants to believe he would support an attack on the upper classes in general.[78] Revolts broke out in Franconia, Swabia, and Thuringia in 1524, even drawing support from disaffected nobles, many of whom were in debt. Gaining momentum under the leadership of radicals such as Müntzer in Thuringia and Michael Gaismair in Tyrol, the revolts turned into war.[79]
Luther sympathised with some of the peasants' grievances, as he showed in his response to the Twelve Articles in May 1525, but he reminded the aggrieved to obey the temporal authorities.[80] During a tour of Thuringia, he became enraged at the widespread burning of convents, monasteries, bishops’ palaces, and libraries. In Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants, written on his return to Wittenberg, he gave his interpretation of the Gospel teaching on wealth, condemned the violence as the devil's work, and called for the nobles to put down the rebels like mad dogs:
Therefore let everyone who can, smite, slay, and stab, secretly or openly, remembering that nothing can be more poisonous, hurtful, or devilish than a rebel ... For baptism does not make men free in body and property, but in soul; and the gospel does not make goods common, except in the case of those who, of their own free will, do what the apostles and disciples did in Acts 4 [:32–37]. They did not demand, as do our insane peasants in their raging, that the goods of others—of Pilate and Herod—should be common, but only their own goods. Our peasants, however, want to make the goods of other men common, and keep their own for themselves. Fine Christians they are! I think there is not a devil left in hell; they have all gone into the peasants. Their raving has gone beyond all measure.[81]
Luther justified his opposition to the rebels on three grounds. First, in choosing violence over lawful submission to the secular government, they were ignoring Christ's counsel to "Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's"; St. Paul had written in his epistle to the Romans 13:1–7 that all authorities are appointed by God and therefore should not be resisted. This reference from the Bible forms the foundation for the doctrine known as the Divine Right of Kings, or, in the German case, the divine right of the princes. Second, the violent actions of rebelling, robbing, and plundering placed the peasants "outside the law of God and Empire," so they deserved "death in body and soul, if only as highwaymen and murderers." Lastly, Luther charged the rebels with blasphemy for calling themselves "Christian brethren" and committing their sinful acts under the banner of the Gospel.[82]
Without Luther's backing for the uprising, many rebels laid down their weapons; others felt betrayed. Their defeat by the Swabian League at the Battle of Frankenhausen on 15 May 1525, followed by Müntzer’s execution, brought the revolutionary stage of the Reformation to a close.[83] Thereafter, radicalism found a refuge in the anabaptist movement and other sects, while Luther's Reformation flourished under the wing of the secular powers.[84]
Marriage[link]
Martin Luther married Katharina von Bora, one of 12 nuns he had helped escape from the Nimbschen Cistercian convent in April 1523, when he arranged for them to be smuggled out in herring barrels.[85] "Suddenly, and while I was occupied with far different thoughts," he wrote to Wenceslaus Link, "the Lord has plunged me into marriage."[86] Katherina was 26 years old, Luther was 41 years old.
On 13 June 1525, the couple was engaged with Johannes Bugenhagen, Justus Jonas, Johannes Apel, Philipp Melanchthon and Lucas Cranach the Elder and his wife as witnesses.[87] On the evening of the same day, the couple was married by Bugenhagen.[87] The ceremonial walk to the church and the wedding banquet were left out, and were made up two weeks later on 27 June.[87]
Some priests and former monks had already married, including Andreas Karlstadt and Justus Jonas, but Luther's wedding set the seal of approval on clerical marriage.[88] He had long condemned vows of celibacy on Biblical grounds, but his decision to marry surprised many, not least Melanchthon, who called it reckless.[89] Luther had written to George Spalatin on 30 November 1524, "I shall never take a wife, as I feel at present. Not that I am insensible to my flesh or sex (for I am neither wood nor stone); but my mind is averse to wedlock because I daily expect the death of a heretic."[90] Before marrying, Luther had been living on the plainest food, and, as he admitted himself, his mildewed bed was not properly made for months at a time.[91]
Luther and his wife moved into a former monastery, "The Black Cloister," a wedding present from the new elector John the Steadfast (1525–32). They embarked on what appeared to have been a happy and successful marriage, though money was often short.[92] Between bearing six children, Hans – June 1526; Elizabeth – 10 December 1527, who died within a few months; Magdalene – 1529, who died in Luther's arms in 1542; Martin – 1531; Paul – January 1533; and Margaret – 1534. Katharina helped the couple earn a living by farming the land and taking in boarders.[93] Luther confided to Michael Stiefel on 11 August 1526: "My Katie is in all things so obliging and pleasing to me that I would not exchange my poverty for the riches of Croesus."[94]
Organising the church[link]
By 1526, Luther found himself increasingly occupied in organising a new church. His Biblical ideal of congregations' choosing their own ministers had proved unworkable.[95] According to Bainton: "Luther's dilemma was that he wanted both a confessional church based on personal faith and experience and a territorial church including all in a given locality. If he were forced to choose, he would take his stand with the masses, and this was the direction in which he moved."[96] From 1525 to 1529, he established a supervisory church body, laid down a new form of worship service, and wrote a clear summary of the new faith in the form of two catechisms.
To avoid confusing or upsetting the people, Luther avoided extreme change. He also did not wish to replace one controlling system with another. He concentrated on the church in the Electorate of Saxony, acting only as an adviser to churches in new territories, many of which followed his Saxon model. He worked closely with the new elector, John the Steadfast, to whom he turned for secular leadership and funds on behalf of a church largely shorn of its assets and income after the break with Rome.[97] For Luther's biographer Martin Brecht, this partnership "was the beginning of a questionable and originally unintended development towards a church government under the temporal sovereign".[98] The elector authorised a visitation of the church, a power formerly exercised by bishops.[99] At times, Luther's practical reforms fell short of his earlier radical pronouncements. For example, the Instructions for the Visitors of Parish Pastors in Electoral Saxony (1528), drafted by Melanchthon with Luther's approval, stressed the role of repentance in the forgiveness of sins, despite Luther's position that faith alone ensures justification.[100] The Eisleben reformer Johannes Agricola challenged this compromise, and Luther condemned him for teaching that faith is separate from works.[101] The Instruction is a problematic document for those seeking a consistent evolution in Luther's thought and practice.[102]
In response to demands for a German liturgy, Luther wrote a German Mass, which he published in early 1526.[103] He did not intend it as a replacement for his 1523 adaptation of the Latin Mass but as an alternative for the "simple people", a "public stimulation for people to believe and become Christians."[104] Luther based his order on the Catholic service but omitted "everything that smacks of sacrifice"; and the Mass became a celebration where everyone received the wine as well as the bread.[105] He retained the elevation of the host and chalice, while trappings such as the Mass vestments, altar, and candles were made optional, allowing freedom of ceremony.[106] Some reformers, including followers of Huldrych Zwingli, considered Luther's service too papistic; and modern scholars note the conservatism of his alternative to the Catholic mass.[107] Luther's service, however, included congregational singing of hymns and psalms in German, as well as of parts of the liturgy, including Luther's unison setting of the Creed.[108] To reach the simple people and the young, Luther incorporated religious instruction into the weekday services in the form of the catechism.[109] He also provided simplified versions of the baptism and marriage services.[110]
Luther and his colleagues introduced the new order of worship during their visitation of Electoral Saxony, which began in 1527.[111] They also assessed the standard of pastoral care and Christian education in the territory. "Merciful God, what misery I have seen," Luther wrote, "the common people knowing nothing at all of Christian doctrine ... and unfortunately many pastors are well-nigh unskilled and incapable of teaching."[112]
Catechisms[link]
Luther devised the catechism as a method of imparting the basics of Christianity to the congregations. In 1529, he wrote the Large Catechism, a manual for pastors and teachers, as well as a synopsis, the Small Catechism, to be memorised by the people themselves.[113] The catechisms provided easy-to-understand instructional and devotional material on the Ten Commandments, the Apostles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer, baptism, and the Lord's Supper.[114] Luther incorporated questions and answers in the catechism so that the basics of Christian faith would not just be learned by rote, "the way monkeys do it", but understood.[115]
The catechism is one of Luther's most personal works. "Regarding the plan to collect my writings in volumes," he wrote, "I am quite cool and not at all eager about it because, roused by a Saturnian hunger, I would rather see them all devoured. For I acknowledge none of them to be really a book of mine, except perhaps the Bondage of the Will and the Catechism."[116] The Small Catechism has earned a reputation as a model of clear religious teaching.[117] It remains in use today, along with Luther's hymns and his translation of the Bible.
Luther's Small Catechism proved especially effective in helping parents teach their children; likewise the Larger Catechism was effective for pastors.[118] Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. He rewrote each article of the Creed to express the character of the Father, the Son, or the Holy Spirit. Luther's goal was to enable the catechumens to see themselves as a personal object of the work of the three persons of the Trinity, each of which works in the catechumen's life. That is, Luther depicted the Trinity not as a doctrine to be learned, but as persons to be known. The Father creates, the Son redeems, and the Spirit sanctifies, a divine unity with separate personalities. Salvation originates with the Father and draws the believer to the Father. Luther's treatment of the Apostles Creed must be understood in the context of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) and the Lord's Prayer, which are also part of the Lutheran catechical teaching.[119]
Translation of the Bible[link]
Main article: Luther Bible
Luther had published his German translation of the New Testament in 1522, and he and his collaborators completed the translation of the Old Testament in 1534, when the whole Bible was published. He continued to work on refining the translation until the end of his life.[120] Others had translated the Bible into German, but Luther tailored his translation to his own doctrine.[121] When he was criticised for inserting the word "alone" after "faith" in Romans 3:28,[122] he replied in part: "[T]he text itself and the meaning of St. Paul urgently require and demand it. For in that very passage he is dealing with the main point of Christian doctrine, namely, that we are justified by faith in Christ without any works of the Law . . . But when works are so completely cut away – and that must mean that faith alone justifies – whoever would speak plainly and clearly about this cutting away of works will have to say, 'Faith alone justifies us, and not works'."[123]
Luther's translation used the variant of German spoken at the Saxon chancellery, intelligible to both northern and southern Germans.[124] He intended his vigorous, direct language to make the Bible accessible to everyday Germans, "for we are removing impediments and difficulties so that other people may read it without hindrance."[125]
Published at a time of rising demand for German-language publications, Luther's version quickly became a popular and influential Bible translation. As such, it made a significant contribution to the evolution of the German language and literature.[126] Furnished with notes and prefaces by Luther, and with woodcuts by Lucas Cranach that contained anti-papal imagery, it played a major role in the spread of Luther's doctrine throughout Germany.[127] The Luther Bible influenced other vernacular translations, such as William Tyndale's English Bible (1525 forward), a precursor of the King James Bible.[128]
Hymns[link]
File:EinFesteBurg.jpg
An early printing of Luther's hymn A Mighty Fortress Is Our God (Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott)
Luther was a prolific hymn-writer, authoring hymns such as Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott (A Mighty Fortress Is Our God), based on Psalm 46.[129] Luther connected high art and folk music, also all classes, clergy and laity, men, women and children. His device for this linking was the singing of German hymns in connection with worship, school, home, and the public arena.[130]
Luther's 1524 creedal hymn Wir glauben all an einen Gott (We All Believe in One True God) is a three-stanza confession of faith prefiguring Luther's 1529 three-part explanation of the Apostles' Creed in the Small Catechism. Luther's hymn, adapted and expanded from an earlier German creedal hymn, gained widespread use in vernacular Lutheran liturgies as early as 1525. Sixteenth-century Lutheran hymnals also included Wir glauben all among the catechetical hymns, although 18th-century hymnals tended to label the hymn as Trinitarian rather than catechetical, and 20th-century Lutherans rarely use the hymn because of the perceived difficulty of its tune.[130]
Luther's 1538 hymnic version of the Lord's Prayer, Vater unser im Himmelreich, corresponds exactly to Luther's explanation of the prayer in the Small Catechism, with one stanza for each of the seven prayer petitions, plus opening and closing stanzas. The hymn functioned both as a liturgical setting of the Lord's Prayer and as a means of examining candidates on specific catechism questions. The extant manuscript shows multiple revisions, demonstrating Luther's concern to clarify and strengthen the text and to provide an appropriately prayerful tune. Other 16th- and 20th-century versifications of the Lord's Prayer have adopted Luther's tune, although modern texts are considerably shorter.[131]
 |
The German text of Ein feste Burg (A Mighty Fortress) sung to the isometric, more widely known arrangement of its traditional melody.
|
| Problems listening to this file? See media help. | |
Luther wrote Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir (From depths of woe I cry to you) in 1523 as a hymnic version of Psalm 130 and sent it as a sample to encourage evangelical colleagues to write psalm-hymns for use in German worship. In a collaboration with Paul Speratus, this and seven more hymns were published in the first Lutheran hymnal, also called Achtliederbuch. In 1524 Luther developed his original four-stanza psalm paraphrase into a five-stanza Reformation hymn that developed the theme of "grace alone" more fully. Because it expressed essential Reformation doctrine, this expanded version of Aus tiefer Not was designated as a regular component of several regional Lutheran liturgies and was widely used at funerals, including Luther's own. Along with Erhart Hegenwalt's hymnic version of Psalm 51, Luther's expanded hymn was also adopted for use with the fifth part of Luther's catechism, concerning confession.[132]
Luther's 1540 hymn Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam (To Jordan came the Christ our Lord) reflects the structure and substance of his questions and answers concerning baptism in the Small Catechism. Luther adopted a preexisting Johann Walter tune associated with a hymnic setting of Psalm 67's prayer for grace; Wolf Heintz's four-part setting of the hymn was used to introduce the Lutheran Reformation in Halle in 1541. Preachers and composers of the 18th century, including J. S. Bach, used this rich hymn as a subject for their own work, although its objective baptismal theology was displaced by more subjective hymns under the influence of late-19th-century Lutheran pietism.[130]
Luther wrote Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein (Oh God, look down from heaven). He wrote Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland (Now come, Savior of the gentiles) based on Veni redemptor gentium. It became the main hymn (Hauptlied) for Advent. He transformed A solus ortus cardine to Christum wir sollen loben schon (We should now praise Christ) and Veni creator spiritus to Komm, Gott Schöpfer, Heiliger Geist (Come, Holy Spirit, Lord God).[133] He wrote two hymns on the Ten Commandments, Dies sind die heilgen Zehn Gebot and Mensch, willst du leben seliglich. His Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ (Praise be to You, Jesus Christ) became the main hymn for Christmas. He wrote for Pentecost Nun bitten wir den Heiligen Geist and for Easter Christ ist erstanden (Christ is risen), based on Victimae paschali laudes.
Luther's hymns inspired composers to write music. Johann Sebastian Bach included several verses as chorales in his cantatas and based chorale cantatas entirely on them, namely Christ lag in Todes Banden, BWV 4, as early as possibly 1707, in his second annual cycle (1724 to 1725) Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein, BWV 2, Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam, BWV 7, Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BWV 62, Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ, BWV 91, and Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir, BWV 38, later Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, BWV 80, and in 1735 Wär Gott nicht mit uns diese Zeit, BWV 14.
Sacramentarian controversy and the Marburg Colloquy[link]
In October 1529, Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, convoked an assembly of German and Swiss theologians at the Marburg Colloquy, to establish doctrinal unity in the emerging Protestant states.[134] Agreement was achieved on fourteen points out of fifteen, the exception being the nature of the Eucharist – the sacrament of the Lord's Supper—an issue crucial to Luther.[135]
The theologians, including Zwingli, Melanchthon, Martin Bucer, and Johannes Oecolampadius, differed on the significance of the words spoken by Jesus at the Last Supper: "This is my body which is for you" and "This cup is the new covenant in my blood" (1 Corinthians 11:23–26).[136] Luther insisted on the Real Presence of the body and blood of Christ in the consecrated bread and wine, which he called the sacramental union,[137] while his opponents believed God to be only spiritually or symbolically present.[138] Zwingli, for example, denied Jesus's ability to be in more than one place at a time but Luther stressed the omnipresence of his human nature.[139] According to transcripts, the debate sometimes became confrontational. Citing Jesus's words "The flesh profiteth nothing" (John 6.63), Zwingli said, "This passage breaks your neck". "Don't be too proud," Luther retorted, "German necks don't break that easily. This is Hesse, not Switzerland."[140] On his table Luther wrote the words "Hoc est corpus meum" ("This is my body") in chalk, to continually indicate his firm stance.[141]
Despite the disagreements on the Eucharist, the Marburg Colloquy paved the way for the signing in 1530 of the Augsburg Confession, and for the formation of the Schmalkaldic League the following year by leading Protestant nobles such as John of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, and George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach. The Swiss cities, however, did not sign these agreements.[142]
On the soul after death[link]
In contrast to the views of Calvin[143] and Melanchthon,[144] throughout his life Luther maintained that it was not false doctrine to believe that a Christian's soul sleeps after it is separated from the body in death;[145] and, accordingly, he disputed traditional interpretations of some Bible passages, such as the parable of the rich man and Lazarus.[146] This also led Luther to reject the idea of torments for the saints: "It is enough for us to know that souls do not leave their bodies to be threatened by the torments and punishments of hell, but enter a prepared bedchamber in which they sleep in peace."[147] He also rejected the existence of Purgatory, which involved Christian souls undergoing penitential suffering after death.[148] He affirmed the continuity of one's personal identity beyond death. In his Smalcald Articles he described the saints as currently residing "in their graves and in heaven."[149]
The Lutheran theologian Franz Pieper observed that Luther's teaching about the state of the Christian's soul after death differed from the later Lutheran theologians such as Johann Gerhard.[150] Lessing (1755) had earlier reached the same conclusion in his analysis of Lutheran Orthodoxy on this issue.[151]
Luther's Commentary on Genesis contains a passage which concludes "...the soul does not sleep (anima non sic dormit), but wakes (sed vigilat) and experiences visions".[152] Francis Blackburne in 1765 argued that John Jortin misread this and other passages from Luther,[153] while Gottfried Fritschel pointed out in 1867 that it actually refers to the soul of a man "in this life" (homo enim in hac vita) tired from his daily labour (defatigus diurno labore) who at night enters his bedchamber (sub noctem intrat in cubiculum suum) and whose sleep is interrupted by dreams.[154]
Henry Eyster Jacobs' English translation from 1898 reads:
- "Nevertheless, the sleep of this life and that of the future life differ; for in this life, man, fatigued by his daily labour, at nightfall goes to his couch, as in peace, to sleep there, and enjoys rest; nor does he know anything of evil, whether of fire or of murder."[155]
On Islam[link]
Further information: Protestantism and Islam
At the time of the Marburg Colloquy, Suleiman the Magnificent was besieging Vienna with a vast Ottoman army.[156] Luther had argued against resisting the Turks in his 1518 Explanation of the Ninety-five Theses, provoking accusations of defeatism. He saw the Turks as a scourge sent to punish Christians by God, as agents of the Biblical apocalypse that would destroy the antichrist, whom Luther believed to be the papacy, and the Roman Church.[157] He consistently rejected the idea of a Holy War, "as though our people were an army of Christians against the Turks, who were enemies of Christ. This is absolutely contrary to Christ's doctrine and name".[158] On the other hand, in keeping with his doctrine of the two kingdoms, Luther did support non-religious war against the Turks.[159] In 1526, he argued in Whether Soldiers can be in a State of Grace that national defence is reason for a just war.[160] By 1529, in On War against the Turk, he was actively urging Emperor Charles V and the German people to fight a secular war against the Turks.[161] He made clear, however, that the spiritual war against an alien faith was separate, to be waged through prayer and repentance.[162] Around the time of the Siege of Vienna, Luther wrote a prayer for national deliverance from the Turks, asking God to "give to our emperor perpetual victory over our enemies".[163]
In 1542, Luther read a Latin translation of the Qur'an.[164] He went on to produce several critical pamphlets on Islam, which he called "Mohammedanism" or "the Turk".[165] Though Luther saw the Muslim faith as a tool of the devil, he was indifferent to its practice: "Let the Turk believe and live as he will, just as one lets the papacy and other false Christians live."[166] He opposed banning the publication of the Qur'an, wanting it exposed to scrutiny.[167]
Augsburg Confession[link]
Further information: Augsburg Confession and Apology of the Augsburg Confession
File:Augsburg Confession and Apology (first edition).jpg
First edition of the Augsburg Confession and Apology, 1531
Shaken by the Siege of Vienna, Charles V convened the Imperial Diet at Augsburg in 1530, aiming to unite the empire against the Turks.[168] To achieve this, he needed first to resolve the religious controversies in his lands, "considering with love and kindness the views of everybody".[169] He asked for a statement of the evangelical case, and one was duly devised by Luther, Melanchthon, and their colleagues at Wittenberg. Melanchthon drafted the document, known as the Augsburg Confession, and travelled with the elector's party to Augsburg, where it was read to the emperor and diet on 25 June 1530.[170] (Luther was left behind at the Coburg fortress in southern Saxony because he remained under the imperial ban and lacked a safe-conduct to attend the diet.[171]) Luther's writings during his 165 days at Coburg, including the Exhortation to all Clergy Assembled at Augsburg, show that, unlike Melanchthon, he was set against making concessions.[172]
Despite the Confession's avoidance of strident language or abuse of the pope, the diet rejected it on 22 September and ordered the reformers to renounce heresy and submit to the control of the Roman Catholic Church by the following April or face the imperial army.[173] That decision confirmed Luther's belief that the mission had been futile. It prompted the Lutheran princes to form a military alliance, the Schmalkaldic League, which Luther cautiously supported on grounds of self-defence in his Warning to His Dear German People of 1531.[174] The Augsburg Confession had become the statement of faith on which Lutherans were prepared to stand or fall. Though a modification of Luther's own position, it nevertheless is regarded as the first Lutheran treatise.[175]
Depiction of Luther[link]
In the 1530s and 1540s, printed images of Luther that emphasized his monumental size were crucial to the spread of Protestantism. In contrast to images of frail Catholic saints, Luther was presented as a stout man with a "double chin, strong mouth, piercing deep-set eyes, fleshy face, and squat neck." He was shown to be physically imposing, an equal in stature to the secular German princes with whom he would join forces to spread Lutheranism. His large body also let the viewer know that he did not shun earthly pleasures like drinking or conjugal relations with his wife—behavior that was a stark contrast to the ascetic life of the medieval religious orders. Famous images from this period include the woodcuts by Hans Brosamer (1530) and Lucas Cranach the Elder and Lucas Cranach the Younger (1546).[176]
Antinomian controversy[link]
Early in 1537, Johannes Agricola (1494–1566) – serving at the time as pastor in Luther's birthplace, Eisleben – preached a sermon in which he claimed that God's gospel, not God's moral law (the Ten Commandments), revealed God's wrath to Christians. Based on this sermon and others by Agricola, Luther suspected that Agricola was behind certain anonymous antinomian theses circulating in Wittenberg. These theses asserted that the law is no longer to be taught to Christians but belonged only to city hall.[177] Luther responded to these theses with six series of theses against Agricola and the antinomians, four of which became the basis for disputations between 1538 and 1540.[178] He also responded to these assertions in other writings, such as his 1539 open letter to C. Güttel Against the Antinomians,[179] and his book On the Councils and the Church from the same year.[180]
In his theses and disputations against the antinomians, Luther reviews and reaffirms, on the one hand, what has been called the "second use of the law," that is, the law as the Holy Spirit's tool to work sorrow over sin in man's heart, thus preparing him for Christ's fulfillment of the law offered in the gospel.[181] Luther states that everything that is used to work sorrow over sin is called the law, even if it is Christ's life, Christ's death for sin, or God's goodness experienced in creation.[182] Simply refusing to preach the Ten Commandments among Christians – thereby, as it were, removing the three letters l-a-w from the church – does not eliminate the accusing law.[183] Claiming that the law – in any form – should not be preached to Christians anymore would be tantamount to asserting that Christians are no longer sinners in themselves and that the church consists only of essentially holy people.[184]
On the other hand, Luther also points out that the Ten Commandments – when considered not as God's condemning judgment but as an expression of his eternal will, that is, of the natural law – also positively teach how the Christian ought to live.[185] This has traditionally been called the "third use of the law."[186] For Luther, also Christ's life, when understood as an example, is nothing more than an illustration of the Ten Commandments, which a Christian should follow in his or her vocations on a daily basis.[187]
The Ten Commandments, and the beginnings of the renewed life of Christians accorded to them by the sacrament of baptism, are a present foreshadowing of the believers' future angel-like life in heaven in the midst of this life.[188] Luther's teaching of the Ten Commandments, therefore, has clear eschatological overtones, which, characteristically for Luther, do not encourage world-flight but direct the Christian to service to the neighbor in the common, daily vocations of this perishing world.
In the 20th century, there have been attempts to show that the "third use of the law" was a typical "Reformed" doctrine and that Luther himself never taught this,[189] but in light of Luther's disputations against the antinomians and other texts, this position cannot be maintained.[citation needed]
Bigamy of Philip of Hesse[link]
From December 1539, Luther became implicated in the bigamy of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, who wanted to marry one of his wife's ladies-in-waiting. Philip solicited the approval of Luther, Melanchthon, and Bucer, citing as a precedent the polygamy of the patriarchs. The theologians were not prepared to make a general ruling, and they reluctantly advised the landgrave that if he was determined, he should marry secretly and keep quiet about the matter.[190] As a result, on 4 March 1540, Philip married a second wife, Margarethe von der Sale, with Melanchthon and Bucer among the witnesses. However, Philip was unable to keep the marriage secret, and he threatened to make Luther's advice public. Luther told him to "tell a good, strong lie" and deny the marriage completely, which Philip did during the subsequent public controversy.[191] In the view of Luther's biographer Martin Brecht, "giving confessional advice for Philip of Hesse was one of the worst mistakes Luther made, and, next to the landgrave himself, who was directly responsible for it, history chiefly holds Luther accountable".[192] Brecht argues that Luther's mistake was not that he gave private pastoral advice, but that he miscalculated the political implications.[193] The affair caused lasting damage to Luther's reputation.[194]
Anti-Judaism and antisemitism[link]
Main article: Martin Luther and antisemitism
Luther wrote about the Jews throughout his career, though only a few of his works dealt with them directly.[195] Luther rarely encountered Jews during his life, but his attitudes reflected a theological and cultural tradition which saw Jews as a rejected people guilty of the murder of Christ, and he lived within a local community that had expelled Jews some ninety years earlier.[196] He considered the Jews blasphemers and liars because they rejected the divinity of Jesus, whereas Christians believed Jesus was the Messiah.[197] At the same time, Luther believed that all human beings who set themselves against God shared one and the same guilt.[198] As early as 1516, Luther wrote, "...[M]any people are proud with marvelous stupidity when they call the Jews dogs, evildoers, or whatever they like, while they too, and equally, do not realize who or what they are in the sight of God".[199] In 1523, Luther advised kindness toward the Jews in That Jesus Christ was Born a Jew, but only with the aim of converting them to Christianity.[200] When his efforts at conversion failed, he grew increasingly bitter toward them.[201]
Luther's other major works on the Jews were his 60,000-word treatise Von den Juden und Ihren Lügen (On the Jews and Their Lies), and Vom Schem Hamphoras und vom Geschlecht Christi (On the Holy Name and the Lineage of Christ), both published in 1543, three years before his death.[202] Luther argued that the Jews were no longer the chosen people but "the devil's people": he referred to them with violent, vile language.[203][204] Luther advocated setting synagogues on fire, destroying Jewish prayerbooks, forbidding rabbis from preaching, seizing Jews' property and money, and smashing up their homes, so that these "poisonous envenomed worms" would be forced into labour or expelled "for all time".[205] In Robert Michael's view, Luther's words "We are at fault in not slaying them" amounted to a sanction for murder.[206] Luther's "recommendations" for how to treat the Jews was a clear reference to the "sharp mercy" of Deuteronomy 13, the punishments prescribed by Moses for those who led others to "false gods".[207]
Luther spoke out against the Jews in Saxony, Brandenburg, and Silesia.[208] Josel of Rosheim, the Jewish spokesman who tried to help the Jews of Saxony in 1537, later blamed their plight on "that priest whose name was Martin Luther—may his body and soul be bound up in hell!—who wrote and issued many heretical books in which he said that whoever would help the Jews was doomed to perdition."[209] Josel asked the city of Strasbourg to forbid the sale of Luther's anti-Jewish works: they refused initially, but relented when a Lutheran pastor in Hochfelden used a sermon to urge his parishioners to murder Jews.[208] Luther's influence persisted after his death. Throughout the 1580s, riots led to the expulsion of Jews from several German Lutheran states.[210]
Luther was the most widely read author of his generation, and he acquired the status of a prophet within Germany.[211] According to the prevailing view among historians,[212] his anti-Jewish rhetoric contributed significantly to the development of antisemitism in Germany,[213] and in the 1930s and 1940s provided an "ideal underpinning" for the Nazis' attacks on Jews.[214] Reinhold Lewin writes that "whoever wrote against the Jews for whatever reason believed he had the right to justify himself by triumphantly referring to Luther." According to Michael, just about every anti-Jewish book printed in the Third Reich contained references to and quotations from Luther. Heinrich Himmler wrote admiringly of his writings and sermons on the Jews in 1940.[215] The city of Nuremberg presented a first edition of On the Jews and their Lies to Julius Streicher, editor of the Nazi newspaper Der Stürmer, on his birthday in 1937; the newspaper described it as the most radically anti-Semitic tract ever published.[216] It was publicly exhibited in a glass case at the Nuremberg rallies and quoted in a 54-page explanation of the Aryan Law by Dr. E.H. Schulz and Dr. R. Frercks.[217] On 17 December 1941, seven Protestant regional church confederations issued a statement agreeing with the policy of forcing Jews to wear the yellow badge, "since after his bitter experience Luther had already suggested preventive measures against the Jews and their expulsion from German territory." According to Daniel Goldhagen, Bishop Martin Sasse, a leading Protestant churchman, published a compendium of Luther's writings shortly after Kristallnacht, for which Diarmaid MacCulloch, Professor of the History of the Church in the University of Oxford argued that Luther's writing was a "blueprint."[218] Sasse applauded the burning of the synagogues and the coincidence of the day, writing in the introduction, "On 10 November 1938, on Luther's birthday, the synagogues are burning in Germany." The German people, he urged, ought to heed these words "of the greatest antisemite of his time, the warner of his people against the Jews."[219] According to Professor Dick Geary, the Nazis won a larger share of the vote in Protestant than in Catholic areas of Germany in elections of 1928 to November 1932.[220]
At the heart of scholars' debate about Luther's influence is whether it is anachronistic to view his work as a precursor of the racial antisemitism of the Nazis. Some scholars see Luther's influence as limited, and the Nazis' use of his work as opportunistic. Biographer Martin Brecht points out that "There is a world of difference between his belief in salvation and a racial ideology. Nevertheless, his misguided agitation had the evil result that Luther fatefully became one of the 'church fathers' of anti-Semitism and thus provided material for the modern hatred of the Jews, cloaking it with the authority of the Reformer."[221] Johannes Wallmann argues that Luther's writings against the Jews were largely ignored in the 18th and 19th centuries, and that there was no continuity between Luther's thought and Nazi ideology.[222] Uwe Siemon-Netto agreed, arguing that it was because the Nazis were already anti-Semites that they revived Luther's work.[223][224] Hans J. Hillerbrand agreed that to focus on Luther was to adopt an essentially ahistorical perspective of Nazi antisemitism that ignored other contributory factors in German history.[225] Similarly, Roland Bainton, noted church historian and Luther biographer, wrote "One could wish that Luther had died before ever [On the Jews and Their Lies] was written. His position was entirely religious and in no respect racial."[226][227]
Other scholars argue that, even if his views were merely anti-Judaic, their violence lent a new element to the standard Christian suspicion of Judaism. Ronald Berger writes that Luther is credited with "Germanizing the Christian critique of Judaism and establishing anti-Semitism as a key element of German culture and national identity."[228] Paul Rose argues that he caused a "hysterical and demonizing mentality" about Jews to enter German thought and discourse, a mentality that might otherwise have been absent.[229]
Since the 1980s, Lutheran Church denominations have repudiated Martin Luther's statements against the Jews and have rejected the use of them to incite hatred against Lutherans.[230][231]
Final years and death[link]
Luther had been suffering from ill health for years, including Ménière's disease, vertigo, fainting, tinnitus, and a cataract in one eye.[232] From 1531 to 1546, his health deteriorated further. The years of struggle with Rome, the antagonisms with and among his fellow reformers, and the scandal which ensued from the bigamy of the Philip of Hesse incident, in which Luther had played a leading role, all may have contributed. In 1536, he began to suffer from kidney and bladder stones, and arthritis, and an ear infection ruptured an ear drum. In December 1544, he began to feel the effects of angina.[233]
His poor physical health made him short-tempered and even harsher in his writings and comments. His wife Katharina was overheard saying, "Dear husband, you are too rude," and he responded, "They are teaching me to be rude."[234] In 1545 and 1546 Luther preached three times in the Market Church in Halle, staying with his friend Justus Jonas during Christmas.[235]
File:Luthertombstoneunderaltar.jpg
Luther's tombstone in the Castle Church in Wittenberg.
His last sermon was delivered at Eisleben, his place of birth, on 15 February 1546, three days before his death.[236] It was "entirely devoted to the obdurate Jews, whom it was a matter of great urgency to expel from all German territory," according to Léon Poliakov.[237] James Mackinnon writes that it concluded with a "fiery summons to drive the Jews bag and baggage from their midst, unless they desisted from their calumny and their usury and became Christians."[238] Luther said, "we want to practice Christian love toward them and pray that they convert," but also that they are "our public enemies ... and if they could kill us all, they would gladly do so. And so often they do."[239]
Luther's final journey, to Mansfeld, was taken because of his concern for his siblings' families continuing in their father Hans Luther's copper mining trade. Their livelihood was threatened by Count Albrecht of Mansfeld bringing the industry under his own control. The controversy that ensued involved all four Mansfeld counts: Albrecht, Philip, John George, and Gerhard. Luther journeyed to Mansfeld twice in late 1545 to participate in the negotiations for a settlement, and a third visit was needed in early 1546 for their completion.
The negotiations were successfully concluded on 17 February 1546. After 8:00 pm, he experienced chest pains. When he went to his bed, he prayed, "Into your hand I commit my spirit; you have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God" (Ps. 31:5), the common prayer of the dying. At 1:00 am he awoke with more chest pain and was warmed with hot towels. He thanked God for revealing his Son to him in whom he had believed. His companions, Justus Jonas and Michael Coelius, shouted loudly, "Reverend father, are you ready to die trusting in your Lord Jesus Christ and to confess the doctrine which you have taught in his name?" A distinct "Yes" was Luther's reply.
File:Luther death-hand mask.jpg
Cast of Luther's face and hands at his death, in the Market Church in Halle[240]
An apoplectic stroke deprived him of his speech, and he died shortly afterwards at 2:45 a.m. on 18 February 1546, aged 62, in Eisleben, the city of his birth. He was buried in the Castle Church in Wittenberg, beneath the pulpit.[241] The funeral was held by his friends Johannes Bugenhagen and Philipp Melanchthon.[242] A year later, troops of Luther's adversary Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor entered the town, but were ordered by Charles not to disturb the grave.[242]
A piece of paper was later found on which Luther had written his last statement. The statement was in Latin, apart from "We are beggars," which was in German.
1. No one can understand Virgil's Bucolics unless he has been a shepherd for five years. No one can understand Virgil's Georgics, unless he has been a farmer for five years. 2. No one can understand Cicero's Letters (or so I teach), unless he has busied himself in the affairs of some prominent state for twenty years. 3. Know that no one can have indulged in the Holy Writers sufficiently, unless he has governed churches for a hundred years with the prophets, such as Elijah and Elisha, John the Baptist, Christ and the apostles. Do not assail this divine Aeneid; nay, rather prostrate revere the ground that it treads. We are beggars: this is true.[243][244]
Luther is honoured on 18 February with a commemoration in the Lutheran Calendar of Saints and a feast day in the Episcopal (United States) Calendar of Saints; in the Church of England's Calendar of Saints he is commemorated on 31 October.
Works and editions[link]
- The Erlangen Edition (Erlangener Ausgabe: "EA"), comprising the Exegetica opera latina – Latin exegetical works of Luther.
- The Weimar Edition (Weimarer Ausgabe) is the exhaustive, standard German edition of Luther's Latin and German works, indicated by the abbreviation "WA". This is continued into "WA Br" Weimarer Ausgabe, Briefwechsel (correspondence), "WA Tr" Weimarer Ausgabe, Tischreden (tabletalk) and "WA DB" Weimarer Ausgabe, Deutsche Bibel (German Bible).
- The American Edition (Luther's Works) is the most extensive English translation of Luther's writings, indicated either by the abbreviation "LW" or "AE". The first 55 volumes were published 1955-1986, and a twenty volume extension (vols. 56-75) is planned of which volumes 58, 60, and 68 have appeared thus far.
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ Plass, Ewald M. "Monasticism," in What Luther Says: An Anthology. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1959, 2:964.
- ^ Ewald M. Plass, What Luther Says, 3 vols., (St. Louis: CPH, 1959), 88, no. 269; M. Reu, Luther and the Scriptures, Columbus, Ohio: Wartburg Press, 1944), 23.
- ^ Luther, Martin. Concerning the Ministry (1523), tr. Conrad Bergendoff, in Bergendoff, Conrad (ed.) Luther's Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1958, 40:18 ff.
- ^ Fahlbusch, Erwin and Bromiley, Geoffrey William. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Leiden, Netherlands: Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999–2003, 1:244.
- ^ Tyndale's New Testament, trans. from the Greek by William Tyndale in 1534 in a modern-spelling edition and with an introduction by David Daniell. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989, ix–x.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 269.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, p. 223.
- ^ Hendrix, Scott H. "The Controversial Luther", Word & World 3/4 (1983), Luther Seminary, St. Paul, MN, p. 393: "And, finally, after the Holocaust and the use of his anti-Jewish statements by National Socialists, Luther's anti-semitic outbursts are now unmentionable, though they were already repulsive in the sixteenth century. As a result, Luther has become as controversial in the twentieth century as he was in the sixteenth." Also see Hillerbrand, Hans. "The legacy of Martin Luther", in Hillerbrand, Hans & McKim, Donald K. (eds.) The Cambridge Companion to Luther. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
- ^ a b c Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 1.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:3–5.
- ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 3.
- ^ Rupp, Ernst Gordon. "Martin Luther," Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 2006.
- ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, pp. 2–3.
- ^ a b Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 4.
- ^ a b c d Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 5.
- ^ a b c d Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 6.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:48.
- ^ Schwiebert, E.G. Luther and His Times. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1950, 136.
- ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 7.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 40–42.
- ^ Kittelson, James. Luther The Reformer. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986), 53.
- ^ Kittelson, James. Luther The Reformer. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986, 79.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 44–45.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:93.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:12–27.
- ^ "Johann Tetzel," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007: "Tetzel's experiences as a preacher of indulgences, especially between 1503 and 1510, led to his appointment as general commissioner by Albert, archbishop of Mainz, who, deeply in debt to pay for a large accumulation of benefices, had to contribute a considerable sum toward the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Albrecht obtained permission from Pope Leo X to conduct the sale of a special plenary indulgence (i.e., remission of the temporal punishment of sin), half of the proceeds of which Albrecht was to claim to pay the fees of his benefices. In effect, Tetzel became a salesman whose product was to cause a scandal in Germany that evolved into the greatest crisis (the Reformation) in the history of the Western church."
- ^ (Trent, l. c., can. xii: "Si quis dixerit, fidem justificantem nihil aliud esse quam fiduciam divinae misericordiae, peccata remittentis propter Christum, vel eam fiduciam solam esse, qua justificamur, a.s.")
- ^ (cf. Trent, Sess. VI, cap. iv, xiv)
- ^ a b Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther: Indulgences and salvation," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.
- ^ Thesis 55 of Tetzel's One Hundred and Six Theses. These "Anti-theses" were a reply to Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses and were drawn up by Tetzel’s friend and former Professor, Konrad Wimpina. Theses 55 & 56 (responding to Luther's 27th Theses) read: "For a soul to fly out, is for it to obtain the vision of God, which can be hindered by no interruption, therefore he errs who says that the soul cannot fly out before the coin can jingle in the bottom of the chest." In, The reformation in Germany, Henry Clay Vedder, 1914, Macmillon Company, p. 405. [1] Animam purgatam evolare, est eam visione dei potiri, quod nulla potest intercapedine impediri. Quisquis ergo dicit, non citius posse animam volare, quam in fundo cistae denarius possit tinnire, errat. In: D. Martini Lutheri, Opera Latina: Varii Argumenti, 1865, Henricus Schmidt, ed., Heyder and Zimmer, Frankfurt am Main & Erlangen, vol. 1, p. 300. (Print on demand edition: Nabu Press, 2010, ISBN 1-142-40551-6 ISBN 978-1-142-40551-9). [2] See also:
"Johann Tetzel". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. - ^ See Ludwig von Pastor, The History of the Popes, from the Close of the Middle Ages, Ralph Francis Kerr, ed., 1908, B. Herder, St. Louis, Volume 7, pp. 348–349. [3]
- ^ Krämer, Walter and Trenkler, Götz. "Luther," in Lexicon van Hardnekkige Misverstanden. Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, 1997, 214:216.
- ^ Ritter, Gerhard. "Luther, Frankfurt 1985.
- ^ Gerhard Prause "Luthers Thesanschlag ist eine Legende,"in Niemand hat Kolumbus ausgelacht. Düsseldorf, 1986.
- ^ Bekker, Henrik. "Dresden Leipzig & Saxony Adventure Guide". Hunter Publishing, Inc. p. 125. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=41aJOjMZ3nwC&pg=PT125#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:204–205.
- ^ Spitz, Lewis W. The Renaissance and Reformation Movements, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1987, 338.
- ^ Wriedt, Markus. "Luther's Theology," in The Cambridge Companion to Luther. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 88–94.
- ^ Bouman, Herbert J. A. "The Doctrine of Justification in the Lutheran Confessions", Concordia Theological Monthly, 26 November 1955, No. 11:801.
- ^ Dorman, Ted M., "Justification as Healing: The Little-Known Luther", Quodlibet Journal: Volume 2 Number 3, Summer 2000. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
- ^ "Luther's Definition of Faith". http://www.ProjectWittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/luther-faith.txt.
- ^ "Justification by Faith: The Lutheran-Catholic Convergence". http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=155.
- ^ Luther, Martin. "The Smalcald Articles," in Concordia: The Lutheran Confessions. Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2005, 289, Part two, Article 1.
- ^ Michael A. Mullett, Martin Luther, London: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 978-0-415-26168-5, 78; Oberman, Heiko, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-300-10313-1, 192–93.
- ^ Mullett, 68–69; Oberman, 189.
- ^ Richard Marius, Luther, London: Quartet, 1975, ISBN 0-7043-3192-6, 85.
- ^ Papal Bull Exsurge Domine, 15 June 1520.
- ^ Mullett, 81–82.
- ^ Mullett, 82.
- ^ Mullett, 83.
- ^ Oberman, 197.
- ^ Mullett, 92–95; Roland H. Bainton, Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther, New York: Mentor, 1955, OCLC 220064892, 81.
- ^ Marius, 87–89; Bainton, Mentor edition, 82.
- ^ Marius, 93; Bainton, Mentor edition, 90.
- ^ G. R. Elton, Reformation Europe: 1517–1559, London: Collins, 1963, OCLC 222872115, 177.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. (tr. Wolfgang Katenz) "Luther, Martin," in Hillerbrand, Hans J. (ed.) Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, 2:463.
- ^ Brecht, 1:460.
- ^ Wilson, 153, 170; Marius, 155.
- ^ Bratcher, Dennis. "The Diet of Worms (1521)," in The Voice: Biblical and Theological Resources for Growing Christians. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
- ^ Reformation Europe: 1517–1559, London: Fontana, 1963, 53; Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe's House Divided, 1490–1700, London: Allen Lane, 2003, 132.
- ^ Luther, Martin. "Letter 82," in Luther's Works. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald and Helmut T. Lehmann (eds), Vol. 48: Letters I, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1999, c1963, 48:246; Mullett, 133. John, author of Revelation, had been exiled on the island of Patmos.
- ^ Brecht, 2:12–14.
- ^ Mullett, 132, 134; Wilson, 182.
- ^ Brecht, 2:7–9; Marius, 161–62; Marty, 77–79.
- ^ Martin Luther, "Let Your Sins Be Strong," a Letter From Luther to Melanchthon, August 1521, Project Wittenberg, retrieved 1 October 2006.
- ^ Brecht, 2:27–29; Mullett, 133.
- ^ Brecht, 2:18–21.
- ^ Marius, 163–64.
- ^ Mullett, 135–36.
- ^ Wilson, 192–202; Brecht, 2:34–38.
- ^ Bainton, Mentor edition, 164–65.
- ^ Letter of 7 March 1522. Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch IV; Brecht, 2:57.
- ^ Brecht, 2:60; Bainton, Mentor edition, 165; Marius, 168–69.
- ^ a b Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch IV.
- ^ Marius, 169.
- ^ Mullett, 141–43.
- ^ Michael Hughes, Early Modern Germany: 1477–1806, London: Macmillan, 1992, ISBN 0-333-53774-2, 45.
- ^ A. G. Dickens, The German Nation and Martin Luther, London: Edward Arnold, 1974, ISBN 0-7131-5700-3, 132–33. Dickens cites as an example of Luther's "liberal" phraseology: "Therefore I declare that neither pope nor bishop nor any other person has the right to impose a syllable of law upon a Christian man without his own consent".
- ^ Hughes, 45–47.
- ^ Hughes, 50.
- ^ Jaroslav J. Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, Luther's Works, 55 vols. (St. Louis and Philadelphia: Concordia Pub. House and Fortress Press, 1955–1986), 46: 50–51.
- ^ Mullett, 166.
- ^ Hughes, 51.
- ^ Andrew Pettegree, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-20704-X, 102–103.
- ^ Wilson, 232.
- ^ Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch V, rpt. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 17 May 2009; Bainton, Mentor edition, 226.
- ^ a b c Scheible, Heinz (1997) (in German). Melanchthon. Eine Biographie. Munich: C.H.Beck. p. 147. ISBN 3-406-42223-3.
- ^ Lohse, Bernhard, Martin Luther: An Introduction to his Life and Work,, translated by Robert C. Schultz, Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1987, ISBN 0-567-09357-3, 32; Brecht, 2:196–97.
- ^ Brecht, 2:199; Wilson, 234; Lohse, 32.
- ^ Schaff, Philip. "Luther's Marriage. 1525.", History of the Christian Church, Volume VII, Modern Christianity, The German Reformation. § 77, rpt. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 17 May 2009; Mullett, 180–81.
- ^ Marty, 109; Bainton, Mentor edition, 226.
- ^ Brecht, 2: 202; Mullett, 182.
- ^ Oberman, 278–80; Wilson, 237; Marty, 110.
- ^ Bainton, Mentor edition, 228; Schaff, "Luther's Marriage. 1525."; Brecht, 2: 204.
- ^ MacCulloch, 164.
- ^ Bainton, Mentor edition, 243.
- ^ Brecht, 2:260–63, 67; Mullett, 184–86.
- ^ Brecht, 2:267; Bainton, Mentor edition, 244.
- ^ Brecht, 2:267; MacCulloch, 165. On one occasion, Luther referred to the elector as an "emergency bishop" (Notbischof).
- ^ Mullett, 186–87; Brecht, 2:264–65, 267.
- ^ Brecht, 2:264–65.
- ^ Brecht, 2:268.
- ^ Brecht, 2:251–54; Bainton, Mentor edition, 266.
- ^ Brecht, 2:255.
- ^ Mullett, 183; Eric W. Gritsch, A History of Lutheranism, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8006-3472-1, 37.
- ^ Brecht, 2:256; Mullett, 183.
- ^ Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 265–66.
- ^ Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 269–70.
- ^ Brecht, 2:256–57.
- ^ Brecht, 2:258.
- ^ Brecht, 2:263.
- ^ Mullett, 186. Quoted from Luther's preface to the Small Catechism, 1529; MacCulloch, 165.
- ^ Marty, 123.
- ^ Brecht, 2:273; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.
- ^ Marty, 123; Wilson, 278.
- ^ Luther, Martin. Luther's Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971, 50:172–73; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.
- ^ Brecht, 2:277, 280.
- ^ See texts at English translation
- ^ Charles P. Arand, "Luther on the Creed." Lutheran Quarterly 2006 20(1): 1–25. Issn: 0024-7499; James Arne Nestingen, "Luther's Catechisms" The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. Ed. Hans J. Hillerbrand. (1996)
- ^ Mullett, 145; Lohse, 119.
- ^ Mullett, 148–50.
- ^ Mullett, 148; Wilson, 185; Bainton, Mentor edition, 261. Luther inserted the word "alone" (allein) after the word "faith" in his translation of St Paul's Epistle to the Romans, 3:28. The clause is rendered in the English Authorised Version as "Therefore we conclude that a man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law".
- ^ Lindberg, Carter. "The European Reformations: Sourcebook". Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2000. pg. 49. Original sourcebook excerpt taken from "Luther's Works". St. Louis: Concordia/Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1955–86. ed. Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann, vol. 35. pgs. 182, 187–189, 195.
- ^ Wilson, 183; Brecht, 2:48–49.
- ^ Mullett, 149; Wilson, 302.
- ^ Marius, 162.
- ^ Lohse, 112–17; Wilson, 183; Bainton, Mentor edition, 258.
- ^ Daniel Weissbort and Astradur Eysteinsson (eds.), Translation—Theory and Practice: A Historical Reader, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-871200-6, 68.
- ^ For a short collection see online hymns
- ^ a b c Christopher Boyd Brown, Singing the Gospel: Lutheran Hymns and the Success of the Reformation. (2005)
- ^ Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns." Lutheran Quarterly 1998 12(1): 79–88, 89–98.
- ^ Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns: 5. Baptism." Lutheran Quarterly 1998 12(2): 160–169, 170–180.
- ^ Christoph Markschies, Michael Trowitzsch: Luther zwischen den Zeiten – Eine Jenaer Ringvorlesung; Mohr Siebeck, 1999; p. 215–219 (in German).
- ^ Mullett, 194–95.
- ^ Brecht, 2:325–34; Mullett, 197.
- ^ Wilson, 259.
- ^ Weimar Ausgabe 26, 442; Luther's Works 37, 299–300.
- ^ Oberman, 237.
- ^ Marty, 140–41; Lohse, 74–75.
- ^ Quoted by Oberman, 237.
- ^ Brecht 2:329.
- ^ Oberman, 238.
- ^ Psychopannychia (the night banquet of the soul), manuscript Orléans 1534, Latin Strasbourg 1542, 2nd.ed. 1545, French, Geneva 1558, English 1581.
- ^ Liber de Anima 1562
- ^ D. Franz Pieper Christliche Dogmatik, 3 vols., (Saint Louis: CPH, 1920), 3:575: "Hieraus geht sicher so viel hervor, daß die abgeschiedenen Seelen der Gläubigen in einem Zustande des seligen Genießens Gottes sich befinden .... Ein Seelenschlaf, der ein Genießen Gottes einschließt (so Luther), ist nicht als irrige Lehre zu bezeichnen"; English translation: Francis Pieper, Christian Dogmatics, 3 vols., (Saint Louis: CPH, 1953), 3:512: "These texts surely make it evident that the departed souls of the believers are in a state of blessed enjoyment of God .... A sleep of the sould which includes enjoyment of God (says Luther) cannot be called a false doctrine."
- ^ Sermons of Martin Luther: the House Postils, Eugene F. A. Klug, ed. and trans., 3 vols., (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1996), 2:240.
- ^ Weimarer Ausgabe 43, 360, 21–23 (to Genesis 25,7–10): also Exegetica opera latina Vol 5–6 1833 p. 120 and the English translation: Luther's Works, American Edition, 55 vols. (St. Louis: CPH), 4:313; "Sufficit igitur nobis haec cognitio, non egredi animas ex corporibus in periculum cruciatum et paenarum inferni, sed esse eis paratum cubiculum, in quo dormiant in pace."
- ^ Smalcald Articles, Part II, Article II, paragraph 12
- ^ Smalcald Articles, Part II, Article II, paragraph 28
- ^ Gerhard Loci Theologici, Locus de Morte, § 293 ff. Pieper writes: "Luther speaks more guardedly of the state of the soul between death and resurrection than do Gerhard and the later theologians, who transfer some things to the state between death and resurrection which can be said with certainty only of the state after the resurrection" (Christian Dogmatics, 3:512, footnote 21).
- ^ Article in the Berlinischer Zeitung 1755 in Complete Works ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Lachmann – 1838 p. 59 "Was die Gegner auf alle diese Stellen antworten werden, ist leicht zu errathen. Sie werden sagen, daß Luther mit dem Worte Schlaf gar die Begriffe nicht verbinde, welche Herr R. damit verbindet. Wenn Luther sage, daß die Seele IS nach dem Tode schlafe, so denke er nichts mehr dabey, als was alle Leute denken, wenn sie den Tod des Schlafes Bruder nennen. Tode ruhe, leugneten auch die nicht, welche ihr Wachen behaupteten :c. Ueberhaupt ist mit Luthers Ansehen bey der ganzen Streitigkeit nichts zu gewinnen"
- ^ Exegetica opera Latina, Volumes 5–6 Martin Luther, ed. Christopf Stephan Elsperger (Gottlieb) p. 120 "Differunt tamen somnus sive quies hujus vitae et futurae. Homon enim in hac vita defatigatus diurno labore, sub noctem intrat in cubiculum suum tanquam in pace, ut ibi dormiat, et ea nocte fruitur quiete, neque quicquam scit de ullo malo sive incendii, sive caedis. Anima autem non sic dormit, sed vigilat, et patitur visiones loquelas Angelorum et Dei. Ideo somnus in futura vita profundior est quam in hac vita et tamen anima coram Deo vivit. Hac similitudine, quam habeo a somno viventia." (Commentary on Genesis – Enarrationes in Genesin, 1535–1545)"
- ^ Blackburne A short historical view of the controversy concerning an intermediate state (1765) p121
- ^ Gottfried Fritschel. Zeitschrift für die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche p. 657 "Denn dass Luther mit den Worten "anima non sic dormit, sed vigilat et patitur visiones, loquelas Angelorum et Dei" nicht dasjenige leugnen will, was er an allen andern Stellen seiner Schriften vortragt"
- ^ Henry Eyster Jacobs Martin Luther the Hero of the Reformation 1483 to 1546 1898. Emphasis added.
- ^ Mallett, 198; Marius, 220. The siege was lifted on 14 October 1529, which Luther saw as a divine miracle.
- ^ Andrew Cunningham, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Religion, War, Famine and Death in Reformation Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,. 2000, ISBN 0-521-46701-2, 141; Mullett, 239–40; Marty, 164.
- ^ From On War against the Turk, 1529, quoted in William P. Brown, The Ten Commandments: The Reciprocity of Faithfulness, Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004, ISBN 0-664-22323-0, 258; Lohse, 61; Marty, 166.
- ^ Marty, 166; Marius, 219; Brecht, 2:365, 368.
- ^ Mullett, 238–39; Lohse, 59–61.
- ^ Brecht, 2:364.
- ^ Wilson, 257; Brecht, 2:364–65.
- ^ Brecht, 2:365; Mullett, 239.
- ^ Brecht, 3:354.
- ^ Daniel Goffman, The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-521-45908-7, 109; Mullett, 241; Marty, 163.
- ^ From On war against the Turk, 1529, quoted in Roland E. Miller, Muslims and the Gospel, Minneapolis: Kirk House Publishers, 2006, ISBN 1-932688-07-2, 208.
- ^ Brecht, 3:355.
- ^ Hughes, 55.
- ^ Gritsch, 45.
- ^ Mullett, 198–200; Elton, 148–49.
- ^ Wilson, 265.
- ^ Mullett, 201–203; Marius, 223.
- ^ Mullett, 207; Wilson, 269.
- ^ Mullett, 208; Gritsch, 48–49; Marius, 244.
- ^ Mullett, 203–204.
- ^ Roper, Lyndal (April 2010). "Martin Luther's Body: The 'Stout Doctor' and His Biographers". American Historical Review 115 (2): 351–362.
- ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal: Martin Luther's Complete Antinomian Theses and Disputations, ed. and tr. H. Sonntag, Minneapolis: Lutheran Press, 2008, 23–27. ISBN 978-0-9748529-6-6
- ^ Cf. ibid., 11–15.
- ^ Cf. Luther's Works 47:107–119. There he writes: "Dear God, should it be unbearable that the holy church confesses itself a sinner, believes in the forgiveness of sins, and asks for remission of sin in the Lord’s Prayer? How can one know what sin is without the law and conscience? And how will we learn what Christ is, what he did for us, if we do not know what the law is that he fulfilled for us and what sin is, for which he made satisfaction?" (112–113).
- ^ Cf. Luther's Works 41, 113–114, 143–144, 146–147. There he said about the antinomians: "They may be fine Easter preachers, but they are very poor Pentecost preachers, for they do not preach de sanctificatione et vivificatione Spiritus Sancti, “about the sanctification by the Holy Spirit,” but solely about the redemption of Jesus Christ" (114). "Having rejected and being unable to understand the Ten Commandments, ... they see and yet they let the people go on in their public sins, without any renewal or reformation of their lives" (147).
- ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 33–36.
- ^ Cf. ibid., 170–172
- ^ Cf. ibid., 76, 105–107.
- ^ Cf. ibid., 140, 157.
- ^ Cf. ibid., 75, 104–105, 172–173.
- ^ The "first use of the law," accordingly, would be the law used as an external means of order and coercion in the political realm by means of bodily rewards and punishments.
- ^ Cf. ibid., 110.
- ^ Cf. ibid., 35: "The law, therefore, cannot be eliminated, but remains, prior to Christ as not fulfilled, after Christ as to be fulfilled, although this does not happen perfectly in this life even by the justified. ... This will happen perfectly first in the coming life." See also ibid., 43–44, 91–93.
- ^ E.g., by Erlangen theologian Werner Elert (1885–1954), cf. ibid., 21.
- ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3: 206.
- ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:212.
- ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:214.
- ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:205–15.
- ^ Oberman, Heiko, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, 294.
- ^ Michael, Robert.[disambiguation needed
] Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, 109; Mullett, 242. - ^ Edwards, Mark. Luther's Last Battles. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983, 121.
- ^ Brecht, 3:341–43; Mullett, 241; Marty, 172.
- ^ Rupp, Gordan. Martin Luther and the Jews. London: , 1972, 9.
- ^ Luther, "Lectures on Romans", Luthers Werke. 25:428.
- ^ Brecht, 3:334; Marty, 169; Marius, 235.
- ^ Noble, Graham. "Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism," History Review (2002) No. 42:1–2; Mullett, 246.
- ^ Brecht, 3:341–47.
- ^ Luther, On the Jews and their Lies, quoted in Michael, 112.
- ^ Luther, Vom Schem Hamphoras, quoted in Michael, 113.
- ^ Luther, On the Jews and Their Lies, Luthers Werke. 47:268–271.
- ^ Luther, On the Jews and Their Lies, quoted in Robert Michael, "Luther, Luther Scholars, and the Jews," Encounter 46 (Autumn 1985) No. 4:343–344.
- ^ "Deuteronomy 13" (in English Standard Version). The Bible. http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy%2013&version=ESV.
- ^ a b Michael, 117.
- ^ Quoted by Michael, 110.
- ^ Michael, 117–18.
- ^ Gritsch, 113–14; Michael, 117.
- ^ "The assertion that Luther's expressions of anti-Jewish sentiment have been of major and persistent influence in the centuries after the Reformation, and that there exists a continuity between Protestant anti-Judaism and modern racially oriented anti-Semitism, is at present wide-spread in the literature; since the Second World War it has understandably become the prevailing opinion." Johannes Wallmann, "The Reception of Luther's Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th century", Lutheran Quarterly, n.s. 1 (Spring 1987) 1:72–97.
- ^ Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28; Johnson, Paul. A History of the Jews (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987), 242; Shirer, William. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1960).
- ^ Grunberger, Richard. The 12-Year Reich: A Social History of Nazi German 1933–1945 (NP:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 465.
- ^ Himmler wrote: "what Luther said and wrote about the Jews. No judgment could be sharper."
- ^ Ellis, Marc H. Hitler and the Holocaust, Christian Anti-Semitism", (NP: Baylor University Center for American and Jewish Studies, Spring 2004), Slide 14. [4].
- ^ See Noble, Graham. "Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism," History Review (2002) No. 42:1–2.
- ^ Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation:Europe's House Divided, 1490–1700. New York:Penguin Books Ltd, 2004, pp. 666–667.
- ^ Bernd Nellessen, "Die schweigende Kirche: Katholiken und Judenverfolgung," in Buttner (ed), Die Deutchschen und die Jugendverfolg im Dritten Reich, p.265, cited in Daniel Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners (Vintage, 1997)
- ^ Who voted for the Nazis? (electoral history of the National Socialist German Workers Party),History Today, October 1998, Vol.48, Issue 10, pages 8–14
- ^ Brecht 3:351.
- ^ Wallmann, 72–97.
- ^ Siemon-Netto, The Fabricated Luther, 17–20.
- ^ Siemon-Netto, "Luther and the Jews," Lutheran Witness 123 (2004) No. 4:19, 21.
- ^ Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. Hillerbrand writes: "His strident pronouncements against the Jews, especially toward the end of his life, have raised the question of whether Luther significantly encouraged the development of German anti-Semitism. Although many scholars have taken this view, this perspective puts far too much emphasis on Luther and not enough on the larger peculiarities of German history."
- ^ Bainton, Roland: Here I Stand, (Nashville: Abingdon Press, New American Library, 1983), p. 297
- ^ For similar views, see:
- Briese, Russell. "Martin Luther and the Jews," Lutheran Forum (Summer 2000):32;
- Brecht, Martin Luther, 3:351;
- Edwards, Mark U. Jr. Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics 1531–46. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983, 139;
- Gritsch, Eric. "Was Luther Anti-Semitic?", Christian History, No. 3:39, 12.;
- Kittelson, James M., Luther the Reformer, 274;
- Oberman, Heiko. The Roots of Anti-Semitism: In the Age of Renaissance and Reformation. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984, 102;
- Rupp, Gordon. Martin Luther, 75;
- Siemon-Netto, Uwe. Lutheran Witness, 19.
- ^ Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28.
- ^ Rose, Paul Lawrence. Revolutionary Antisemitism in Germany from Kant to Wagner. Princeton University Press, 1990. Cited in Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach. New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002, 28.
- ^ Synod deplores and disassociates itself from Luther’s negative statements about the Jewish people and the use of these statements to incite anti-Lutheran sentiment, from a summary of Official Missouri Synod Doctrinal Statements
- ^ Lull, Timothy Martin Luther's Basic Theological Writings, Second Edition (2005), p. 25
- ^ Iversen OH (1996). "[Martin Luther's somatic diseases. A short life-history 450 years after his death]" (in Norwegian). Tidsskr. Nor. Laegeforen. 116 (30): 3643–46. PMID 9019884.
- ^ Edwards, 9.
- ^ Spitz, 354.
- ^ Die Beziehungen des Reformators Martin Luther zu Halle buergerstiftung-halle.de (German)
- ^ Luther, Martin. Sermon No. 8, "Predigt über Mat. 11:25, Eisleben gehalten," 15 February 1546, Luthers Werke, Weimar 1914, 51:196–197.
- ^ Poliakov, Léon. From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews, Vanguard Press, p. 220.
- ^ Mackinnon, James. Luther and the Reformation. Vol. IV, (New York: Russell & Russell, 1962, p. 204.
- ^ Luther, Martin. Admonition against the Jews, added to his final sermon, cited in Oberman, Heiko. Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New York: Image Books, 1989, p. 294. A complete translation of Luther's Admonition can be found in Wikisource.s:Warning Against the Jews (1546)
- ^ Martin Luther's Death Mask on View at Museum in Halle, Germany artdaily.com
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:369–79.
- ^ a b McKim, Donald K. (2003). The Cambridge companion to Martin Luther. Cambridge companions to religion. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN 0-521-01673-8.
- ^ Kellermann, James A. (translator) "The Last Written Words of Luther: Holy Ponderings of the Reverend Father Doctor Martin Luther". 16 February 1546.
- ^ Original German and Latin of Luther's last written words is: "Wir sein pettler. Hoc est verum." Heinrich Bornkamm, Luther's World of Thought, tr. Martin H. Bertram (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1958), 291.
Further reading[link]
For works by and about Luther, see Martin Luther (resources) or Luther's works at Wikisource.
- Erikson, Erik H. (1958). Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History. New York: W. W. Norton.
- Dillenberger, John (1961). Martin Luther: Selections from his Writings. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. OCLC 165808.
- Lull, Timothy (1989). Martin Luther: Selections from his Writings. Minneapolis: Fortress. ISBN 0-8006-3680-5.
- Luther, M. The Bondage of the Will. Eds. J. I. Packer and O. R. Johnson. Old Tappan, N.J.: Revell, 1957. OCLC 22724565.
- Luther's Works, 55 vols. Eds. H. T. Lehman and J. Pelikan. St Louis Missouri, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1955–86. Also on CD-ROM. Minneapolis and St Louis: Fortress Press and Concordia Publishing House, 2002.
- Reu, Johann Michael Thirty-five Years of Luther Research Chicago: Wartburg Publishing House, 1917.
External links[link]
This audio file was created from a revision of the "Martin Luther" article dated 2011-07-17, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)
Works written by or about Martin Luther at Wikisource
Media related to Martin Luther at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Martin Luther at Wikiquote- The Mutopia Project has compositions by Martin Luther
- Booknotes interview with Martin Marty on Martin Luther, April 11, 2004.
|
|||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Luther, Martin |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | German theologian and priest |
| Date of birth | 10 November 1483 |
| Place of birth | Eisleben, Germany |
| Date of death | 18 February 1546 |
| Place of death | Eisleben, Germany |
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther
Related pages:
http://ru.wn.com/Лютер, Мартин
http://es.wn.com/Martín Lutero
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Vietnam War | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of the Cold War and the Indochina Wars | |||||||||
 A Bell UH-1D helicopter piloted by Major Bruce P. Crandall climbs skyward after discharging a load of U.S. infantrymen on a search and destroy mission |
|||||||||
|
|||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
| Anti-Communist forces:
Supported by: |
Communist forces:
Supported by: |
||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
 Ngô Đình Diệm Nguyễn Văn Thiệu Nguyễn Cao Kỳ Cao Văn Viên Lyndon B. Johnson Richard Nixon William Westmoreland Creighton Abrams...and others |
 Hồ Chí Minh Lê Duẩn Võ Nguyên Giáp Hoàng Văn Thái Văn Tiến Dũng Trần Văn Trà Nguyễn Văn Linh Nguyễn Hữu Thọ...and others |
||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
| ~1,830,000 (1968) Republic of Vietnam: 850,000 |
461,000+ Democratic Republic of Vietnam: 287,465 (January 1968)[5] |
||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| Republic of Vietnam 361,000[6]-2,000,000 civilian dead;[7] military dead: 220,357 (lowest est.)[8] – 316,000 dead (highest est.);[6] 1,170,000 wounded
Total dead: 426,228 – 2,381,228 (2,000,000 South civilians) |
North Vietnam & NLF 50,000[6]-2,000,000 civilian dead;[7] 1,176,000 military dead or missing;[8] 600,000+ wounded[14]
Total dead: 1,227,452-3,177,462 (50,000–2,000,000 North civilians) |
||||||||
|
Vietnamese civilian dead: 411,000[6] – 4,000,000[16] * indicates approximations, see Casualties below |
|||||||||
|
|
|||||
|
|||||
The Vietnam War[A 3] was a Cold War-era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955[A 1] to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War and was fought between North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of South Vietnam, supported by the United States and other anti-communist countries.[25] The Viet Cong (also known as the National Liberation Front, or NLF), a lightly armed South Vietnamese communist-controlled common front, largely fought a guerrilla war against anti-communist forces in the region. The Vietnam People's Army (North Vietnamese Army) engaged in a more conventional war, at times committing large units into battle. U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, and airstrikes.
The U.S. government viewed involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam as part of their wider strategy of containment. The North Vietnamese government and Viet Cong viewed the conflict as a colonial war, fought initially against France, backed by the U.S., and later against South Vietnam, which it regarded as a U.S. puppet state.[26] American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina beginning in 1950. U.S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and tripling again in 1962.[27] U.S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965. Operations spanned international borders, with Laos and Cambodia heavily bombed. American involvement in the war peaked in 1968, at the time of the Tet Offensive. After this, U.S. ground forces were gradually withdrawn as part of a policy known as Vietnamization. Despite the Paris Peace Accords, signed by all parties in January 1973, fighting continued.
U.S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973 as a result of the Case–Church Amendment passed by the U.S. Congress.[28] The capture of Saigon by the Vietnam People's Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities (see Vietnam War casualties). Estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from less than one million[29] to more than five million.[7][30] Some 200,000–300,000 Cambodians,[17][18][19] 20,000–200,000 Laotians,[31][32][33][34][35][36] and 58,220 U.S. service members also died in the conflict.[A 2]
Contents
|
Names for the War[link]
Further information: Terminology of the Vietnam War
Various names have been applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English. It has also been called the Second Indochina War, and the Vietnam Conflict.
As there have been so many conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the name of their chief opponent to distinguish it from the others.[37] Thus, in Vietnamese, the war is known as Chiến tranh Việt Nam (The Vietnam War), or as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ (Resistance War Against America), loosely translated as the American War.[38]
The main military organizations involved in the war were, on one side, the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and the U.S. military, and, on the other side, the Vietnam People's Army (VPA) (also known as the North Vietnamese Army, or NVA), and the Viet Cong, or National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF), a South Vietnamese communist guerrilla force.
Background to 1949[link]
See also: History of Vietnam, Cochinchina Campaign, Can Vuong, Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang, and Yen Bai mutiny
France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893.[39][40][41] The Treaty of Huế, concluded in 1884, formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the next seven decades. In spite of military resistance, most notably by the Can Vuong of Phan Dinh Phung, by 1888 the area of the current-day nations of Cambodia and Vietnam was made into the colony of French Indochina (Laos was added later).[42] Various Vietnamese opposition movements to French rule existed during this period, such as the Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang who staged the failed Yen Bai mutiny in 1930, but none were ultimately as successful as the Viet Minh common front, which was founded in 1941, controlled by the Indochinese Communist Party, and funded by the U.S. and the Chinese Nationalist Party in its fight against Japanese occupation.[43][A 4]
During World War II, the French were defeated by the Germans in 1940. For French Indochina, this meant that the colonial authorities became Vichy French, allies of the German-Italian Axis powers. In turn this meant that the French collaborated with the Japanese forces after their invasion of French Indochina during 1940. The French continued to run affairs in the colony, but ultimate power resided in the hands of the Japanese.[43]
The Viet Minh was founded as a league for independence from France, but also opposed Japanese occupation in 1945 for the same reason. The U.S. and Chinese Nationalist Party supported them in the fight against the Japanese.[45] However, they did not have enough power to fight actual battles at first. Viet Minh leader Ho Chi Minh was suspected of being a communist and jailed for a year by the Chinese Nationalist Party.[46]
Double occupation by France and Japan continued until the German forces were expelled from France and the French Indochina colonial authorities started holding secret talks with the Free French. Fearing that they could no longer trust the French authorities, the Japanese army interned them all on 9 March 1945 and assumed direct control themselves[47] through their puppet state, the Empire of Vietnam, under Bảo Đại.
During 1944–1945, a deep famine struck northern Vietnam due to a combination of bad weather and French/Japanese exploitation. 1 million people died of starvation (out of a population of 10 million in the affected area).[48] Exploiting the administrative gap[49] that the internment of the French had created, the Viet Minh in March 1945 urged the population to ransack rice warehouses and refuse to pay their taxes.[50] Between 75 and 100 warehouses were consequently raided.[51] This rebellion against the effects of the famine and the authorities that were partially responsible for it bolstered the Viet Minh's popularity and they recruited many members during this period.[49]
In August 1945, the Japanese had been defeated and surrendered unconditionally. In French Indochina this created a power vacuum, as the French were still interned and the Japanese forces stood down.[51] The Viet Minh stepped into this vacuum and grasped power across Vietnam in the August Revolution,[51] largely supported by the Vietnamese population.[52] After their defeat in the war, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) gave weapons to the Vietnamese, and kept Vichy French officials and military officers imprisoned for a month after the surrender. The Việt Minh had recruited more than 600 Japanese soldiers and given them roles to train or command Vietnamese soldiers.[53][54]
Ho Chi Minh declared the independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam before a crowd of 500,000 in Hanoi on 2 September 1945.[51] In an overture to the Americans, he began his speech by paraphrasing the United States Declaration of Independence: All men are created equal. The Creator has given us certain inviolable Rights: the right to Life, the right to be Free, and the right to achieve Happiness.[51]
However, the major allied victors of World War II, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union, all agreed the area belonged to the French.[51] As the French did not have the ships, weapons, or soldiers to immediately retake Vietnam, the major powers came to an agreement that British troops would occupy the south while Nationalist Chinese forces would move in from the north.[51] Nationalist Chinese troops entered the country to disarm Japanese troops north of the 16th parallel on 14 September 1945.[55] When the British landed in the south, they rearmed the interned French forces as well as parts of the surrendered Japanese forces to aid them in retaking southern Vietnam, as they did not have enough troops to do this themselves.[51]
Following the party line from Moscow, Ho Chi Minh initially attempted to negotiate with the French, who were slowly re-establishing their control across the country.[56] In January 1946, the Viet Minh won elections across central and northern Vietnam.[57] On 6 March 1946, Ho signed an agreement allowing French forces to replace Nationalist Chinese forces, in exchange for French recognition of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam as a "free" republic within the French Union, with the specifics of such recognition to be determined by future negotiation.[58][59][60] The French landed in Hanoi by March 1946 and in November of that year they ousted the Viet Minh from the city.[61] British forces departed on 26 March 1946, leaving Vietnam in the hands of the French.[62] Soon thereafter, the Viet Minh began a guerrilla war against the French Union forces, beginning the First Indochina War.
The war spread to Laos and Cambodia, where Communists organized the Pathet Lao and the Khmer Serei, both of which were modeled on the Viet Minh.[63] Globally, the Cold War began in earnest, which meant that the rapprochement that existed between the Western powers and the Soviet Union during World War II disintegrated. The Viet Minh fight was hampered by a lack of weapons; this situation changed by 1949 when the Chinese Communists had largely won the Chinese Civil War and were free to provide arms to their Vietnamese allies.[63]
Exit of the French, 1950–1954[link]
Main articles: First Indochina War and Operation Passage to Freedom
In January 1950, the communist nations, led by the People's Republic of China (PRC), recognized the Viet Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam, based in Hanoi, as the government of Vietnam, while non-communist nations recognized the French-backed State of Vietnam in Saigon, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, as the Vietnamese government the following month.[64] The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 convinced many Washington policymakers that the war in Indochina was an example of communist expansionism directed by the Kremlin.[65]
PRC military advisors began assisting the Viet Minh in July 1950.[66] PRC weapons, expertise, and laborers transformed the Viet Minh from a guerrilla force into a regular army.[67] In September 1950, the United States created a Military Assistance and Advisory Group (MAAG) to screen French requests for aid, advise on strategy, and train Vietnamese soldiers.[68] By 1954, the United States had supplied 300,000 small arms and spent US$1 billion in support of the French military effort, shouldering 80 percent of the cost of the war.[69]
There were also talks between the French and Americans in which the possible use of three tactical nuclear weapons was considered, though reports of how seriously this was considered and by whom are even now vague and contradictory.[70][71] One version of the plan for the proposed Operation Vulture envisioned sending 60 B-29s from U.S. bases in the region, supported by as many as 150 fighters launched from U.S. Seventh Fleet carriers, to bomb Viet Minh commander Vo Nguyen Giap's positions. The plan included an option to use up to three atomic weapons on the Viet Minh positions. Admiral Arthur W. Radford, Chairman of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, gave this nuclear option his backing. U.S. B-29s, B-36s, and B-47s could have executed a nuclear strike, as could carrier aircraft from the Seventh Fleet.[72]
U.S. carriers sailed to the Gulf of Tonkin, and reconnaissance flights over Dien Bien Phu were conducted during the negotiations. According to U.S. Vice-President Richard Nixon, the plan involved the Joint Chiefs of Staff drawing up plans to use three small tactical nuclear weapons in support of the French.[70] Nixon, a so-called "hawk" on Vietnam, suggested that the United States might have to "put American boys in".[73] U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower made American participation contingent on British support, but London was opposed to such a venture.[73] In the end, convinced that the political risks outweighed the possible benefits, Eisenhower decided against the intervention.[74] As an experienced five-star general, Eisenhower was very wary of getting the United States involved in a land war in Asia.
The Viet Minh received crucial support from the Soviet Union and PRC. PRC support in the Border Campaign of 1950 allowed supplies to come from the PRC into Vietnam. Throughout the conflict, U.S. intelligence estimates remained skeptical of French chances of success.[75]
The Battle of Dien Bien Phu marked the end of French involvement in Indochina. Giap's Viet Minh forces handed the French a stunning military defeat, and on 7 May 1954, the French Union garrison surrendered. Of the 12,000 French prisoners taken by the Viet Minh, only 3,000 survived.[76] At the Geneva Conference, the French negotiated a ceasefire agreement with the Viet Minh, and independence was granted to Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.
Transition period[link]
Main articles: Geneva Conference (1954), Operation Passage to Freedom, Battle of Saigon (1955), Ba Cut, and State of Vietnam referendum, 1955
Vietnam was temporarily partitioned at the 17th parallel, and under the terms of the Geneva Accords, civilians were to be given the opportunity to move freely between the two provisional states for a 300-day period. Elections throughout the country were to be held in 1956 to establish a unified government.[77] Around one million northerners, mainly minority Catholics, fled south, fearing persecution by the communists[78] following an American propaganda campaign using slogans such as "The Virgin Mary is heading south",[79] and aided by a U.S. funded $93 million relocation program, which included ferrying refugees with the Seventh Fleet.[80] It is estimated that as many as two million more would have left had they not been stopped by the Viet Minh.[81] The northern, mainly Catholic refugees were meant to give the later Ngô Đình Diệm regime a strong anti-communist constituency.[82] Diem later went on to staff his administration's key posts mostly with northern and central Catholics.
In addition to the Catholics flowing south, up to 130,000 "Revolutionary Regroupees" went to the north for "regroupment," expecting to return to the south within two years.[83] The Viet Minh left roughly 5,000 to 10,000 cadres in the south as a "politico-military substructure within the object of its irredentism."[84] The last French soldiers were to leave Vietnam in April 1956.[67] The PRC completed its withdrawal from North Vietnam at around the same time.[66] Around 52,000 Vietnamese civilians moved from south to north.[85]
In the north, the Viet Minh ruled as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and engaged in a drastic land reform program in which more than 100,000 perceived "class enemies" were executed.[86][87][88][89] In 1956, leaders in Hanoi admitted to "excesses" in implementing this program and restored a large amount of the land to the original owners.[90]
The south, meanwhile, constituted the State of Vietnam, with Bảo Đại as Emperor and Ngô Đình Diệm (appointed in July 1954) as his prime minister. In June 1955, Diem announced that the scheduled 1956 elections would not be held, claiming South Vietnam had rejected the Geneva Accords from the beginning and was therefore not bound by them. "How can we expect 'free elections' to be held in the Communist North?" he asked. President Eisenhower echoed senior U.S. experts[91] when he wrote that, in 1954, "80 per cent of the population would have voted for the Communist Ho Chi Minh" over Emperor Bảo Đại.[92][93]
From April to June 1955, Diem (against U.S. advice) eliminated any political opposition in the south by launching military operations against the Cao Dai religious sect, the Hoa Hao sect of Ba Cut, and the Binh Xuyen organized crime group (which was allied with members of the secret police and some military elements). As broad-based opposition to his harsh tactics mounted, Diem increasingly sought to blame the communists.[94]
In a referendum on the future of the State of Vietnam on 23 October 1955, Diem rigged the poll supervised by his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu and was credited with 98.2 percent of the vote, including 133% in Saigon. His American advisers had recommended a more modest winning margin of "60 to 70 percent." Diem, however, viewed the election as a test of authority.[95] Three days later, he declared South Vietnam to be an independent state known as the Republic of Vietnam (ROV), with himself as president.[96]
The ROV was created largely because of the Eisenhower administration's desire for an anti-communist state in the region.[94] The domino theory, which argued that if one country fell to communism, then all of the surrounding countries would follow, was first proposed as policy by the Eisenhower administration.[97] It was, and is still, commonly hypothesized that it applied to Vietnam. John F. Kennedy, then a U.S. Senator, said in a speech to the American Friends of Vietnam: "Burma, Thailand, India, Japan, the Philippines and obviously Laos and Cambodia are among those whose security would be threatened if the Red Tide of Communism overflowed into Vietnam."[98]
Diem era, 1955–1963[link]
Main articles: Ngo Dinh Diem and War in Vietnam (1954–1959)
Rule[link]
A devout Roman Catholic, Diem was fervently anti-communist, nationalist, and socially conservative. Historian Luu Doan Huynh notes that "Diem represented narrow and extremist nationalism coupled with autocracy and nepotism."[99] As he was a wealthy Catholic, many ordinary Vietnamese viewed Diem as part of the elite who had helped the French rule Vietnam; Diem had been interior minister in the colonial government. The majority of Vietnamese people were Buddhist, and were alarmed by actions such as Diem's dedication of the country to the Virgin Mary.
Beginning in the summer of 1955, Diem launched the "Denounce the Communists" campaign, during which communists and other anti-government elements were arrested, imprisoned, tortured, or executed. He instituted the death penalty against any activity deemed communist in August 1956.[100] The regime branded its opponents Viet Cong ("Vietnamese communist") to degrade their nationalist credentials. As a measure of the level of political repression, about 12,000 suspected opponents of Diem were killed between 1955 and 1957 and by the end of 1958 an estimated 40,000 political prisoners had been jailed.[101]
In May 1957, Diem undertook a ten-day state visit to the United States. President Eisenhower pledged his continued support, and a parade was held in Diem's honor in New York City. Although Diem was publicly praised, in private Secretary of State John Foster Dulles conceded that Diem had been selected because there were no better alternatives.[102]
Future U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara wrote that the new American patrons of the ROV were almost completely ignorant of Vietnamese culture. They knew little of the language or long history of the country.[64] There was a tendency to assign American motives to Vietnamese actions, and Diem warned that it was an illusion to believe that blindly copying Western methods would solve Vietnamese problems.[64]
Insurgency in the South, 1954–1960[link]
Main articles: Viet Cong and War in Vietnam (1959–1963)
President Eisenhower noted that had the Geneva Accords been held, "possibly 80 percent of the population would have voted for Communist Ho Chi Minh" and the government quickly became more repressive and unpopular. The Diem government had largely failed in implementing a land reform program for the peasants of South Vietnam (90% of the population) which along with "Peace, security, freedom, [and] their standard of living" was the peasants' prime concern according to specialist Philippe Devillers. Among the changes the government altered the tenant structure to competitive bidding which led to more tenant insecurity. Only 10% of the tenants benefited from the program and were oftentimes northerners, refugees, or Catholics which created more animosity among the Vietnamese. In 1959 the program became inoperative and by 1960, only 2% of the landowners owned 45% of the land.[24]
The South government used widespread repression, between 1954 and 1960 it captured 50,000 prisoners and had put them into "political reeducation camps" as part of the Denunciation of Communists Campaign. In 1959 British specialist PJ Honey was invited to examine the camps and concluded after interviewing rural Vietnamese that "the consensus of the opinion expressed by these peoples is that...the majority of the detainees are neither communists nor pro-communists."[24]
According to the Pentagon Papers the prisons were "little more than concentration camps for potential foes of the government" and used torture regardless of whether they were communist or not. The Diem government had also abolished elections for village councils out of fear of large amounts of Viet Minh candidates winning and replaced administrative village autonomy with government officials.[24]
This had an effect, between 1954 and 1957 there was large scale random dissidence in the countryside which the Diem government managed to successfully quell. In early 1957 South Vietnam had its first peace in over a decade. However, by mid-1957 through 1959 incidents of violence increased but the government "did not construe it as a campaign, considering the disorders too diffuse to warrant committing major GVN resources." By Early 1959 however, Diem had considered it a campaign and implemented Law 10/59, which made political violence punishable by death and property confiscation.[103] There had been some division among former Viet Minh whose main goal was to hold the elections promised in the Geneva Accords, leading to "wildcat" activities separate from the other communists and anti-GVN activists.[24]
In December 1960, the National Liberation Front (NLF) was formally created consisting of all anti-GVN activists and included non-communists. According to the Pentagon Papers, the NLF "placed heavy emphasis on the withdrawal of American advisors and influence, on land reform and liberalization of the GVN, on coalition government and the neutralization of Vietnam." Often the leaders of the organization were kept secret.[24]
North Vietnam interference?[link]
Very little evidence points to organization or interference on the part of North Vietnam. As the Pentagon Papers point out, "No direct links have been established between Hanoi and perpetrators of rural violence." As Kahin and Lewis point out:
Contrary to United States policy assumptions, all available evidence shows that the revival of the civil war in the South in 1958 was undertaken by Southerners at their own—not Hanoi's—initiative...Insurgency activity against the Saigon government began in the South under Southern leadership not as a consequence of any dictate from Hanoi, but contrary to Hanoi's injunctions.[24]
Similarly, historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. states that "it was not until September, 1960 that the Communist Party of North Vietnam bestowed its formal blessing and called for the liberation of the south from American imperialism".[24]
During John F. Kennedy's administration, 1961–1963[link]
Main articles: Strategic Hamlet Program and Pham Ngoc Thao
In the 1960 U.S. presidential election, Senator John F. Kennedy defeated Vice-President Richard Nixon. Although Eisenhower warned Kennedy about Laos and Vietnam, Europe and Latin America "loomed larger than Asia on his sights."[104] In his inaugural address, Kennedy made the ambitious pledge to "pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and success of liberty."[105] In June 1961, he bitterly disagreed with Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev when they met in Vienna to discuss key U.S.-Soviet issues.
The Kennedy administration remained essentially committed to the Cold War foreign policy inherited from the Truman and Eisenhower administrations. In 1961, the U.S. had 50,000 troops based in Korea, and Kennedy faced a three-part crisis – the failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the construction of the Berlin Wall, and a negotiated settlement between the pro-Western government of Laos and the Pathet Lao communist movement.[106] These made Kennedy believe that another failure on the part of the United States to gain control and stop communist expansion would fatally damage U.S. credibility with its allies and his own reputation. Kennedy was thus determined to "draw a line in the sand" and prevent a communist victory in Vietnam. He told James Reston of The New York Times immediately after his Vienna meeting with Khrushchev, "Now we have a problem making our power credible and Vietnam looks like the place."[107][108]
In May 1961, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson visited Saigon and enthusiastically declared Diem the "Winston Churchill of Asia."[109] Asked why he had made the comment, Johnson replied, "Diem's the only boy we got out there."[102] Johnson assured Diem of more aid in molding a fighting force that could resist the communists.
Kennedy's policy toward South Vietnam rested on the assumption that Diem and his forces must ultimately defeat the guerrillas on their own. He was against the deployment of American combat troops and observed that "to introduce U.S. forces in large numbers there today, while it might have an initially favorable military impact, would almost certainly lead to adverse political and, in the long run, adverse military consequences."[110] The quality of the South Vietnamese military, however, remained poor. Bad leadership, corruption, and political promotions all played a part in emasculating the ARVN. The frequency of guerrilla attacks rose as the insurgency gathered steam. While Hanoi's support for the NLF played a role, South Vietnamese governmental incompetence was at the core of the crisis.[111]
One major issue Kennedy raised was whether the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the United States. Although Kennedy stressed long-range missile parity with the Soviets, he was also interested in using special forces for counterinsurgency warfare in Third World countries threatened by communist insurgencies. Although they were originally intended for use behind front lines after a conventional invasion of Europe, Kennedy believed that the guerrilla tactics employed by special forces such as the Green Berets would be effective in a "brush fire" war in Vietnam.
Kennedy advisers Maxwell Taylor and Walt Rostow recommended that U.S. troops be sent to South Vietnam disguised as flood relief workers. Kennedy rejected the idea but increased military assistance yet again. In April 1962, John Kenneth Galbraith warned Kennedy of the "danger we shall replace the French as a colonial force in the area and bleed as the French did."[112] By 1963, there were 16,000 American military personnel in South Vietnam, up from Eisenhower's 900 advisors.[113]
The Strategic Hamlet Program had been initiated in 1961. This joint U.S.-South Vietnamese program attempted to resettle the rural population into fortified camps. The aim was to isolate the population from the insurgents, provide education and health care, and strengthen the government's hold over the countryside.[citation needed] The Strategic Hamlets, however, were quickly infiltrated by the guerrillas.[citation needed] The peasants resented being uprooted from their ancestral villages.[citation needed] In part, this was because Colonel Pham Ngoc Thao, a Diem favourite who was instrumental in running the program, was in fact a communist agent who used his Catholicism to gain influential posts and damage the ROV from the inside.[citation needed]
The government refused to undertake land reform, which left farmers paying high rents to a few wealthy landlords. Corruption dogged the program and intensified opposition.
On 23 July 1962, fourteen nations, including the People's Republic of China, South Vietnam, the Soviet Union, North Vietnam and the United States, signed an agreement promising the neutrality of Laos.[114]
Coup and assassinations[link]
- See also: Kennedy's role, 1960 South Vietnamese coup attempt, 1962 South Vietnamese Independence Palace bombing, Huế Phật Đản shootings and Xa Loi Pagoda raids
Main articles: Cable 243, Arrest and assassination of Ngo Dinh Diem, Buddhist crisis, Krulak Mendenhall mission, McNamara Taylor mission, 1963 South Vietnamese coup, and Reaction to the 1963 South Vietnamese coup
The inept performance of the South Vietnamese army was exemplified by failed actions such as the Battle of Ap Bac on 2 January 1963, in which a small band of Viet Cong beat off a much larger and better equipped South Vietnamese force, many of whose officers seemed reluctant even to engage in combat.[115] The ARVN were led in that battle by Diem's most trusted general, Huynh Van Cao, commander of the IV Corps. Cao was a Catholic who had been promoted due to religion and fidelity rather than skill, and his main job was to preserve his forces to stave off coups; he had earlier vomited during a communist attack. Some policymakers in Washington began to conclude that Diem was incapable of defeating the communists and might even make a deal with Ho Chi Minh. He seemed concerned only with fending off coups, and had become more paranoid after attempts in 1960 and 1962, which he partly attributed to U.S. encouragement. As Robert F. Kennedy noted, "Diem wouldn't make even the slightest concessions. He was difficult to reason with..."[116]
Discontent with Diem's policies exploded following the Huế Phật Đản shootings of majority Buddhists who were protesting against the ban on the Buddhist flag on Vesak, the Buddha's birthday. This resulted in mass protests against discriminatory policies that gave privileges to the Catholic Church and its adherents. Diem's elder brother Ngo Dinh Thuc was the Archbishop of Huế and aggressively blurred the separation between church and state. Thuc's anniversary celebrations shortly before Vesak had been bankrolled by the government and Vatican flags were displayed prominently. There had also been reports of Buddhist pagodas being demolished by Catholic paramilitaries throughout Diem's rule. Diem refused to make concessions to the Buddhist majority or take responsibility for the deaths. On 21 August 1963, the ARVN Special Forces of Colonel Le Quang Tung, loyal to Diem's younger brother Ngo Dinh Nhu, raided pagodas across Vietnam, causing widespread damage and destruction and leaving a death toll estimated to range into the hundreds.
U.S. officials began discussing the possibility of a regime change during the middle of 1963. The United States Department of State was generally in favor of encouraging a coup, while the Defense Department favored Diem. Chief among the proposed changes was the removal of Diem's younger brother Nhu, who controlled the secret police and special forces was seen as the man behind the Buddhist repression and more generally the architect of the Ngo family's rule. This proposal was conveyed to the U.S. embassy in Saigon in Cable 243.
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was in contact with generals planning to remove Diem. They were told that the United States would not oppose such a move nor punish the generals by cutting off aid. President Diem was overthrown and executed, along with his brother, on 2 November 1963. When he was informed, Maxwell Taylor remembered that Kennedy "rushed from the room with a look of shock and dismay on his face."[117] He had not approved Diem's murder. The U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam, Henry Cabot Lodge, invited the coup leaders to the embassy and congratulated them. Ambassador Lodge informed Kennedy that "the prospects now are for a shorter war".[118]
Following the coup, chaos ensued. Hanoi took advantage of the situation and increased its support for the guerrillas. South Vietnam entered a period of extreme political instability, as one military government toppled another in quick succession. Increasingly, each new regime was viewed as a puppet of the Americans; whatever the failings of Diem, his credentials as a nationalist (as Robert McNamara later reflected) had been impeccable.[119]
U.S military advisers were embedded at every level of the South Vietnamese armed forces. They were, however, almost completely ignorant of the political nature of the insurgency. The insurgency was a political power struggle, in which military engagements were not the main goal.[120] The Kennedy administration sought to refocus U.S. efforts on pacification and "winning over the hearts and minds" of the population. The military leadership in Washington, however, was hostile to any role for U.S. advisers other than conventional troop training.[121] General Paul Harkins, the commander of U.S. forces in South Vietnam, confidently predicted victory by Christmas 1963.[122] The CIA was less optimistic, however, warning that "the Viet Cong by and large retain de facto control of much of the countryside and have steadily increased the overall intensity of the effort".[123]
Paramilitary officers from the CIA's Special Activities Division trained and led Hmong tribesmen in Laos and into Vietnam. The indigenous forces numbered in the tens of thousands and they conducted direct action missions, led by paramilitary officers, against the Communist Pathet Lao forces and their North Vietnamese supporters.[124] The CIA also ran the Phoenix Program and participation Military Assistance Command, Vietnam – Studies and Observations Group (MAC-V SOG), which was originally named the Special Operations Group, but was changed for cover purposes.[125]
Lyndon B. Johnson escalates the war, 1963–1969[link]
Main article: Joint warfare in South Vietnam 1963–1969
Further information: Role of United States in the Vietnam War: Americanization
See also: Opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, Gulf of Tonkin incident, 1964 South Vietnamese coup, September 1964 South Vietnamese coup attempt, December 1964 South Vietnamese coup, and 1965 South Vietnamese coup
Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ), as he took over the presidency after the death of Kennedy, initially did not consider Vietnam a priority and was more concerned with his "Great Society" and progressive social programs. Presidential aide Jack Valenti recalls, "Vietnam at the time was no bigger than a man's fist on the horizon. We hardly discussed it because it was not worth discussing."[126][127]
On 24 November 1963, Johnson said, "the battle against communism... must be joined... with strength and determination."[128] The pledge came at a time when Vietnam was deteriorating, especially in places like the Mekong Delta, because of the recent coup against Diem.[129] Johnson had reversed Kennedy's disengagement policy from Vietnam in withdrawing 1,000 troops by the end of 1963 (NSAM 263 on 11 October),[130] with his own NSAM 273 (26 November)[131][132] to expand the war.
The military revolutionary council, meeting in lieu of a strong South Vietnamese leader, was made up of 12 members headed by General Duong Van Minh—whom Stanley Karnow, a journalist on the ground, later recalled as "a model of lethargy."[133] Lodge, frustrated by the end of the year, cabled home about Minh: "Will he be strong enough to get on top of things?" His regime was overthrown in January 1964 by General Nguyen Khanh.[134] However, there was persistent instability in the military as several coups—not all successful—occurred in a short space of time.
On 2 August 1964, the USS Maddox, on an intelligence mission along North Vietnam's coast, allegedly fired upon and damaged several torpedo boats that had been stalking it in the Gulf of Tonkin.[135] A second attack was reported two days later on the USS Turner Joy and Maddox in the same area. The circumstances of the attack were murky. Lyndon Johnson commented to Undersecretary of State George Ball that "those sailors out there may have been shooting at flying fish."[136]
The second attack led to retaliatory air strikes, prompted Congress to approve the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution on 5 August 1964, signed by Johnson, and gave the President power to conduct military operations in Southeast Asia without declaring war.[137] Although Congressmen at the time denied that this was a full scale war declaration, the Tonkin Resolution allowed the President unilateral power to launch a full scale war if the President deemed necessary.[137] In the same month, Johnson pledged that he was not "... committing American boys to fighting a war that I think ought to be fought by the boys of Asia to help protect their own land."[138]
An undated NSA publication declassified in 2005, however, revealed that there was no attack on 4 August.[139] It had already been called into question long before this. "Gulf of Tonkin incident", writes Louise Gerdes, "is an oft-cited example of the way in which Johnson misled the American people to gain support for his foreign policy in Vietnam."[140] George C. Herring argues, however, that McNamara and the Pentagon "did not knowingly lie about the alleged attacks, but they were obviously in a mood to retaliate and they seem to have selected from the evidence available to them those parts that confirmed what they wanted to believe."[141]
"From a strength of approximately 5,000 at the start of 1959 the Viet Cong's ranks grew to about 100,000 at the end of 1964...Between 1961 and 1964 the Army's strength rose from about 850,000 to nearly a million men."[120] The numbers for U.S. troops deployed to Vietnam during the same period were quite different; 2,000 in 1961, rising rapidly to 16,500 in 1964.[142]
The National Security Council recommended a three-stage escalation of the bombing of North Vietnam. On 2 March 1965, following an attack on a U.S. Marine barracks at Pleiku,[143] Operation Flaming Dart (initiated when Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin was at a state visit to North Vietnam), Operation Rolling Thunder and Operation Arc Light commenced.[144] The bombing campaign, which ultimately lasted three years, was intended to force North Vietnam to cease its support for the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) by threatening to destroy North Vietnam's air defenses and industrial infrastructure. As well, it was aimed at bolstering the morale of the South Vietnamese.[145] Between March 1965 and November 1968, "Rolling Thunder" deluged the north with a million tons of missiles, rockets and bombs.[146]
Bombing was not restricted to North Vietnam. Other aerial campaigns, such as Operation Commando Hunt, targeted different parts of the NLF and VPA infrastructure. These included the Ho Chi Minh trail, which ran through Laos and Cambodia. The objective of forcing North Vietnam to stop its support for the NLF, however, was never reached. As one officer noted "this is a political war and it calls for discriminate killing. The best weapon... would be a knife... The worst is an airplane."[147] The Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force Curtis LeMay, however, had long advocated saturation bombing in Vietnam and wrote of the Communists that "we're going to bomb them back into the Stone Age".[148]
Escalation and ground war[link]
After several attacks upon them, it was decided that U.S. Air Force bases needed more protection. The South Vietnamese military seemed incapable of providing security. On 8 March 1965, 3,500 U.S. Marines were dispatched to South Vietnam. This marked the beginning of the American ground war. U.S. public opinion overwhelmingly supported the deployment.[149]
In a statement similar to that made to the French almost two decades earlier, Ho Chi Minh warned that if the Americans "want to make war for twenty years then we shall make war for twenty years. If they want to make peace, we shall make peace and invite them to afternoon tea."[150] As former First Deputy Foreign Minister Tran Quang Co has noted, the primary goal of the war was to reunify Vietnam and secure its independence. The policy of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) was not to topple other non-communist governments in South East Asia.[151]
The Marines' assignment was defensive. The initial deployment of 3,500 in March was increased to nearly 200,000 by December.[152] The U.S. military had long been schooled in offensive warfare. Regardless of political policies, U.S. commanders were institutionally and psychologically unsuited to a defensive mission.[152] In December, ARVN forces suffered heavy losses at the Battle of Bình Giã,[153] in a battle that both sides viewed as a watershed. Previously communist forces had utilized hit-and-run guerrilla tactics, however at Binh Gia they had defeated a strong ARVN force in conventional warfare.[154] Tellingly, South Vietnamese forces were again defeated in June, at the Battle of Đồng Xoài.[155]
Desertion rates were increasing, and morale plummeted. General William Westmoreland informed Admiral U.S. Grant Sharp, Jr., commander of U.S. Pacific forces, that the situation was critical.[152] He said, "I am convinced that U.S. troops with their energy, mobility, and firepower can successfully take the fight to the NLF [National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam]."[156] With this recommendation, Westmoreland was advocating an aggressive departure from America's defensive posture and the sidelining of the South Vietnamese. By ignoring ARVN units, the U.S. commitment became open-ended.[157] Westmoreland outlined a three-point plan to win the war:
- Phase 1. Commitment of U.S. (and other free world) forces necessary to halt the losing trend by the end of 1965.
- Phase 2. U.S. and allied forces mount major offensive actions to seize the initiative to destroy guerrilla and organized enemy forces. This phase would end when the enemy had been worn down, thrown on the defensive, and driven back from major populated areas.
- Phase 3. If the enemy persisted, a period of twelve to eighteen months following Phase 2 would be required for the final destruction of enemy forces remaining in remote base areas.[158]
The plan was approved by Johnson and marked a profound departure from the previous administration's insistence that the government of South Vietnam was responsible for defeating the guerrillas. Westmoreland predicted victory by the end of 1967.[159] Johnson did not, however, communicate this change in strategy to the media. Instead he emphasized continuity.[160] The change in U.S. policy depended on matching the North Vietnamese and the NLF in a contest of attrition and morale. The opponents were locked in a cycle of escalation.[161] The idea that the government of South Vietnam could manage its own affairs was shelved.[161]
The one-year tour of duty deprived units of experienced leadership. As one observer noted "we were not in Vietnam for 10 years, but for one year 10 times."[147] As a result, training programs were shortened.
South Vietnam was inundated with manufactured goods. As Stanley Karnow writes, "the main PX [Post Exchange], located in the Saigon suburb of Cholon, was only slightly smaller than the New York Bloomingdale's..."[162] The American buildup transformed the economy and had a profound effect on South Vietnamese society. A huge surge in corruption was witnessed.
Washington encouraged its SEATO allies to contribute troops. Australia, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and the Philippines[163] all agreed to send troops. Major allies, however, notably NATO nations Canada and the United Kingdom, declined Washington's troop requests.[164] The U.S. and its allies mounted complex operations, such as operations Masher, Attleboro, Cedar Falls, and Junction City. However, the communist insurgents remained elusive and demonstrated great tactical flexibility.
Meanwhile, the political situation in South Vietnam began to stabilize with the coming to power of Prime Minister Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and figurehead Chief of State, General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, in mid 1965 at the head of a military junta. This ended a series of coups that had happened more than once a year. In 1967, Thieu became president with Ky as his deputy, after rigged elections. Although they were nominally a civilian government, Ky was supposed to maintain real power through a behind-the-scenes military body. However, Thieu outmanoevred and sidelined Ky by filling the ranks with generals from his faction. Thieu was also accused of murdering Ky loyalists through contrived military accidents. Thieu, mistrustful and indecisive, remained president until 1975, having won a one-man election in 1971.[165]
The Johnson administration employed a "policy of minimum candor"[166] in its dealings with the media. Military information officers sought to manage media coverage by emphasizing stories that portrayed progress in the war. Over time, this policy damaged the public trust in official pronouncements. As the media's coverage of the war and that of the Pentagon diverged, a so-called credibility gap developed.[166]
Tet Offensive[link]
Main article: Tet Offensive
Having lured General Westmoreland's forces into the hinterland at Khe Sanh in Quảng Trị Province,[167] in January 1968, the NVA and NLF broke the truce that had traditionally accompanied the Tết (Lunar New Year) holiday. They launched the surprise Tet Offensive in the hope of sparking a national uprising. Over 100 cities were attacked, with assaults on General Westmoreland's headquarters and the U.S. Embassy, Saigon.
Although the U.S. and South Vietnamese forces were initially taken aback by the scale of the urban offensive, they responded quickly and effectively, decimating the ranks of the NLF. In the former capital city of Huế, the combined NLF and VPA troops captured the Imperial Citadel and much of the city, which led to the Battle of Huế. Throughout the offensive, the American forces employed massive firepower; in Huế where the battle was the fiercest, that firepower left 80% of the city in ruins.[168] During the interim between the capture of the Citadel and end of the "Battle of Huế", the communist insurgent occupying forces massacred several thousand unarmed Huế civilians (estimates vary up to a high of 6,000). After the war, North Vietnamese officials acknowledged that the Tet Offensive had, indeed, caused grave damage to NLF forces. But the offensive had another, unintended consequence.
General Westmoreland had become the public face of the war. He was featured on the cover of Time magazine three times and was named 1965's Man of the Year.[169] Time described him as "the sinewy personification of the American fighting man... (who) directed the historic buildup, drew up the battle plans, and infused the... men under him with his own idealistic view of U.S. aims and responsibilities."[169]
In November 1967 Westmoreland spearheaded a public relations drive for the Johnson administration to bolster flagging public support.[170] In a speech before the National Press Club he said that a point in the war had been reached "where the end comes into view."[171] Thus, the public was shocked and confused when Westmoreland's predictions were trumped by Tet.[170] The American media, which had been largely supportive of U.S. efforts, rounded on the Johnson administration for what had become an increasing credibility gap. Despite its military failure, the Tet Offensive became a political victory and ended the career of President Lyndon B. Johnson, who declined to run for re-election. Johnson's approval rating slumped from 48 to 36 percent.[170]
As James Witz noted, Tet "contradicted the claims of progress... made by the Johnson administration and the military."[170] The Tet Offensive was the turning point in America's involvement in the Vietnam War. It had a profound impact on domestic support for the conflict. The offensive constituted an intelligence failure on the scale of Pearl Harbor.[163][172] Journalist Peter Arnett quoted an unnamed officer, saying of Bến Tre (laid to rubble by U.S. firepower)[173] that "it became necessary to destroy the village in order to save it" (though the authenticity of this quote is disputed).[174] According to one source, this quote was attributed to Major Booris of 9th Infantry Division.[175]
Westmoreland became Chief of Staff of the Army in March, just as all resistance was finally subdued. The move was technically a promotion. However, his position had become untenable because of the offensive and because his request for 200,000 additional troops had been leaked to the media. Westmoreland was succeeded by his deputy Creighton Abrams, a commander less inclined to public media pronouncements.[176]
On 10 May 1968, despite low expectations, peace talks began between the United States and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Negotiations stagnated for five months, until Johnson gave orders to halt the bombing of North Vietnam. The Democratic candidate, Vice President Hubert Humphrey, was running against Republican former vice president Richard Nixon.
As historian Robert Dallek writes, "Lyndon Johnson's escalation of the war in Vietnam divided Americans into warring camps... cost 30,000 American lives by the time he left office, (and) destroyed Johnson's presidency..."[177] His refusal to send more U.S. troops to Vietnam was seen as Johnson's admission that the war was lost.[178] It can be seen that the refusal was a tacit admission that the war could not be won by escalation, at least not at a cost acceptable to the American people.[178] As Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara noted, "the dangerous illusion of victory by the United States was therefore dead."[179]
Vietnamization, 1969–1972[link]
Nixon Doctrine / Vietnamization[link]
For more details on this topic, see Role of the United States in the Vietnam War#Vietnamization,_1969–1975 and #Vietnamization, 1969–1974.
Severe communist losses during the Tet Offensive allowed U.S. President Richard Nixon to begin troop withdrawals. His plan, called the Nixon Doctrine, was to build up the ARVN, so that they could take over the defense of South Vietnam. The policy became known as "Vietnamization". Vietnamization had much in common with the policies of the Kennedy administration. One important difference, however, remained. While Kennedy insisted that the South Vietnamese fight the war themselves, he attempted to limit the scope of the conflict.
Nixon said in an announcement, "I am tonight announcing plans for the withdrawal of an additional 150,000 American troops to be completed during the spring of next year. This will bring a total reduction of 265,500 men in our armed forces in Vietnam below the level that existed when we took office 15 months ago."[180]
On 10 October 1969, Nixon ordered a squadron of 18 B-52s loaded with nuclear weapons to race to the border of Soviet airspace to convince the Soviet Union that he was capable of anything to end the Vietnam War.
Nixon also pursued negotiations. Theater commander Creighton Abrams shifted to smaller operations, aimed at communist logistics, with better use of firepower and more cooperation with the ARVN. Nixon also began to pursue détente with the Soviet Union and rapprochement with the People's Republic of China. This policy helped to decrease global tensions. Détente led to nuclear arms reduction on the part of both superpowers. But Nixon was disappointed that the PRC and the Soviet Union continued to supply the North Vietnamese with aid. In September 1969, Ho Chi Minh died at age seventy-nine.[181]
The anti-war movement was gaining strength in the United States. Nixon appealed to the "silent majority" of Americans to support the war. But revelations of the My Lai Massacre, in which a U.S. Army platoon raped and killed civilians, and the 1969 "Green Beret Affair" where eight Special Forces soldiers, including the 5th Special Forces Group Commander were arrested for the murder[182] of a suspected double agent[183] provoked national and international outrage.
Beginning in 1970, American troops were being taken away from border areas where much more killing took place, and instead put along the coast and interior, which is one reason why casualties in 1970 were less than half of 1969's totals.[180]
The secret bombing of Cambodia and Laos[link]
Main article: Operation Menu
Prince Norodom Sihanouk had proclaimed Cambodia neutral since 1955,[184] but the communists used Cambodian soil as a base and Sihanouk tolerated their presence, because he wished to avoid being drawn into a wider regional conflict. Under pressure from Washington, however, he changed this policy in 1969. The Vietnamese communists were no longer welcome. President Nixon took the opportunity to launch a massive secret bombing campaign, called Operation Menu, against their sanctuaries along the Cambodia/Vietnam border.
This violated a long succession of pronouncements from Washington supporting Cambodian neutrality. Richard Nixon wrote to Prince Sihanouk in April 1969 assuring him that the United States respected "the sovereignty, neutrality and territorial integrity of the Kingdom of Cambodia..."[185] In 1970, Prince Sihanouk was deposed by his pro-American prime minister Lon Nol. The country's borders were closed, while U.S. forces and ARVN launched incursions into Cambodia to attack VPA/NLF bases and buy time for South Vietnam.
The invasion of Cambodia sparked nationwide U.S. protests. Four students were killed by National Guardsmen at Kent State University during a protest in Ohio, which provoked public outrage in the United States. The reaction to the incident by the Nixon administration was seen as callous and indifferent, providing additional impetus for the anti-war movement.[186]
In 1971 the Pentagon Papers were leaked to The New York Times. The top-secret history of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, commissioned by the Department of Defense, detailed a long series of public deceptions. The Supreme Court ruled that its publication was legal.[187]
The ARVN launched Operation Lam Son 719 in February 1971, aimed at cutting the Ho Chi Minh trail in Laos.[114] The ostensibly neutral Laos had long been the scene of a secret war. After meeting resistance, ARVN forces retreated in a confused rout. They fled along roads littered with their own dead. When they ran out of fuel, soldiers abandoned their vehicles and attempted to barge their way on to American helicopters sent to evacuate the wounded. Many ARVN soldiers clung to helicopter skids in a desperate attempt to save themselves. U.S. aircraft had to destroy abandoned equipment, including tanks, to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. Half of the invading ARVN troops were either captured or killed. The operation was a fiasco and represented a clear failure of Vietnamization. As Karnow noted "the blunders were monumental... The (South Vietnamese) government's top officers had been tutored by the Americans for ten or fifteen years, many at training schools in the United States, yet they had learned little."[188]
In 1971 Australia and New Zealand withdrew their soldiers. The U.S. troop count was further reduced to 196,700, with a deadline to remove another 45,000 troops by February 1972. As peace protests spread across the United States, disillusionment and ill-discipline grew in the ranks.[189]
Vietnamization was again tested by the Easter Offensive of 1972, a massive conventional invasion of South Vietnam. The VPA and NLF quickly overran the northern provinces and in coordination with other forces attacked from Cambodia, threatening to cut the country in half. U.S. troop withdrawals continued. But American airpower came to the rescue with Operation Linebacker, and the offensive was halted. However, it became clear that without American airpower South Vietnam could not survive. The last remaining American ground troops were withdrawn in August.
1972 election and Paris Peace Accords[link]
The war was the central issue of the 1972 presidential election. Nixon's opponent, George McGovern, campaigned on a platform of withdrawal from Vietnam. Nixon's National Security Adviser, Henry Kissinger, continued secret negotiations with North Vietnam's Lê Ðức Thọ. In October 1972, they reached an agreement.
However, South Vietnamese President Thieu demanded massive changes to the peace accord. When North Vietnam went public with the agreement's details, the Nixon administration claimed that the North was attempting to embarrass the President. The negotiations became deadlocked. Hanoi demanded new changes.
.jpg)
To show his support for South Vietnam and force Hanoi back to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered Operation Linebacker II, a massive bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong 18–29 December 1972. The offensive destroyed much of the remaining economic and industrial capacity of North Vietnam. Simultaneously Nixon pressured Thieu to accept the terms of the agreement, threatening to conclude a bilateral peace deal and cut off American aid.
On 15 January 1973, Nixon announced the suspension of offensive action against North Vietnam. The Paris Peace Accords on "Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam" were signed on 27 January 1973, officially ending direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. A cease-fire was declared across North and South Vietnam. U.S. POWs were released. The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and, like the Geneva Conference of 1954, called for national elections in the North and South. The Paris Peace Accords stipulated a sixty-day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. forces. "This article", noted Peter Church, "proved... to be the only one of the Paris Agreements which was fully carried out."[190]
Opposition to the Vietnam War: 1962–1975[link]
 |
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (April 2010) |
Main article: Opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War
Some advocates within the peace movement advocated a unilateral withdrawal of U.S. forces from Vietnam. One reason given for the withdrawal is that it would contribute to a lessening of tensions in the region and thus less human bloodshed. Early opposition to U.S. involvement in Vietnam was centered around the Geneva conference of 1954. American support of Diem in refusing elections was thought to be thwarting the very democracy that America claimed to be supporting. John Kennedy, while Senator, opposed involvement in Vietnam.[142]
Opposition to the Vietnam War tended to unite groups opposed to U.S. anti-communism, imperialism and colonialism and, for those involved with the New Left such as the Catholic Worker Movement, capitalism itself. Others, such as Stephen Spiro opposed the war based on the theory of Just War. Some wanted to show solidarity with the people of Vietnam, such as Norman Morrison emulating the actions of Thích Quảng Đức. Some critics of U.S. withdrawal predicted that it would not contribute to peace but rather vastly increase bloodshed. These critics advocated U.S. forces remain until all threats from the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army had been eliminated. Advocates of U.S. withdrawal were generally known as "doves", and they called their opponents "hawks", following nomenclature dating back to the War of 1812.
High-profile opposition to the Vietnam War turned to street protests in an effort to turn U.S. political opinion. On 15 October 1969, the Vietnam Moratorium attracted millions of Americans.[191] The fatal shooting of four students at Kent State University led to nation-wide university protests.[192] Riots broke out at the 1968 Democratic National Convention.[193] After explosive news reports of American military abuses, such as the 1968 My Lai Massacre, brought new attention and support to the anti-war movement, some veterans joined Vietnam Veterans Against the War. Anti-war protests ended with the final withdrawal of troops after the Paris Peace Accords were signed in 1973. South Vietnam was left to defend itself alone when the fighting resumed. Many South Vietnamese subsequently fled to the United States.[194]
Exit of the Americans: 1973–1975[link]
The United States began drastically reducing their troop support in South Vietnam during the final years of "Vietnamization". Many U.S. troops were removed from the region, and on 5 March 1971, the United States returned the 5th Special Forces Group, which was the first American unit deployed to South Vietnam, to its former base in Fort Bragg, North Carolina.[195] [A 5]
Under the Paris Peace Accords, between North Vietnamese Foreign Minister Lê Ðức Thọ and U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, and reluctantly signed by South Vietnamese President Thiệu, U.S. military forces withdrew from South Vietnam and prisoners were exchanged. North Vietnam was allowed to continue supplying communist troops in the South, but only to the extent of replacing materials that were consumed. Later that year the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Kissinger and Thọ, but the Vietnamese negotiator declined it saying that a true peace did not yet exist.
The communist leaders had expected that the ceasefire terms would favor their side. But Saigon, bolstered by a surge of U.S. aid received just before the ceasefire went into effect, began to roll back the Vietcong. The communists responded with a new strategy hammered out in a series of meetings in Hanoi in March 1973, according to the memoirs of Trần Văn Trà.[198]
As the Vietcong's top commander, Trà participated in several of these meetings. With U.S. bombings suspended, work on the Ho Chi Minh Trail and other logistical structures could proceed unimpeded. Logistics would be upgraded until the North was in a position to launch a massive invasion of the South, projected for the 1975–76 dry season. Trà calculated that this date would be Hanoi's last opportunity to strike before Saigon's army could be fully trained.[198]
In the November 1972 Election, McGovern lost 49 of 50 states to Richard Nixon, who was re-elected U.S. president. Despite supporting Nixon over McGovern, many American voters split their tickets, returning a Democratic majority to both houses of Congress.
On 15 March 1973, U.S. President Richard Nixon implied that the United States would intervene militarily if the communist side violated the ceasefire. Public and congressional reaction to Nixon's trial balloon was unfavorable and in April Nixon appointed Graham Martin as U.S. ambassador to Vietnam. Martin was a second stringer compared to previous U.S. ambassadors and his appointment was an early signal that Washington had given up on Vietnam. During his confirmation hearings in June 1973, Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger stated that he would recommend resumption of U.S. bombing in North Vietnam if North Vietnam launched a major offensive against South Vietnam. On 4 June 1973, the U.S. Senate passed the Case-Church Amendment to prohibit such intervention.[199]
| In the 1972 Congressional Election, the majority of Americans voted for Democratic Congressmen. This map shows the House seats by party holding plurality in state | |
|---|---|
|
80.1–100% Republican
|
80.1–100% Democratic
|
|
60.1–80% Republican
|
60.1–80% Democratic
|
|
up to 60% Republican
|
up to 60% Democratic
|
The oil price shock of October 1973 caused significant damage to the South Vietnamese economy. The Vietcong resumed offensive operations when dry season began and by January 1974 it had recaptured the territory it lost during the previous dry season. After two clashes that left 55 South Vietnamese soldiers dead, President Thiệu announced on 4 January that the war had restarted and that the Paris Peace Accord was no longer in effect. There had been over 25,000 South Vietnamese casualties during the ceasefire period.[200]
Gerald Ford took over as U.S. president on 9 August 1974 after President Nixon resigned due to the Watergate scandal. At this time, Congress cut financial aid to South Vietnam from $1 billion a year to $700 million. The U.S. midterm elections in 1974 brought in a new Congress dominated by Democrats who were even more determined to confront the president on the war. Congress immediately voted in restrictions on funding and military activities to be phased in through 1975 and to culminate in a total cutoff of funding in 1976.
The success of the 1973–74 dry season offensive inspired Trà to return to Hanoi in October 1974 and plead for a larger offensive in the next dry season. This time, Trà could travel on a drivable highway with regular fueling stops, a vast change from the days when the Ho Chi Minh Trail was a dangerous mountain trek.[201] Giáp, the North Vietnamese defense minister, was reluctant to approve Trà's plan. A larger offensive might provoke a U.S. reaction and interfere with the big push planned for 1976. Trà appealed over Giáp's head to first secretary Lê Duẩn, who approved of the operation.
Trà's plan called for a limited offensive from Cambodia into Phuoc Long Province. The strike was designed to solve local logistical problems, gauge the reaction of South Vietnamese forces, and determine whether U.S. would return to the fray.
On 13 December 1974, North Vietnamese forces attacked Route 14 in Phuoc Long Province. Phuoc Binh, the provincial capital, fell on 6 January 1975. Ford desperately asked Congress for funds to assist and re-supply the South before it was overrun. Congress refused. The fall of Phuoc Binh and the lack of an American response left the South Vietnamese elite demoralized.
The speed of this success led the Politburo to reassess its strategy. It was decided that operations in the Central Highlands would be turned over to General Văn Tiến Dũng and that Pleiku should be seized, if possible. Before he left for the South, Dũng was addressed by Lê Duẩn: "Never have we had military and political conditions so perfect or a strategic advantage as great as we have now."[202]
At the start of 1975, the South Vietnamese had three times as much artillery and twice the number of tanks and armoured cars as the opposition. They also had 1,400 aircraft and a two-to-one numerical superiority in combat troops over their Communist enemies.[203] However, the rising oil prices meant that much of this could not be used. They faced a well-organized, highly determined and well-funded North Vietnam. Much of the North's material and financial support came from the communist bloc. Within South Vietnam, there was increasing chaos. Their abandonment by the American military had compromised an economy dependent on U.S. financial support and the presence of a large number of U.S. troops. South Vietnam suffered from the global recession that followed the Arab oil embargo.
Campaign 275[link]
 |
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2008) |
On 10 March 1975, General Dung launched Campaign 275, a limited offensive into the Central Highlands, supported by tanks and heavy artillery. The target was Buôn Ma Thuột, in Đắk Lắk Province. If the town could be taken, the provincial capital of Pleiku and the road to the coast would be exposed for a planned campaign in 1976. The ARVN proved incapable of resisting the onslaught, and its forces collapsed on 11 March. Once again, Hanoi was surprised by the speed of their success. Dung now urged the Politburo to allow him to seize Pleiku immediately and then turn his attention to Kon Tum. He argued that with two months of good weather remaining until the onset of the monsoon, it would be irresponsible to not take advantage of the situation.
President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, a former general, was fearful that his forces would be cut off in the north by the attacking communists; Thieu ordered a retreat. The president declared this to be a "lighten the top and keep the bottom" strategy. But in what appeared to be a repeat of Operation Lam Son 719, the withdrawal soon turned into a bloody rout. While the bulk of ARVN forces attempted to flee, isolated units fought desperately. ARVN General Phu abandoned Pleiku and Kon Tum and retreated toward the coast, in what became known as the "column of tears".
As the ARVN tried to disengage from the enemy, refugees mixed in with the line of retreat. The poor condition of roads and bridges, damaged by years of conflict and neglect, slowed Phu's column. As the North Vietnamese forces approached, panic set in. Often abandoned by the officers, the soldiers and civilians were shelled incessantly. The retreat degenerated into a desperate scramble for the coast. By 1 April the "column of tears" was all but annihilated.
On 20 March, Thieu reversed himself and ordered Huế, Vietnam's third-largest city, be held at all costs, and then changed his policy several times. Thieu's contradictory orders confused and demoralized his officer corps. As the North Vietnamese launched their attack, panic set in, and ARVN resistance withered. On 22 March, the VPA opened the siege of Huế. Civilians flooded the airport and the docks hoping for any mode of escape. Some even swam out to sea to reach boats and barges anchored offshore. In the confusion, routed ARVN soldiers fired on civilians to make way for their retreat.
On 25 March, after a three-day battle, Huế fell. As resistance in Huế collapsed, North Vietnamese rockets rained down on Da Nang and its airport. By 28 March 35,000 VPA troops were poised to attack the suburbs. By 30 March 100,000 leaderless ARVN troops surrendered as the VPA marched victoriously through Da Nang. With the fall of the city, the defense of the Central Highlands and Northern provinces came to an end.
Final North Vietnamese offensive[link]
For more details on the final North Vietnamese offensive, see Ho Chi Minh Campaign.
With the northern half of the country under their control, the Politburo ordered General Dung to launch the final offensive against Saigon. The operational plan for the Ho Chi Minh Campaign called for the capture of Saigon before 1 May. Hanoi wished to avoid the coming monsoon and prevent any redeployment of ARVN forces defending the capital. Northern forces, their morale boosted by their recent victories, rolled on, taking Nha Trang, Cam Ranh, and Da Lat.
On 7 April, three North Vietnamese divisions attacked Xuan Loc, 40 miles (64 km) east of Saigon. The North Vietnamese met fierce resistance at Xuan Loc from the ARVN 18th Division, who were outnumbered six to one. For two bloody weeks, severe fighting raged as the ARVN defenders made a last stand to try to block the North Vietnamese advance. By 21 April, however, the exhausted garrison were ordered to withdraw towards Saigon.
An embittered and tearful President Thieu resigned on the same day, declaring that the United States had betrayed South Vietnam. In a scathing attack, he suggested U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had tricked him into signing the Paris peace agreement two years ago, promising military aid that failed to materialise. Having transferred power to Tran Van Huong, he left for Taiwan on 25 April. At the same time, North Vietnamese tanks had reached Bien Hoa and turned toward Saigon, brushing aside isolated ARVN units along the way.
By the end of April, the ARVN had collapsed on all fronts except in the Mekong Delta. Thousand of refugees streamed southward, ahead of the main communist onslaught. On 27 April 100,000 North Vietnamese troops encircled Saigon. The city was defended by about 30,000 ARVN troops. To hasten a collapse and foment panic, the VPA shelled the airport and forced its closure. With the air exit closed, large numbers of civilians found that they had no way out.
Fall of Saigon[link]
Main articles: Fall of Saigon and Operation Frequent Wind
Chaos, unrest, and panic broke out as hysterical South Vietnamese officials and civilians scrambled to leave Saigon. Martial law was declared. American helicopters began evacuating South Vietnamese, U.S., and foreign nationals from various parts of the city and from the U.S. embassy compound. Operation Frequent Wind had been delayed until the last possible moment, because of U.S. Ambassador Graham Martin's belief that Saigon could be held and that a political settlement could be reached.
Schlesinger announced early in the morning of 29 April 1975 the evacuation from Saigon by helicopter of the last U.S. diplomatic, military, and civilian personnel. Frequent Wind was arguably the largest helicopter evacuation in history. It began on 29 April, in an atmosphere of desperation, as hysterical crowds of Vietnamese vied for limited space. Martin pleaded with Washington to dispatch $700 million in emergency aid to bolster the regime and help it mobilize fresh military reserves. But American public opinion had soured on this conflict.
In the United States, South Vietnam was perceived as doomed. President Gerald Ford had given a televised speech on 23 April, declaring an end to the Vietnam War and all U.S. aid. Frequent Wind continued around the clock, as North Vietnamese tanks breached defenses on the outskirts of Saigon. In the early morning hours of 30 April, the last U.S. Marines evacuated the embassy by helicopter, as civilians swamped the perimeter and poured into the grounds. Many of them had been employed by the Americans and were left to their fate.
File:NVA pose for picture in Presidential Palace at end of Vietnam war.jpg
Victorious NVA troops at the Presidential Palace, Saigon.
On 30 April 1975, VPA troops overcame all resistance, quickly capturing key buildings and installations. A tank crashed through the gates of the Independence Palace, and at 11:30 am local time the NLF flag was raised above it. President Duong Van Minh, who had succeeded Huong two days earlier, surrendered. His surrender marked the end of 116 years of Vietnamese involvement in conflict either alongside or against various countries, primarily China, France, Japan and United States.[204]
Other countries' involvement[link]
Pro-Hanoi[link]
People's Republic of China[link]
In 1950, the People's Republic of China extended diplomatic recognition to the Viet Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam and sent weapons, as well as military advisors led by Luo Guibo to assist the Viet Minh in its war with the French. The first draft of the 1954 Geneva Accords was negotiated by French Prime Minister Pierre Mendès France and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai who, fearing U.S. intervention, urged the Viet Minh to accept a partition at the 17th parallel.[205]
China's ability to aid the Viet Minh declined when Soviet aid to China was reduced following the end of the Korean War in 1953. Moreover, a divided Vietnam posed less of a threat to China. China provided material and technical support to the Vietnamese communists worth hundreds of millions of dollars. Chinese-supplied rice allowed North Vietnam to pull military-age men from the paddies and to impose a universal draft beginning in 1960.
In the summer of 1962, Mao Zedong agreed to supply Hanoi with 90,000 rifles and guns free of charge. Starting in 1965, China sent anti-aircraft units and engineering battalions to North Vietnam to repair the damage caused by American bombing, rebuild roads and railroads, and to perform other engineering works. This freed North Vietnamese army units for combat in the South.
Sino-Soviet relations soured after the Soviets invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968. In October, the Chinese demanded North Vietnam cut relations with Moscow, but Hanoi refused.[206] The Chinese began to withdraw in November 1968 in preparation for a clash with the Soviets, which occurred at Zhenbao Island in March 1969. The Chinese also began financing the Khmer Rouge as a counterweight to the Vietnamese communists at this time. China's withdrawal from Vietnam was completed in July 1970.[207]
The Khmer Rouge launched ferocious raids into Vietnam in 1975–1978. Vietnam responded with an invasion that toppled the Khmer Rouge. In response, China launched a brief, punitive invasion of Vietnam in 1979.
Soviet Union[link]
.jpg)
Soviet ships in the South China Sea gave vital early warnings to NLF forces in South Vietnam. The Soviet intelligence ships would pick up American B-52 bombers flying from Okinawa and Guam. Their airspeed and direction would be noted and then relayed to COSVN headquarters. COSVN using airspeed and direction would calculate the bombing target and tell any assets to move "perpendicularly to the attack trajectory." These advance warning gave them time to move out of the way of the bombers and while the bombing runs caused extensive damage, because of the early warnings from 1968–1970 they did not kill a single military or civilian leader in the headquarter complexes.[208]
The Soviet Union supplied North Vietnam with medical supplies, arms, tanks, planes, helicopters, artillery, anti-aircraft missiles and other military equipment. Soviet crews fired USSR-made surface-to-air missiles at the B-52 bombers, which were the first raiders shot down over Hanoi. Fewer than a dozen Soviet citizens lost their lives in this conflict. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russian officials acknowledged that the Soviet Union had stationed up to 3,000 troops in Vietnam during the war.[209]
Some Russian sources give more specific numbers: the hardware donated by the USSR included 2,000 tanks, 7,000 artillery guns, over 5,000 anti-aircraft guns, 158 surface-to-air rocket launchers. Over the course of the war the Soviet money donated to the Vietnamese cause was equal to 2 million dollars a day. From July 1965 to the end of 1974, fighting in Vietnam was attended by some 6,500 officers and generals, as well as more than 4,500 soldiers and sergeants of the Soviet Armed Forces. In addition, military schools and academies of the USSR began training Vietnamese soldiers – more than 10 thousand people.[210]
North Korea[link]
As a result of a decision of the Korean Workers' Party in October 1966, in early 1967 North Korea sent a fighter squadron to North Vietnam to back up the North Vietnamese 921st and 923rd fighter squadrons defending Hanoi. They stayed through 1968, and 200 pilots were reported to have served.[211]
In addition, at least two anti-aircraft artillery regiments were sent as well. North Korea also sent weapons, ammunition and two million sets of uniforms to their comrades in North Vietnam.[212] Kim Il-sung is reported to have told his pilots to "fight in the war as if the Vietnamese sky were their own".[213]
Cuba[link]
The extent of manpower contributions to North Vietnam by the communist Republic of Cuba, under Fidel Castro, is still a matter of debate. Then and since, the communist Vietnamese and Cuban governments have not divulged any information on this matter. There are numerous reports by former U.S. prisoners of war that Cuban military personnel were present at North Vietnamese prison facilities during the war, and that they participated in torture activities, in what is known as the "Cuba Program".[214][215][216][217][218] Witnesses to this include Senator John McCain, 2008 U.S. Presidential candidate and former Vietnam prisoner of war, according to his 1999 book Faith of My Fathers.[219] That there was at least a small contingent of Cuban military advisors present in North Vietnam during the war is without question. Some, notably Vietnam War POW/MIA issue advocates, claim evidence that Cuba's military and non-military involvement may have run into the "thousands" of personnel.[220]
Pro-Saigon[link]
South Korea[link]
Further information: Republic of Korea Marine Corps#Vietnam War, Tiger Division, Blue Dragon (military unit), and White Horse (military)
On the anti-communist side, South Korea had the second-largest contingent of foreign troops in South Vietnam after the United States. In November 1961, Park Chung Hee proposed South Korean participation in the war to John F. Kennedy, but Kennedy disagreed.[221] On 1 May 1964 Lyndon Johnson requested South Korean participation.[221] The first South Korean troops began arriving in 1964 and large combat battalions began arriving a year later, with the South Koreans soon developing a reputation for effectiveness. Indeed arguably, they conducted counterinsurgency operations so well that American commanders felt that Korean area of responsibility was the safest.[222]
Approximately 320 thousand South Korean soldiers were sent to Vietnam,[223] each serving a one year tour of duty. Maximum troop levels peaked at 50 thousands in 1968, however all were withdrawn by 1973.[224] About five thousand South Koreans were killed and 11 thousands were injured during the war. South Korea killed 41 thousand Viet Congs.[223] United States paid South Korean soldiers USD 236 million for their service in Vietnam,[223] and South Korean GNP increased five-fold during the war.[223]
Australia and New Zealand[link]
Main articles: Military history of Australia during the Vietnam War and New Zealand in the Vietnam War
Australia and New Zealand, close allies of the United States and members of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) and the ANZUS military co-operation treaty, sent ground troops to Vietnam. Both nations had gained experience in counterinsurgency and jungle warfare during the Malayan Emergency and World War II. Their governments subscribed to the Domino theory. Australia began by sending advisors to Vietnam in 1962, and combat troops were committed in 1965.[225] New Zealand began by sending a detachment of engineers and an artillery battery, and then started sending special forces and regular infantry which were attached to Australian formations.[226] Australia's peak commitment was 7,672 combat troops and New Zealand's 552. More than 60,000 Australian personnel were involved during the course of the war, of which 521 were killed and more than 3,000 wounded.[227] Approximately 3,000 New Zealanders served in Vietnam, losing 37 killed and 187 wounded.[228] Most Australians and New Zealanders served in the 1st Australian Task Force in Phước Tuy province.[225]
Philippines[link]
Some 10,450 Filipino troops were dispatched to South Vietnam. They were primarily engaged in medical and other civilian pacification projects. These forces operated under the designation PHLCAG-V or Philippine Civic Action Group-Vietnam.
Thailand[link]
Thai Army formations, including the "Queen's Cobra" battalion, saw action in South Vietnam between 1965 and 1971. Thai forces saw much more action in the covert war in Laos between 1964 and 1972, though Thai regular formations there were heavily outnumbered by the irregular "volunteers" of the CIA-sponsored Police Aerial Reconnaissance Units or PARU, who carried out reconnaissance activities on the western side of the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
Nationalist China[link]
Main article: Republic of China in the Vietnam War
Since November 1967, the Chinese Nationalists on Taiwan secretly operated a cargo transport detachment to assist the United States and the ROV. Taiwan also provided military training units for the South Vietnamese diving units, later known as the Lien Doi Nguoi Nhai (LDMN) or Frogman unit in English.[229] In addition to the diving trainers there were several hundred military personnel.[229] Military commandos from Taiwan were captured by communist forces three times trying to infiltrate North Vietnam.[229]
Canada and the ICC[link]
Main article: Canada and the Vietnam War
Canada, India and Poland constituted the International Control Commission, which was supposed to monitor the 1954 ceasefire agreement.[230] Officially, Canada did not have partisan involvement in the Vietnam War and diplomatically it was "non-belligerent". Victor Levant suggested otherwise in his book "Quiet Complicity: Canadian Involvement in the Vietnam War" (1986).[231][232]
Women in Vietnam[link]
American nurses[link]
During the Vietnam War, women served on active duty doing a variety of jobs. Early in 1963, the Army Nurse Corps (ANC) launched Operation Nightingale, an intensive effort to recruit nurses to serve in Vietnam. Most nurses who volunteered to serve in Vietnam came from predominantly working or middle class families with histories of military service. The majority of these women were white Catholics and Protestants.[233] Because the need for medical aid was great, many nurses underwent a concentrated four-month training program before being deployed to Vietnam in the ANC[234] Due to the shortage of staff, nurses usually worked twelve-hour shifts, six days per week and often suffered from exhaustion. First Lieutenant Sharon Lane was the only female military nurse to be killed by enemy gunfire during the war on 8 June 1969.[235]
At the start of the Vietnam War, it was commonly thought that American women had no place in the military. Their traditional place had been in the domestic sphere, but with the war came opportunity for the expansion of gender roles. In Vietnam, women held a variety of jobs which included operating complex data processing equipment and serving as stenographers.[236] Although a small number of women were assigned to combat zones, they were never allowed directly in the field of battle. The women who served in the military were solely volunteers. They faced a plethora of challenges, one of which was the relatively small number of female soldiers. Living in a male-dominated environment created tensions between the sexes. While this high male to female ratio was often uncomfortable for women, many men reported that having women in the field with them boosted their morale.[237] Although this was not the women's purpose, it was one positive result of the their service. By 1973, approximately 7,500 women had served in Vietnam in the Southeast Asian theater.[238] In that same year, the military lifted the prohibition on women entering the armed forces.
American women serving in Vietnam were subject to societal stereotypes. Many Americans either considered female in Vietnam mannish for living under the army discipline, or judged them to be women of questionable moral character who enlisted for the sole purpose of seducing men.[239] To address this problem, the ANC released advertisements portraying women in the ANC as "proper, professional and well protected." (26) This effort to highlight the positive aspects of a nursing career reflected the ideas of second-wave feminism that occurred during the 1960s–1970s in the United States. Although female military nurses lived in a heavily male environment, very few cases of sexual harassment were ever reported.[240] In 2008, by contrast, approximately one-third of women in the military felt that they had been sexually harassed compared with one-third of men.
Vietnamese women[link]
Unlike the American women who went to Vietnam, Vietnamese women fought in the combat zone as well as provided manual labor to keep the Ho Chi Minh Trail open; they also worked in the rice fields to provide food for their families and the war effort. Women were enlisted in both the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) and the VietCong guerrilla force in South Vietnam.
Nguyen Thi Dinh was an example of a woman who had fought most of her adult life against foreign forces in her country. She was a member of the Vietminh fighting against the French and was imprisoned in the 1940s but on her release continued to fight and led a revolt in 1945 in Ben Tre and also in 1960 against Diems government. In the mid 1960s, she became a deputy commander of the Viet Cong, the highest ranking combat position held by a woman during the war.[241]
Nguyen Thi Duc Hoan, who would later go on to be an actress-director, also joined the fight at a young age and would later become a guerrilla fighter against the Americans, at the time her own daughter was training in the militia.[242]
Weapons[link]
Communist forces were principally armed with Chinese[243] and Soviet weaponry[244] though some Viet Cong guerrilla units were equipped with Western infantry weapons either captured from French stocks during the first Indochina war or from ARVN units or requisitioned through illicit purchase.[245] The ubiquitous Soviet AK-47 was widely regarded as the best assault rifle of the war and it was not uncommon to see U.S. special forces with captured AK-47s. The American M16, which replaced the M14, was considered more accurate and was lighter than the AK-47 but was prone to jamming. Oftentimes the gun suffered from a jamming flaw known as "failure to extract," which meant that a spent cartridge case remained lodged in the chamber after a bullet flew out the muzzle.[246] According to a congressional report, the jamming was caused primarily by a change in gunpowder which was done without adequate testing and reflected a decision for which the safety of soldiers was a secondary consideration.[247] The heavily armored, 90 mm M48A3 Patton tank saw extensive action during the Vietnam War and over 600 were deployed with US Forces. They played an important role in infantry support though there were few actual tank versus tank battles. The M67A1 flamethrower tank (nicknamed the Zippo) was an M48 variant used in Vietnam. Artillery was used extensively by both sides but the Americans were able to ferry the lightweight 105 mm M102 howitzer by helicopter to remote locations on quick notice.[248][249] With its 17-mile (27 km) range, the Soviet 130 mm M-46 towed field gun was a highly regarded weapon and used to good effect by the NVA. It was countered by the long-range, American 175 mm M107 Self-Propelled Gun.[250] The United States had air superiority though many aircraft were lost to surface-to-air missiles and anti-aircraft artillery. U.S. air power was credited with breaking the siege of Khe Sanh and blunting the 1972 Communist offensive against South Vietnam. At sea, the U.S. Navy had the run of the coastline, using aircraft carriers as platforms for offshore strikes and other naval vessels for offshore artillery support. Offshore naval fire played a pivotal role in the Battle for the city of Hue, providing accurate fire in support of the U.S. counter-offensive to retake the city.[251] The Vietnam War was the first conflict that saw wide scale tactical deployment of helicopters.[252] The Bell UH-1 Iroquois was used extensively in counter-guerilla operations both as a troop carrier and a gunship.[249] In the latter role, the "Huey" as it became affectionately known, was outfitted with a variety of armaments including M60 machineguns, multi-barreled 7.62 mm Gatling guns and unguided air-to-surface rockets.[249] The Hueys were also successfully used in MEDEVAC and search and rescue roles.[249]
| Type | North Vietnam, Viet Cong | U.S., South Vietnam, Australia |
|---|---|---|
| AFVs | T-34/85, T-54, T-55, and PT-76 tanks. | M48A3 Patton tank, M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle, M551 Sheridan, M50 Ontos, Centurion (Australian Army), M41 Walker Bulldog (ARVN), V-100 Commando (Army Military Police / USAF Security Police) |
| APCs/IFVs | BTR-40, BTR-152, BTR-50, BTR-60 APC's & BMP 1 IFV's | M113 |
| Artillery | M1937 Howitzer, BM-21, D-30 (2A18) Howitzer, M1954 field gun | M109 self-propelled howitzer, M107 Self-Propelled Gun, M110 self-propelled howitzer, M102 105 mm howitzer, M114 155 mm howitzer |
| Aircraft | MiG-21, MiG-19, MiG-17 | A-4 Skyhawk, A-6 Intruder, F-4 Phantom II, F-100 Super Sabre, F-105 Thunderchief, A-7 Corsair, Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, Lockheed AC-130, Douglas AC-47 Spooky, B-57 Canberra (RAAF), A-37 Dragonfly (U.S. & ARVN) Douglas A-1 Skyraider (U.S. & ARVN) |
| Helicopters | Mi-6, Mi-8 | CH-47 Chinook, CH-53, Bell UH-1 Iroquois, Bell AH-1 Cobra, CH-54 Skycrane |
| AAW | SA-3 Goa, SA-2 Guideline, Strela 2, M1939 (61-K) 37 mm, ZSU-57-2, twin 57 mm, ZPU 14.5 mm models 1,2 and 4 (numbers corresponding to single, double and quad barreled variants) | MIM-23 Hawk, M55 Quad 50 (dual use weapon for AA as well as for engaging ground targets)[253] |
| Infantry weapons | MAT-49, SKS, AK-47, RPK, RPD, DShK HMG, RPG-7, RPG-2, B-10 recoilless rifle and B-11 recoilless rifle | M14, M16, M79 grenade launcher, M60 machine gun, M2 Browning, LAW, M18 Claymore anti-personnel mines, TOW, and M40 recoilless rifle, L1A1 SLR (ADF), Owen Gun (ADF) |
| Air-to-Air Missiles | Vympel K-13 | AIM-9 Sidewinder, AIM-7 Sparrow |
| Air-to-Surface Missiles | AGM-45 Shrike anti radiation missile, AGM-12 Bullpup, AGM-78 Standard ARM, AGM-62 Walleye, Zuni rocket | |
| Specialized weapons | IEDs[254] | BLU-82 Daisy Cutter, Laser-guided bombs, Napalm |
Aftermath[link]
Events in Southeast Asia[link]
Main articles: Mayaguez incident, Vietnam, Democratic Kampuchea, Sino-Vietnamese War, Reeducation camp, and boat people
Phnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia, fell to followers of the Communist Party of Kampuchea, commonly known as the Khmer Rouge, on 17 April 1975. Over the next four years, the Khmer Rouge enacted a genocidal policy that killed over one-fifth of all Cambodians, or more than a million people.[255] After repeated border clashes in 1978, Vietnam invaded Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia) and ousted the Khmer Rouge in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War.
In response, China invaded Vietnam in 1979. The two countries fought a brief border war, known as the Third Indochina War or the Sino-Vietnamese War. From 1978 to 1979, some 450,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat as refugees or were expelled across the land border with China.[256]
The Pathet Lao overthrew the royalist government of Laos in December 1975. They established the Lao People's Democratic Republic.[257] From 1975 to 1996, the United States resettled some 250,000 Lao refugees from Thailand, including 130,000 Hmong.[258]
More than 3 million people fled from Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, many as "boat people". Most Asian countries were unwilling to accept refugees.[259] Since 1975, an estimated 1.4 million refugees from Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries have been resettled to the United States,[260] while Canada, Australia, and France resettled over 500,000.[261]
Effect on the United States[link]
In the post-war era, Americans struggled to absorb the lessons of the military intervention.[262] As General Maxwell Taylor, one of the principal architects of the war, noted, "First, we didn't know ourselves. We thought that we were going into another Korean War, but this was a different country. Secondly, we didn't know our South Vietnamese allies... And we knew less about North Vietnam. Who was Ho Chi Minh? Nobody really knew. So, until we know the enemy and know our allies and know ourselves, we'd better keep out of this kind of dirty business. It's very dangerous."[263][264]
Some have suggested that "the responsibility for the ultimate failure of this policy [America's withdrawal from Vietnam] lies not with the men who fought, but with those in Congress..."[265] Alternatively, the official history of the United States Army noted that "tactics have often seemed to exist apart from larger issues, strategies, and objectives. Yet in Vietnam the Army experienced tactical success and strategic failure... The...Vietnam War...legacy may be the lesson that unique historical, political, cultural, and social factors always impinge on the military...Success rests not only on military progress but on correctly analyzing the nature of the particular conflict, understanding the enemy's strategy, and assessing the strengths and weaknesses of allies. A new humility and a new sophistication may form the best parts of a complex heritage left to the Army by the long, bitter war in Vietnam."[266]
U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger wrote in a secret memo to President Gerald Ford that "in terms of military tactics, we cannot help draw the conclusion that our armed forces are not suited to this kind of war. Even the Special Forces who had been designed for it could not prevail."[267] Even Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara concluded that "the achievement of a military victory by U.S. forces in Vietnam was indeed a dangerous illusion."[268]
Doubts surfaced as to the effectiveness of large-scale, sustained bombing. As Army Chief of Staff Harold Keith Johnson noted, "if anything came out of Vietnam, it was that air power couldn't do the job."[269] Even General William Westmoreland admitted that the bombing had been ineffective. As he remarked, "I still doubt that the North Vietnamese would have relented."[269]
The inability to bomb Hanoi to the bargaining table also illustrated another U.S. miscalculation. The North's leadership was composed of hardened communists who had been fighting for independence for thirty years. They had defeated the French, and their tenacity as both nationalists and communists was formidable. Ho Chi Minh is quoted as saying, "You can kill ten of my men for every one I kill of yours...But even at these odds you will lose and I will win."[270]
The Vietnam War called into question the U.S. Army doctrine. Marine Corps General Victor H. Krulak heavily criticised Westmoreland's attrition strategy, calling it "wasteful of American lives... with small likelihood of a successful outcome."[269] In addition, doubts surfaced about the ability of the military to train foreign forces.
Between 1965 and 1975, the United States spent $111 billion on the war ($686 billion in FY2008 dollars).[271] This resulted in a large federal budget deficit.
More than 3 million Americans served in the Vietnam War, some 1.5 million of whom actually saw combat in Vietnam.[272] James E. Westheider wrote that "At the height of American involvement in 1968, for example, there were 543,000 American military personnel in Vietnam, but only 80,000 were considered combat troops."[273] Conscription in the United States had been controlled by the President since World War II, but ended in 1973."
By war's end, 58,220 American soldiers had been killed,[A 2] more than 150,000 had been wounded, and at least 21,000 had been permanently disabled.[274] According to Dale Kueter, "Sixty-one percent of those killed were age 21 or younger. Of those killed in combat, 86.3 percent were white, 12.5 percent were black and the remainder from other races."[12] The youngest American KIA in the war was PFC Dan Bullock, who had falsified his birth certificate and enlisted in the US Marines at age 14 and who was killed in combat at age 15.[275] Approximately 830,000 Vietnam veterans suffered symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. An estimated 125,000 Americans fled to Canada to avoid the Vietnam draft,[276] and approximately 50,000 American servicemen deserted.[277] In 1977, United States President Jimmy Carter granted a full, complete and unconditional pardon to all Vietnam-era draft dodgers.[278] The Vietnam War POW/MIA issue, concerning the fate of U.S. service personnel listed as missing in action, persisted for many years after the war's conclusion.
Chemical defoliation[link]
One of the most controversial aspects of the U.S. military effort in Southeast Asia was the widespread use of chemical defoliants between 1961 and 1971. They were used to defoliate large parts of the countryside. These chemicals continue to change the landscape, cause diseases and birth defects, and poison the food chain.[279]
Early in the American military effort it was decided that since the enemy were hiding their activities under triple-canopy jungle, a useful first step might be to defoliate certain areas. This was especially true of growth surrounding bases (both large and small) in what became known as Operation Ranch Hand. Corporations like Dow Chemical Company and Monsanto were given the task of developing herbicides for this purpose.
The defoliants, which were distributed in drums marked with color-coded bands, included the "Rainbow Herbicides"—Agent Pink, Agent Green, Agent Purple, Agent Blue, Agent White, and, most famously, Agent Orange, which included dioxin as a by-product of its manufacture. About 12 million gallons (45,000,000 L) of Agent Orange were sprayed over Southeast Asia during the American involvement. A prime area of Ranch Hand operations was in the Mekong Delta, where the U.S. Navy patrol boats were vulnerable to attack from the undergrowth at the water's edge.
In 1961 and 1962, the Kennedy administration authorized the use of chemicals to destroy rice crops. Between 1961 and 1967, the U.S. Air Force sprayed 20 million U.S. gallons (75,700,000 L) of concentrated herbicides over 6 million acres (24,000 km2) of crops and trees, affecting an estimated 13% of South Vietnam's land. In 1965, 42% of all herbicide was sprayed over food crops. Another purpose of herbicide use was to drive civilian populations into RVN-controlled areas.[280]
As of 2006, the Vietnamese government estimates that there are over 4,000,000 victims of dioxin poisoning in Vietnam, although the United States government denies any conclusive scientific links between Agent Orange and the Vietnamese victims of dioxin poisoning. In some areas of southern Vietnam dioxin levels remain at over 100 times the accepted international standard.[281]
The U.S. Veterans Administration has listed prostate cancer, respiratory cancers, multiple myeloma, Diabetes mellitus type 2, B-cell lymphomas, soft-tissue sarcoma, chloracne, porphyria cutanea tarda, peripheral neuropathy, and spina bifida in children of veterans exposed to Agent Orange. Although there has been much discussion over whether the use of these defoliants constituted a violation of the laws of war, the defoliants were not considered weapons, since exposure to them did not lead to immediate death or incapacitation.
Casualties[link]
Main article: Vietnam War casualties
File:TrangBang.jpg
Phan Thị Kim Phúc, center, running down a road near Trảng Bàng, Vietnam, on 8 June 1972, after a napalm bomb was dropped on the village of Trảng Bàng by a plane of the Vietnam Air Force Photo: Nick Ut / The Associated Press
Main article: Outline of the Vietnam War
The number of military and civilian deaths from 1955 to 1975 is debated. Some reports fail to include the members of South Vietnamese forces killed in the final campaign, or the Royal Lao Armed Forces, thousands of Laotian and Thai irregulars, or Laotian civilians who all perished in the conflict. They do not include the tens of thousands of Cambodians killed during the civil war or the estimated one and one-half to two million that perished in the genocide that followed Khmer Rouge victory, or the fate of Laotian Royals and civilians after the Pathet Lao assumed complete power in Laos.
In 1995, the Vietnamese government reported that its military forces, including the NLF, suffered 1.1 million dead and 600,000 wounded during Hanoi's conflict with the United States. Civilian deaths were put at two million in the North and South, and economic reparations were demanded.[citation needed] Hanoi concealed the figures during the war to avoid demoralizing the population.[282] Estimates of civilian deaths caused by American bombing in Operation Rolling Thunder range from 52,000[283] to 182,000.[284] The U.S. military has estimated that between 200,000 and 250,000 South Vietnamese soldiers died in the war.[285]
Popular culture[link]
The Vietnam War has been featured heavily in television, film, video games, and literature in the participant countries. The war also influenced a generation of musicians and songwriters in Vietnam and the United States, both anti-war and pro/anti-communist. The band Country Joe and the Fish recorded "I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-To-Die Rag" / The "Fish" Cheer in 1965, and it became one of the most influential anti-Vietnam protest anthems.
Trinh Cong Son was a South Vietnamese songwriter famous for his anti-war songs.
See also[link]
|
Regional:
General:
Annotations[link]
- ^ a b Due to the early presence of American troops in Vietnam the start date of the Vietnam War is a grey zone. In 1998 after a high level review by the Department of Defense (DoD) and through the efforts of Richard B. Fitzgibbon's family the start date of the Vietnam War was changed to 1 November 1955.[21] U.S. government reports currently cite 1 November 1955 as the commencement date of the "Vietnam Conflict," for this was the day when the U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) in Indochina (deployed to Southeast Asia under President Truman) was reorganized into country-specific units and MAAG Vietnam was established.[22] Other start dates include when Hanoi authorized Viet Cong forces in South Vietnam to begin a low-level insurgency in December 1956,[23] whereas some view 26 September 1959 when the first battle occurred between the Communist and South Vietnamese army, as the start date.[24]
- ^ a b c d The figures of 58,220 and 303,644 for U.S. deaths and wounded come from the Department of Defense Statistical Information Analysis Division (SIAD), Defense Manpower Data Center, as well as from a Department of Veterans fact sheet dated May 2010[9] the CRS (Congressional Research Service) Report for Congress, American War and Military Operations Casualties: Lists and Statistics, dated 26 February 2010,[10] and the book Crucible Vietnam: Memoir of an Infantry Lieutenant.[11] Some other sources give different figures (e.g. the 2005/2006 documentary Heart of Darkness: The Vietnam War Chronicles 1945–1975 cited elsewhere in this article gives a figure of 58,159 U.S. deaths,[8] The 2007 book Vietnam Sons: For Some, the War Never Ended gives a figure of 58,226)[12]
- ^ Also known as the Second Indochina War, Vietnam Conflict, American War in Vietnam, and, also in Vietnam, as War Against the Americans to Save the Nation.[20]
- ^ The Việt Nam Ðộc Lập Ðồng Minh Hội had previously formed in Nanjing, China, at some point between August 1935 and early 1936 when the non-communist Vietnamese Nationalist Party (Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng, or Việt Quốc), led by Nguyễn Thái Học, and some members of the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP) and a number of other Vietnamese nationalist parties formed an anti-imperialist united front. This organisation soon lapsed into inactivity, only to be revived by the ICP and Ho Chi Minh in 1941.[44]
- ^ On 8 March 1965 the first American combat troops the, Third Marine Regiment, Third Marine Division, began landing in Vietnam to protect the Da Nang airport.[196][197]
Notes[link]
- ^ "ALLIES OF THE REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM". http://www.psywarrior.com/AlliesRepublicVietnam.html. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
- ^ "Vietnam War : US Troop Strength". Historycentral.com. http://www.historycentral.com/Vietnam/Troop.html. Retrieved 17 October 2009. [dead link]
- ^ "Facts about the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Collection". nps.gov. http://www.nps.gov/mrc/reader/vvmcr.htm. (citing The first American ground combat troops landed in South Vietnam during March 1965, specifically the U.S. Third Marine Regiment, Third Marine Division, deployed to Vietnam from Okinawa to defend the Da Nang, Vietnam, airfield. During the height of U.S. military involvement, 31 December 1968, the breakdown of allied forces were as follows: 536,100 U.S. military personnel, with 30,610 U.S. military having been killed to date; 65,000 Free World Forces personnel; 820,000 South Vietnam Armed Forces (SVNAF) with 88,343 having been killed to date. At the war's end, there were approximately 2,200 U.S. missing in action (MIA) and prisoner of war (POW). Source: Harry G. Summers, Jr. Vietnam War Almanac, Facts on File Publishing, 1985.)
- ^ Vietnam Marines 1965–73. Google Books. 8 March 1965. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGJ9V06p0BQC&pg=PA16. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
- ^ Vietnam War After Action Reports, BACM Research, 2009, page 430
- ^ a b c d Rummel, R.J (1997), "Table 6.1A. Vietnam Democide : Estimates, Sources, and Calculations," (GIF), Freedom, Democracy, Peace; Power, Democide, and War, University of Hawaii System, http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB6.1A.GIF
- ^ a b c Agence France Presse 4 April 1995: "The AFP release...says that the Hanoi government revealed on April 3 that the true civilian casualties of the VN war were 2,000,000 in the north, 2,000,000 in the south. Military casualties were 1.1 million killed and 600,000 wounded in 21 years of war (1963–74). These figures were deliberately falsified during the war by the North VN nationalists to avoid demoralizing the population, according to the French article. "
- ^ a b c d Aaron Ulrich (editor); Edward FeuerHerd (producer and director) (2005 & 2006) (Box set, Color, Dolby, DVD-Video, Full Screen, NTSC, Dolby, Vision Software). Heart of Darkness: The Vietnam War Chronicles 1945–1975 (Documentary). Koch Vision. Event occurs at 321 minutes. ISBN 1-4172-2920-9.
- ^ America's Wars (Report). Department of Veterans Affairs. 26 February 2010. http://www1.va.gov/opa/publications/factsheets/fs_americas_wars.pdf.
- ^ Anne Leland; Mari–Jana "M-J" Oboroceanu (26 February 2010). American War and Military Operations: Casualties: Lists and Statistics (Report). Congressional Research Service. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL32492.pdf.
- ^ Lawrence 2009, pp. 65, 107, 154, 217
- ^ a b Kueter, Dale (2007). Vietnam Sons: For Some, the War Never Ended. AuthorHouse. ISBN 1-4259-6931-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=wAXvYWx5QxUC&pg=PR8&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
- ^ "Vietnam War Casualties". Vietnamgear.com. 3 April 1995. http://www.vietnamgear.com/casualties.aspx. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Soames, John. A History of the World, Routledge, 2005.
- ^ Dunnigan, James & Nofi, Albert: Dirty Little Secrets of the Vietnam War: Military Information You're Not Supposed to Know. St. Martin's Press, 2000, p. 284. ISBN 0-312-25282-X.
- ^ For 2 million estimate see, Shenon, Philip (23 April 1995). "20 Years After Victory, Vietnamese Communists Ponder How to Celebrate". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/23/world/20-years-after-victory-vietnamese-communists-ponder-how-to-celebrate.html. Retrieved 24 February 2011. for 4 million see Agence France Presse 4 April 1995
- ^ a b Heuveline, Patrick (2001). "The Demographic Analysis of Mortality in Cambodia." In Forced Migration and Mortality, eds. Holly E. Reed and Charles B. Keely. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
- ^ a b Marek Sliwinski, Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une Analyse Démographique (L'Harmattan, 1995).
- ^ a b Banister, Judith, and Paige Johnson (1993). "After the Nightmare: The Population of Cambodia." In Genocide and Democracy in Cambodia: The Khmer Rouge, the United Nations and the International Community, ed. Ben Kiernan. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies.
- ^ "Official news source use of the name". Vietnamnews.vnagency.com.vn. 29 October 2009. http://vietnamnews.vnagency.com.vn/Social-Isssues/193440/Two-250kg-wartime-bombs-defused.html. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
- ^ DoD 1998
- ^ Lawrence 2009, p. 20
- ^ James Olson and Randy Roberts, Where the Domino Fell: America and Vietnam, 1945–1990, p. 67 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991).
- ^ a b c d e f g h Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954–1960, The Pentagon Papers (Gravel Edition), Volume 1, Chapter 5, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), Section 3, pp. 314–346; International Relations Department, Mount Holyoke College.
- ^ "Vietnam War". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/628478/Vietnam-War. Retrieved 5 March 2008. "Meanwhile, the United States, its military demoralized and its civilian electorate deeply divided, began a process of coming to terms with defeat in its longest and most controversial war"
- ^ Digital History, Steven Mintz. "The Vietnam War". Digitalhistory.uh.edu. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/modules/vietnam/index.cfm. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
- ^ Vietnam War Statistics and Facts 1, 25th Aviation Batallion website.
- ^ Kolko, Gabriel Anatomy of War, pp. 457, 461 ff., ISBN 1-898876-67-3.
- ^ Charles Hirschman et al., "Vietnamese Casualties During the American War: A New Estimate," Population and Development Review, December 1995.
- ^ Associated Press, 3 April 1995, "Vietnam Says 1.1 Million Died Fighting For North."
- ^ Warner, Roger, Shooting at the Moon, (1996), pp366, estimates 30,000 Hmong.
- ^ Obermeyer, "Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia", British Medical Journal, 2008, estimates 60,000 total.
- ^ T. Lomperis, From People's War to People's Rule, (1996), estimates 35,000 total.
- ^ Small, Melvin & Joel David Singer, Resort to Arms: International and Civil Wars 1816–1980, (1982), estimates 20,000 total.
- ^ Taylor, Charles Lewis, The World Handbook of Political and Social Indicators, estimates 20,000 total.
- ^ Stuart-Fox, Martin, A History of Laos, estimates 200,000 by 1973.
- ^ Moore, Harold. G and Joseph L. Galloway We Are Soldiers Still: A Journey Back to the Battlefields of Vietnam (p. 57).
- ^ "Asian-Nation: Asian American History, Demographics, & Issues:: The American / Viet Nam War". http://www.asian-nation.org/vietnam-war.shtml. Retrieved 18 August 2008. "The Viet Nam War is also called 'The American War' by the Vietnamese"
- ^ Ooi, Keat Gin. Southeast Asia: a historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO; 2004. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2. p. 520.
- ^ Rai, Lajpat. Social Science. FK Publications; ISBN 978-81-89611-12-5. p. 22.
- ^ Dommen, Arthur J.. The Indochinese experience of the French and the Americans: nationalism and communism in Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Indiana University Press; 2001. ISBN 978-0-253-33854-9. p. 4–19.
- ^ Neale, Jonathan The American War, p. 3, ISBN 1-898876-67-3.
- ^ a b Neale, Jonathan The American War, p. 17, ISBN 1-898876-67-3.
- ^ Sophie Quinn-Judge (2003). Ho Chi Minh: the missing years, 1919–1941. C. Hurst. pp. 212–213. ISBN 978-1-85065-658-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=knErjpiKxQoC.
- ^ Vietnam Vietnam by Spencer Tucker, p. 42, ISBN 0-8131-0966-3 Retrieved 4 June 2011.
- ^ Brocheux 2007, p. 198
- ^ Neale, Jonathan The American War, p. 18, ISBN 1-898876-67-3.
- ^ Neale, Jonathan The American War, pp. 18–19, ISBN 1-898876-67-3.
- ^ a b Kolko, Gabriel Anatomy of War, p. 36, ISBN 1-898876-67-3.
- ^ Neale, Jonathan The American War, p. 19, ISBN 1-898876-67-3.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Neale, Jonathan The American War, p. 20, ISBN 1-898876-67-3.
- ^ Kolko, Gabriel Anatomy of War, p. 37, ISBN 1-898876-67-3.
- ^ "ベトナム独立戦争参加日本人の事跡に基づく日越のあり方に関する研究". 井川 一久. Tokyo foundation. October 2005. http://nippon.zaidan.info/seikabutsu/2005/01036/pdf/0001.pdf. Retrieved 10 June 2010.
- ^ "日越関係発展の方途を探る研究 ヴェトナム独立戦争参加日本人―その実態と日越両国にとっての歴史的意味―". 井川 一久. Tokyo foundation. May 2006. http://nippon.zaidan.info/seikabutsu/2006/00197/pdf/0001.pdf. Retrieved 10 June 2010.
- ^ Willbanks 2009, p. 8
- ^ Neale, Jonathan The American War, p. 24, ISBN 1-898876-67-3.
- ^ Neale, Jonathan The American War, pp. 23–24 ISBN 1-898876-67-3.
- ^ Willbanks 2009, p. 9
- ^ "Franco-Vietnam Agreement of March 6th, 1946". Vietnamgear.com. 6 March 1946. http://www.vietnamgear.com/March6agreement.aspx. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
- ^ "Pentagon Papers, Gravel Edition, Chapter !, Section 2". Mtholyoke.edu. http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pentagon/pent2.htm. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
- ^ Neale, Jonathan The American War, p. 24 ISBN 1-898876-67-3.
- ^ Peter Dennis (1987). Troubled days of peace: Mountbatten and South East Asia command, 1945–46. Manchester University Press ND. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-7190-2205-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=Inu7AAAAIAAJ.
- ^ a b Neale, Jonathan The American War, p. 25 ISBN 1-898876-67-3.
- ^ a b c McNamara, Argument Without End pp. 377–79.
- ^ Pentagon Papers, Gravel, ed, Chapter 2, 'U.S. Involvement in the Franco-Viet Minh War', p. 54.
- ^ a b Ang, Cheng Guan, The Vietnam War from the Other Side, p. 14. Routledge (2002).
- ^ a b "The History Place – Vietnam War 1945–1960". http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/vietnam/index-1945.html. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
- ^ Herring, George C.: America's Longest War, p. 18.
- ^ Zinn, A People's History of the United States, p. 471.
- ^ a b Vietnam The Ten Thousand Day War, Thames 1981, Michael Maclear, p. 57.
- ^ Vietnam at War: The History: 1946–1975, ISBN 978-0-19-506792-7, p. 263.
- ^ Dien Bien Phu, Air Force Magazine 87:8, August 2004.
- ^ a b Vietnam, Routledge, 1999, Spencer Tucker, ISBN 978-1-85728-922-0, p. 76.
- ^ The U.S. Navy: a history, Naval Institute Press, 1997, Nathan Miller, ISBN 978-1-55750-595-8, pp. 67–68.
- ^ The Pentagon Papers. Gravel, ed. vol. 1, pp. 391–404.
- ^ "William C. Jeffries (2006). Trap Door to the Dark Side". p. 388. ISBN 1-4259-5120-1
- ^ Press release by the Embassy of the Republic of Vietnam, quoted from the Washington, D.C. press and Information Service, vol l. no. 18 (22 July 1955) and no. 20 (18 August 1955), in Chapter 19 of Gettleman, Franklin and Young, Vietnam and America: A Documented History, pp. 103–105.
- ^ Jacobs, pp. 45–55.
- ^ Two Viet-nams by Bernard B. Fall. Praeger, 1964.
- ^ Vietnam Divided by B.S.N. Murti, Asian Publishing House, 1964.
- ^ Robert Turner, Vietnamese Communism: Its Origin and Development, 102 (Stanford Ca: Hoover Institution Press, 1975).
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 238
- ^ Anatomy of a war, Gabiel Kolko, Phoenix press 1994, p. 98.
- ^ 1 Pentagon Papers (The Senator Gravel Edition), 247, 328 (Boston, Beacon Press, 1971).
- ^ John Prados, "The Numbers Game: How Many Vietnamese Fled South In 1954?", The VVA Veteran, January/February 2005. Retrieved 21 January 2007.
- ^ R.J. Rummel, "Vietnam Democide," http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB6.1A.GIF
- ^ "Chapter on Vietnamese Democide"http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP6.HTM
- ^ "50 Years On, Vietnamese Remember Land Reform Terror" http://www.vietamericanvets.com/Page-Records-50YearsLandReform.htmIn
- ^ Rosefielde (2009) Red Holocaust pp. 120–121.
- ^ Christian G. Appy (2008) Vietnam: The Definitive Oral History, Told From All Sides. London, Ebury Press: 46–7.
- ^ Kolko, Gabriel, Anatomy of a War p. 98, ISBN 1-56584-218-9.
- ^ Dwight D. Eisenhower. Mandate for Change. Garden City, New Jersey. Doubleday & Company, 1963, p. 372.
- ^ "Pentagon Papers". Mtholyoke.edu. http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pentagon/pent11.htm. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
- ^ a b Robert K. Brigham. Battlefield Vietnam: A Brief History.
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 224
- ^ Gerdes (ed.) Examining Issues Through Political Cartoons: The Vietnam War p. 19.
- ^ McNamara Argument Without End p. 19.
- ^ John F. Kennedy. "America's Stakes in Vietnam". Speech to the American Friends of Vietnam, June 1956.
- ^ McNamara Argument Without End pp. 200–201.
- ^ "The Pentagon Papers Gravel Edition Volume 1, Chapter 5, "Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954–1960"". Mtholyoke.edu. http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pentagon/pent14.htm. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
- ^ Anatomy of a War by Gabriel Kolko, ISBN 1-56584-218-9, p. 89.
- ^ a b Karnow 1991, p. 230
- ^ Excerpts from Law 10/59, 6 May 1959.
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 264
- ^ The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. Inaugural Address of John F. Kennedy.
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 265 – suggested that "Kennedy sidestepped Laos, whose rugged terrain was no battleground for American soldiers."
- ^ The case of John F. Kennedy and Vietnam Presidential Studies Quarterly.
- ^ Mann, Robert. A Grand Delusion, Basic Books, 2002.
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 267
- ^ U.S. Department of Defense, U.S.-Vietnam Relations, vol. 3, pp. 1–2.
- ^ McNamara Argument Without End p. 369.
- ^ John Kenneth Galbraith. "Memorandum to President Kennedy from John Kenneth Galbraith on Vietnam, 4 April 1962." The Pentagon Papers. Gravel. ed. Boston, Massachusetts Beacon Press, 1971, vol. 2. pp. 669–671.
- ^ "Vietnam War". Swarthmore College Peace Collection. http://www.swarthmore.edu/library/peace/conscientiousobjection/OverviewVietnamWar.htm.
- ^ a b International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos.
- ^ Neil Sheehan (1989) A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam. New York, Vintage: 201–66.
- ^ Live interview by John Bartlow Martin. Was Kennedy Planning to Pull out of Vietnam? New York, New York. John F. Kennedy Library, 1964, Tape V, Reel 1.
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 326
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 327
- ^ McNamara Argument Without End p. 328.
- ^ a b Demma, Vincent H. "The U.S. Army in Vietnam." American Military History (1989) the official history of the United States Army. Available online.
- ^ Douglas Blaufarb. The Counterinsurgency Era. New York, New York. Free Press, 1977, p. 119.
- ^ George C. Herring. America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950–1975. Boston, Massachusetts McGraw Hill, 1986, p. 103.
- ^ Foreign Relation of the United States, Vietnam, 1961–1963. Washington, D.C. Government Printing Office, 1991, vol. 4., p. 707.
- ^ U.S. Special Forces: A Guide to America's Special Operations Units : the World's Most Elite Fighting Force, By Samuel A. Southworth, Stephen Tanner, Published by Da Capo Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0-306-81165-4.
- ^ Shooting at the Moon by Roger Warner – The history of CIA/IAD'S 15-year involvement in conducting the secret war in Laos, 1960–1975, and the career of CIA PMCO (paramilitary case officer) Bill Lair.
- ^ Karnow 1991, pp. 336–339 – Johnson viewed many members whom he inherited from Kennedy's cabinet with distrust because he had never penetrated their circle early in Kennedy's presidency; to Johnson's mind, such as W. Averell Harriman and Dean Acheson spoke a different language.
- ^ Shortly after the assassination of Kennedy, when McGeorge Bundy called LBJ on the phone, LBJ responded: "Goddammit, Bundy. I've told you that when I want you I'll call you." Brian VanDeMark, Into the Quagmire (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 13.
- ^ Vietnam: A History (New York: Penguin books, 1983), p. 339. Before a small group, including Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., the new president also said, "We should stop playing cops and robbers [a reference to Diem's failed leadership] and get back to... winning the war... tell the generals in Saigon that Lyndon Johnson intends to stand by our word...[to] win the contest against the externally directed and supported Communist conspiracy."
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 339 – talking about the Mekong Delta, that, "At a place called Hoa Phu, for example, the strategic hamlet built during the previous summer now looked like it had been hit by a hurricane.... Speaking through an interpreter, a local guard explained to me that a handful of Vietcong agents had entered the hamlet one night and told the peasants to tear it down and return to their native villages. The peasants complied without question."
- ^ National Security Action Memorandum NSAM 263 (11 October 1963).
- ^ NSAM 273 (26 November 1963).
- ^ "NSAM 273: South Vietnam". http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/archives.hom/NSAMs/nsam273.asp. Retrieved 23 June 2011.
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 340 – who quote Minh as enjoying playing tennis more than bureaucratic work.
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 341
- ^ Osborn 2002, pp. 84–85
- ^ Gerdes (ed.) Examining Issues Through Political Cartoons: The Vietnam War p. 26.
- ^ a b Healy 2009, p. 91.
- ^ Palmer, Dave Richard (1978). Summons of the Trumpet: U.S.-Vietnam in Perspective. Presidio Press. p. 882. ISBN 0-89141-550-5.
- ^ Shane, Scott (31 October 2005). "Vietnam Study, Casting Doubts, Remains Secret". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/31/politics/31war.html. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ Gerdes (ed.) Examining Issues Through Political Cartoons: The Vietnam War p. 25.
- ^ George C. Herring, America's longest war: the United States and Vietnam 1950–1975 (New York: Wiley, 1979), 121.
- ^ a b The United States in Vietnam: An analysis in depth of the history of America's involvement in Vietnam by George McTurnan Kahin and John W. Lewis, Delta Books, 1967.
- ^ Simon, Dennis M. (August 2002). "The War in Vietnam,1965–1968". http://faculty.smu.edu/dsimon/Change-Viet2.html. Retrieved 7 May 2009.
- ^ Nalty 1998, pp. 97, 261.
- ^ Earl L. Tilford, Setup: What the Air Force did in Vietnam and Why. Maxwell Air Force Base AL: Air University Press, 1991, p. 89.
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 468
- ^ a b Courtwright 2005, p. 210
- ^ Gen. Curtis E LeMay.
- ^ Generations Divide Over Military Action in Iraq. Pew Research Center. October 2002. http://web.archive.org/web/20080202203114rn_1/people-press.org/commentary/display.php3?AnalysisID=57. (archived from the original on 2 February 2008).
- ^ Ho Chi Minh. Letter to Martin Niemoeller. December 1966. quoted in Marilyn B. Young. The Vietnam Wars: 1945–1990. New York, New York. Harper, 1991, p. 172.
- ^ McNamara, Argument Without End p. 48.
- ^ a b c McNamara, Argument Without End pp. 349–51.
- ^ Mark Moyar (2006). Triumph forsaken: the Vietnam War, 1954–1965. Cambridge University Press. p. 339. ISBN 978-0-521-86911-9. http://books.google.com/?id=phJrZ87RwuAC.
- ^ McNeill 1993, p. 58.
- ^ McNeill 1993, p. 94.
- ^ U.S. Department of Defense, U.S.-Vietnam Relations vol. 4, p. 7.
- ^ McNamara Argument Without End p. 353.
- ^ U.S. Department of Defense, U.S.-Vietnam Relations vol. 5, pp. 8–9.
- ^ U.S. Department of Defense, U.S.-Vietnam Relations vol. 4, pp 117–119. and vol. 5, pp. 8–12.
- ^ Public Papers of the Presidents, 1965. Washington, D.C. Government Printing Office, 1966, vol. 2, pp. 794–799.
- ^ a b McNamara Argument Without End pp. 353–354.
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 453
- ^ a b Karnow 1991, p. 556
- ^ Peter Church. ed. A Short History of South-East Asia. Singapore, John Wiley & Sons, 2006, p. 193.
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 706
- ^ a b Karnow 1991, p. 18
- ^ McNamara Argument Without End pp. 363–365.
- ^ Anatomy of a War by Gabriel Kolko ISBN 1-56584-218-9 pp. 308–309.
- ^ a b "The Guardians at the Gate", Time 7 January 1966, vol. 87, no.1.
- ^ a b c d Witz The Tet Offensive: Intelligence Failure in War pp. 1–2.
- ^ Larry Berman. Lyndon Johnson's War. New York, W.W. Norton, 1991, p. 116.
- ^ Harold P. Ford. CIA and the Vietnam Policymakers pp. 104–123.
- ^ Survivors Hunt Dead of Bentre, Turned to Rubble in Allied Raids nytimes.com.
- ^ "Peter Arnett: Whose Man in Baghdad?", Mona Charen, Jewish World Review, 1 April 2003.
- ^ Saving Ben Tre.
- ^ Sorely 1999, pp. 11–16.
- ^ Gerdes (ed.) Examining Issues Through Political Cartoons: The Vietnam War p. 27.
- ^ a b Command Magazine Issue 18, p. 15.
- ^ McNamara Argument Without End pp. 366–367.
- ^ a b "Vietnamization: 1970 Year in Review". Upi.com. 27 October 2011. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1970/Apollo-13/12303235577467-2/#title. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
- ^ "Ho Chi Minh Dies of Heart Attack in Hanoi". The Times: p. 1. 4 September 1969.
- ^ Jeff Stein, Murder in Wartime: The Untold Spy Story that Changed the Course of the Vietnam War. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992) 60–62.
- ^ Seals, Bob (2007) The "Green Beret Affair": A Brief Introduction.
- ^ Prince Norodom Sihanouk. "Cambodia Neutral: The Dictates of Necessity." Foreign Affairs 1958, pp. 582–583.
- ^ quoted in Ross, Russell R., ed. (1987). "Nonaligned Foreign Policy". Cambodia: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-7397-2328-6. http://www.countrystudies.us/cambodia/18.htm.
- ^ Joe Angio. Nixon a Presidency Revealed. Television Documentary, The History Channel, 15 February 2007.
- ^ USA.gov (February 1997). "The Pentagon Papers Case". EJournal USA 2 (1). Archived from the original on 12 January 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080112095748/http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/itdhr/0297/ijde/goodsb1.htm. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ Karnow 1991, pp. 644–645
- ^ "11. The U.S. Army in Vietnam from Tet to the Final Withdrawal, 1968–1975". American Military History, Volume II, The United states Army in a Global Era, 1917–2003. United States Army Center of Military History. pp. 349–350. http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/AMH%20V2/chapter11.htm.
- ^ Peter Church, ed. A Short History of South-East Asia. Singapore. John Wiley & Sons, 2006, pp. 193–194.
- ^ 1969: Millions march in US Vietnam Moratorium. BBC On This Day.
- ^ Bob Fink. Vietnam – A View from the Walls: a History of the Vietnam Anti-War Movement. Greenwich Publishing. http://www.greenwych.ca/vietnam.htm.
- ^ Jennings & Brewster 1998: 413.
- ^ "History Lesson 8: Refugees From Vietnam and Cambodia", Immigration in US history, Constitutional Rights Foundation, http://crfimmigrationed.org/index.php/lessons-for-teachers/147-hl8
- ^ Stanton 2003, p. 240
- ^ Willbanks 2009, p. 110
- ^ "Facts about the Vietnam Veterans memorial collection". NPS.gov. 2010. http://www.nps.gov/mrc/reader/vvmcr.htm. Retrieved 26 April 2010.
- ^ a b Karnow 1991, pp. 672–74
- ^ Karnow 1991, pp. 670–72
- ^ "This Day in History 1974: Thieu announces war has resumed". History.com. http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/thieu-announces-war-has-resumed. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 676
- ^ Clark Dougan, David Fulgham et al., The Fall of the South. Boston: Boston Publishing Company, 1985, p. 22.
- ^ The End of the Vietnam War, 30 Years Ago by Gabriel Kolko, CounterPunch 30 April / 1 May 2005.
- ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (1999) (Google Book Search). Vietnam. University Press of Kentucky. p. 29. ISBN 0-8131-0966-3. http://books.google.com/?id=WZry2NaH2_sC&pg=PA29.
- ^ Qiang Zhai, China and the Vietnam Wars, 1950–1975, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Ang, Cheng Guan, Ending the Vietnam War: The Vietnamese Communists' Perspective, p. 27.
- ^ Li 2007, p. 206
- ^ Truong 1985, p. 168
- ^ AP (2010). "Soviet Involvement in the Vietnam War". Associated Press. historicaltextarchive.com. http://historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?action=read&artid=180. Retrieved 27 March 2010.
- ^ "Soviet rocketeer: After our arrival in Vietnam, American pilots refused to fly" (in Russian). RU: rus.ruvr. 29 January 2010. http://rus.ruvr.ru/2010/01/29/3985810.html. Retrieved 26 May 2010.
- ^ Asia Times, 18 August 2006, Richard M Bennett Missiles and madness.
- ^ Merle Pribbenow, 'The 'Ology War: technology and ideology in the defense of Hanoi, 1967' Journal of Military History 67:1 (2003) p. 183.
- ^ Gluck, Caroline (7 July 2001). "N Korea admits Vietnam war role". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1427367.stm. Retrieved 19 October 2006. ; also see "North Korea fought in Vietnam War". BBC News. 31 March 2000. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/696970.stm. Retrieved 19 October 2006. ; also see "North Korea honours Vietnam war dead". BBC News. 12 July 2001. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1435540.stm. Retrieved 19 October 2006.
- ^ AII POW-MIA Cuban Torture. Aiipowmia.com (8 November 1999). Retrieved 6 August 2010.
- ^ Cuban General Lies Repeatedly About Torturing U.S. POWs. Latinamericanstudies.org (11 December 1978). Retrieved 6 August 2010.
- ^ Former U.S. POWs detail torture by Cubans in Vietnam. Autentico.org (22 August 1999). Retrieved 6 August 2010.
- ^ Facts of the Cuban Program. Miafacts.org. Retrieved 6 August 2010.
- ^ Cuba Program Research Paper. Vvof.org. Retrieved 6 August 2010.
- ^ Castro denies McCain's torture claim – World news – Americas – Focus on Cuba – msnbc.com. MSNBC (19 April 1959). Retrieved 6 August 2010.
- ^ Testimony of Michael D. Benge before the House International Relations Committee Chaired by the Honorable Benjamin A. Gilman, 4 November 1999
- ^ a b Chang, Jae Baik (2011). The Park Chung Hee Era: The Transformation of South Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 409. ISBN 0-674-05820-8.
- ^ "ROK Army and Marines prove to be rock-solid fighters and allies in Vietnam War". Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070928035417/http://www.talkingproud.us/International061406WhiteHorse.html. Retrieved 3 February 2008.
- ^ a b c d "1965년 전투병 베트남 파병 의결". Donga Ilbo. 2 July 2008. http://www.donga.com/fbin/output?n=200807020125. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
- ^ Leepson 1999, p. 209.
- ^ a b Dennis et al 2008, pp. 555–558.
- ^ McGibbon 2000, pp. 561–566.
- ^ "Vietnam War 1962–1972". Encyclopaedia. Australian War Memorial. http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/vietnam.htm. Retrieved 1 July 2006.
- ^ McGibbon 2000, p. 539.
- ^ a b c Moïse 1996, pp. 3–4
- ^ Edelgard Elsbeth Mahant; Graeme S. Mount (1999). Invisible and inaudible in Washington: American policies toward Canada. UBC Press. pp. 50. ISBN 978-0-7748-0703-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=RNdDi0cvn3YC.
- ^ "Quiet Complicity: Canadian Involvement in the Vietnam War, by Victor Levant (1986).". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070930170925/http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0008367. Retrieved 15 July 2010.
- ^ "Quiet Complicity: Canadian Involvement in the Vietnam War". Review by The Manitoba Historical Society. http://www.mhs.mb.ca/docs/mb_history/16/canadainvietnamwar.shtml. Retrieved 15 July 2010.
- ^ Norman, Elizabeth M. Women at War: the Story of Fifty Military Nurses Who Served in Vietnam. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1990. ISBN 978-0-8122-1317-1 p. 7.
- ^ Vuic, Kara Dixon. Officer, Nurse, Woman: the Army Nurse Corps in the Vietnam War. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2010. ISBN 978-0-8018-9391-9 p. 5.
- ^ Norman, p. 57.
- ^ Holm, Jeanne. Women in the Military: an Unfinished Revolution. Novato, CA: Presidio, 1992. ISBN 978-0-89141-513-8 p. 214.
- ^ Holm, p. 213.
- ^ Holm, p. 206.
- ^ Vuic, p. 8.
- ^ Norman, p. 71.
- ^ "Who Was Nguyen Thi Dinh?". Facultystaff.richmond.edu. https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~ebolt/history398/WhoWasNguyenThiDinh.html. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
- ^ "Vietnamese Women in the War: A Review". Facultystaff.richmond.edu. https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~ebolt/history398/VietnameseWomenInTheWar.html. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
- ^ Chinese Support for North Vietnam during the Vietnam War: The Decisive Edge, Bob Seals, Military History Online, 23 Sept 2008
- ^ Albert Parray, Military Review, Soviet aid to Vietnam, June 1967
- ^ Gordon L. Rottman, Viet Cong Fighter, Osprey Publishing (2007) p. 20-30 ISBN 978-1-84603-126-7
- ^ C.H. Chivers (2 November 2009). "How Reliable is the M16 Rifle?". New York Times. http://atwar.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/11/02/how-reliable-is-the-m-16-rifle/.
- ^ David Maraniss (2003). They Marched Into Sunlight: War and Peace Vietnam and America October 1967. Simon and Schuster. p. 410. ISBN 978-0-7432-6255-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=qftwHKSnmpkC.
- ^ Bart Hagerman, USA Airborne: 50th Anniversary, Turner Publishing Company, p.237
- ^ a b c d Lieutenant General John J. Tolson (1989). Vietnam Studies: Airmobility 1961–71. US Government Printing Office. CMH Pub 90-4. http://www.history.army.mil/books/vietnam/airmobility/airmobility-fm.html.
- ^ "ITN news reel". Youtube. 16 July 2007. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OWCNfR50jsc#. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
- ^ George W. Smith, The siege at Hue, Lynne Reinner Publishers(1999) p. 142-143
- ^ Dwayne A. Day, Helicopters at War U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission
- ^ "Quad-50 M2 .50 cal. Machine Gun". Olive-drab.com. http://www.olive-drab.com/od_other_firearms_mg_m2_quad50.php. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
- ^ "Mine Warfare in South Vietnam". History.navy.mil. http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/vietnam/minesouthviet.htm. Retrieved 18 October 2009.
- ^ 'Killing Fields' journalist dies . BBC News. 30 March 2008.
- ^ Vietnam (03/09). U.S. Department of State.
- ^ "CIA – The World Factbook – Laos". https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/la.html#history. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
- ^ Laos (04/09). U.S. Department of State.
- ^ "Migration in the Asia-Pacific Region". Stephen Castles, University of Oxford. Mark J. Miller, University of Delaware. July 2009.
- ^ Refugee Resettlement in Metropolitan America. Migration Information Source.
- ^ Robinson, William Courtland (1998). Terms of refuge: the Indochinese exodus & the international response. Zed Books. p. 127. ISBN 1-85649-610-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=_rjiOXMRd4sC&pg=PA127&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
- ^ Gerdes (ed). Examining Issues Through Political Cartoons: The Vietnam War pp. 14–15.
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 23
- ^ Taylor paraphrases Sun Tzu, The Art of War, trans. Samuel B. Griffith. Oxford, UK. Oxford University Press, 1963.
- ^ "President Richard Nixon's Role in the Vietnam War". Vietnam War. Archived from the original on 31 March 2009. http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20090331152606/http://www.vietnamwar.com/presidentnixonsrole.htm. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Demma, "28", The U.S. Army in Vietnam, iBiblio, http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/academic/history/marshall/military/vietnam/short.history/chap_28.txt
- ^ "Lessons of Vietnam – Secret Memoranda to The President of the United States by Secretary of State Henry Kissinger". ca. May 12, 1975. p. 3. http://www.ford.utexas.edu/library/exhibits/vietnam/750512a.htm. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
- ^ McNamara Argument Without End p. 368.
- ^ a b c Quoted in Bob Buzzano. "25 Years After End of Vietnam War, Myths Keep Us from Coming to Terms with Vietnam". The Baltimore Sun Times. 17 April 2000. http://www.commondreams.org/views/041700-106.htm. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
- ^ Karnow 1991, p. 17
- ^ Stephen Daggett (24 July 2008). CRS Report to Congress : Costs of Major U.S. Wars. Foreign press center, US Department of State. http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/108054.pdf. (Order Code RS22926, see table on page 2/5).
- ^ "Echoes of Combat: The Vietnam War in American Memory". Stanford University.
- ^ James E. Westheider (2007). "The Vietnam War". Greenwood Publishing Group. p.78. ISBN 0-313-33755-1
- ^ The War's Costs. Digital History.
- ^ "Rest in Peace USMC PFC Dan Bullock; youngest Vietnam KIA at age 15". The Washington Syndicate. wordpress.com. 29 May 2010. http://thewashingtonsyndicate.wordpress.com/tag/marines/.
- ^ "War Resisters Remain in Canada with No Regrets". ABC News. 19 November 2005. http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=1325339. Retrieved 26 February 2010.
- ^ Vietnam War Resisters in Canada Open Arms to U.S. Military Deserters. Pacific News Service. 28 June 2005.
- ^ "Proclamation 4483: Granting Pardon for Violations of the Selective Service Act". http://www.usdoj.gov/pardon/carter_proclamation.htm. Retrieved 11 June 2008. By The President Of The United States Of America, A Proclamation Granting Pardon For Violations Of The Selective Services Act, 4 August 1964 To 28 March 1973. 21 January 1977.
- ^ "Agent Orange Home". http://www1.va.gov/Agentorange/. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
- ^ Anatomy of a War by Gabriel Kolko, ISBN 1-56584-218-9 pp. 144–145.
- ^ Failoa, Anthony (13 November 2006). "''In Vietnam, Old Foes Take Aim at War's Toxic Legacy''". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/12/AR2006111201065.html. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
- ^ "Vietnam says 1.1 Million died Fighting for North". The Virginian-Pilot quoting the Ledger-Star. 4 April 1995. Archived from the original on 22 December 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071222122211/http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/VA-news/VA-Pilot/issues/1995/vp950404/04040331.htm.
- ^ Vietnam Democide : Estimates, Sources, Calculations in Freedom, Democracy, Peace; Power, Democide, and War, University of Hawaii.
- ^ "Battlefield:Vietnam Timeline". Pbs.org. http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/timeline/index2.html. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
- ^ "Vietnam War (1955–75)". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/628478/Vietnam-War. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
References[link]
Secondary sources[link]
- Anderson, David L. Columbia Guide to the Vietnam War (2004).
- Baker, Kevin. "Stabbed in the Back! The past and future of a right-wing myth", Harper's Magazine (June 2006) "Stabbed in the back! The past and future of a right-wing myth (Harper's Magazine)". http://www.harpers.org/archive/2006/06/0081080. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
- Angio, Joe. Nixon a Presidency Revealed (2007) The History Channel television documentary
- Berman, Larry. Lyndon Johnson's War: The Road to Stalemate (1991).
- Blaufarb, Douglas. The Counterinsurgency Era (1977) a history of the Kennedy Administration's involvement in South Vietnam.
- Brigham, Robert K. Battlefield Vietnam: A Brief History a PBS interactive website
- Brocheux, Pierre (2007). Ho Chi Minh: a biography. Cambridge University Press. pp. 198. ISBN 978-0-521-85062-9.
- Buckley, Kevin. "Pacification's Deadly Price", Newsweek, 19 June 1972.
- Buzzanco, Bob. "25 Years After End of Vietnam War: Myths Keep Us From Coming To Terms With Vietnam", The Baltimore Sun (17 April 2000) "25 Years After End Of Vietnam War Myths Keep Us From Coming To Terms With Vietnam". http://www.commondreams.org/views/041700-106.htm. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
- Church, Peter ed. A Short History of South-East Asia (2006).
- Cooper, Chester L. The Lost Crusade: America in Vietnam (1970) a Washington insider's memoir of events.
- Courtwright, David T. (2005). Sky as frontier: adventure, aviation, and empire (2005 ed.). Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 1-58544-419-7.
- Demma, Vincent H. "The U.S. Army in Vietnam." American Military History (1989) the official history of the United States Army. Available online
- Dennis, Peter; et al (2008). The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History (Second ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press Australia & New Zealand. ISBN 978-0-19-551784-2.
- DoD (6 November 1998). "Name of Technical Sergeant Richard B. Fitzgibbon to be added to the Vietnam Veterans Memorial". Department of Defense (DoD). http://www.defense.gov/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=1902. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
- Duiker, William J. The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam (1996).
- Duncanson, Dennis J. Government and Revolution in Vietnam (1968).
- Fincher, Ernest Barksdale, The Vietnam War (1980).
- Ford, Harold P. CIA and the Vietnam Policymakers: Three Episodes, 1962–1968. (1998).
- Gerdes, Louise I. ed. Examining Issues Through Political Cartoons: The Vietnam War (2005).
- Gettleman, Marvin E.; Franklin, Jane; Young, Marilyn Vietnam and America: A Documented History. (1995).
- Hammond, William. Public Affairs: The Military and the Media, 1962–1968 (1987); Public Affairs: The Military and the Media, 1068–1973 (1995). full-scale history of the war by U.S. Army; much broader than title suggests.
- Healy, Gene (2009). The Cult of the Presidency: America's Dangerous Devotion to Executive Power. Cato Institute. ISBN 978-1-933995-19-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=MRA2jIyejwAC.
- Herring, George C. America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950–1975 (4th ed 2001), most widely used short history.
- Hitchens, Christopher. The Vietnam Syndrome.
- Karnow, Stanley (1991). Vietnam: A History (1991 ed.). Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-84218-4. ; popular history by a former foreign correspondent; strong on Saigon's plans.
- Kutler, Stanley ed. Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War (1996).
- Lawrence, A. T. (2009). Crucible Vietnam: Memoir of an Infantry Lieutenant (2009 ed.). McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-4517-3. .
- Lawrence, Mark Atwood. "The Vietnam War: A Concise International History", 2008, Oxford University Press.
- Leepson, Marc ed. Dictionary of the Vietnam War (1999) New York: Webster's New World.
- Lewy, Guenter. America in Vietnam (1978), defends U.S. actions.
- Logevall, Fredrik. The Origins of the Vietnam War (Longman [Seminar Studies in History] 2001).
- McMahon, Robert J. Major Problems in the History of the Vietnam War: Documents and Essays (1995) textbook.
- McNamara, Robert, James Blight, Robert Brigham, Thomas Biersteker, Herbert Schandler, Argument Without End: In Search of Answers to the Vietnam Tragedy, (Public Affairs, 1999).
- McGibbon, Ian; ed (2000). The Oxford Companion to New Zealand Military History. Auckland: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-558376-0.
- McNeill, Ian (1993). To Long Tan: The Australian Army and the Vietnam War 1950–1966. St Leonards: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-86373-282-9.
- Milne, David. America's Rasputin: Walt Rostow and the Vietnam War (Hill & Wang, 2008).
- Moise, Edwin E. Historical Dictionary of the Vietnam War (2002).
- Moïse, Edwin E. (1996). Tonkin Gulf and the escalation of the Vietnam War (1996 ed.). UNC Press. ISBN 0-8078-2300-7.
- Moss, George D. Vietnam (4th ed 2002) textbook.
- Moyar, Mark. Triumph Forsaken: The Vietnam War, 1954–1965, (Cambridge University Press; 412 pages; 2006). A revisionist history that challenges the notion that U.S. involvement in Vietnam was misguided; defends the validity of the domino theory and disputes the notion that Ho Chi Minh was, at heart, a nationalist who would eventually turn against his Communist Chinese allies.
- Major General Spurgeon Neel. Medical Support of the U.S. Army in Vietnam 1965–1970 (Department of the Army 1991) official medical history
- Nulty, Bernard.The Vietnam War (1998) New York: Barnes and Noble.
- Osborn, Terry A. (2002). The future of foreign language education in the United States (2002 ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-89789-719-8.
- Palmer, Bruce, Jr. The Twenty-Five Year War (1984), narrative military history by a senior U.S. general.
- Schell, Jonathan. The Time of Illusion (1976).
- Schulzinger, Robert D. A Time for War: The United States and Vietnam, 1941–1975 (1997).
- Sorley, Lewis, A Better War: The Unexamined Victories and Final Tragedy of America's Last Years in Vietnam (1999), based upon still classified tape-recorded meetings of top level US commanders in Vietnam, ISBN 0-15-601309-6
- Spector, Ronald. After Tet: The Bloodiest Year in Vietnam (1992), very broad coverage of 1968.
- Stanton, Shelby L. (2003). Vietnam order of battle (2003 ed.). Stackpole Books. ISBN 0-8117-0071-2.
- Summers, Harry G. On Strategy: A Critical Analysis of the Vietnam War, Presidio press (1982), ISBN 0-89141-563-7 (225 pages)
- Tucker, Spencer. ed. Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War (1998) 3 vol. reference set; also one-volume abridgement (2001).
- Willbanks, James H. (2009). Vietnam War almanac. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7102-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=X5WWklFB5O4C.
- Witz, James J. The Tet Offensive: Intelligence Failure in War (1991).
- Young, Marilyn, B. The Vietnam Wars: 1945–1990. (1991).
- Xiaoming, Zhang. "China's 1979 War With Vietnam: A Reassessment", China Quarterly. Issue no. 184, (December 2005) "CJO – Abstract – China's 1979 War with Vietnam: A Reassessment". http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=358806. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
Primary sources[link]
- Carter, Jimmy. By The President Of The United States Of America, A Proclamation Granting Pardon For Violations Of The Selective Service Act, 4 August 1964 To 28 March 1973 (21 January 1977)
- Central Intelligence Agency. "Laos", CIA World Factbook
- Kolko, Gabriel The End of the Vietnam War, 30 Years Later
- Eisenhower, Dwight D. Mandate for Change. (1963) a presidential political memoir
- Ho, Chi Minh. "Vietnam Declaration of Independence", Selected Works. (1960–1962) selected writings
- LeMay, General Curtis E. and Kantor, MacKinlay. Mission with LeMay (1965) autobiography of controversial former Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force
- Kissinger, United States Secretary of State Henry A. "Lessons on Vietnam", (1975) secret memoranda to U.S. President Ford
- Kim A. O'Connell, ed. Primary Source Accounts of the Vietnam War (2006)
- McCain, John. Faith of My Fathers: A Family Memoir (1999) *Marshall, Kathryn. In the Combat Zone: An Oral History of American Women in Vietnam, 1966–1975 (1987)
- Martin, John Bartlow. Was Kennedy Planning to Pull out of Vietnam? (1964) oral history for the John F. Kennedy Library, tape V, reel 1.
- Myers, Thomas. Walking Point: American Narratives of Vietnam (1988)
- Public Papers of the Presidents, 1965 (1966) official documents of U.S. presidents.
- Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. Robert Kennedy and His Times. (1978) a first-hand account of the Kennedy administration by one of his principal advisors
- Sinhanouk, Prince Norodom. "Cambodia Neutral: The Dictates of Necessity." Foreign Affairs. (1958) describes the geopolitical situation of Cambodia
- Tang, Truong Nhu. A Vietcong Memoir (1985), revealing account by senior NLF official
- Terry, Wallace, ed. Bloods: An Oral History of the Vietnam War by Black Veterans (1984)
- Truong, Như Tảng; David Chanoff, Van Toai Doan (1985). A Vietcong memoir (1985 ed.). Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 978-0-15-193636-6. - Total pages: 350
- The landmark series Vietnam: A Television History, first broadcast in 1983, is a special presentation of the award-winning PBS history series, American Experience.
- The Pentagon Papers (Gravel ed. 5 vol 1971); combination of narrative and secret documents compiled by Pentagon. excerpts
- U.S. Department of State. Foreign Relations of the United States (multivolume collection of official secret documents) vol 1: 1964; vol 2: 1965; vol 3: 1965; vol 4: 1966;
- U.S. Department of Defense and the House Committee on Armed Services. U.S.-Vietnam Relations, 1945–1967. Washington, D.C. Department of Defense and the House Committee on Armed Services, 1971, 12 volumes.
- Vann, John Paul Quotes from Answers.com Lt. Colonel, U.S. Army, DFC, DSC, advisor to the ARVN 7th Division, early critic of the conduct of the war.
Historiography[link]
- Hall, Simon, "Scholarly Battles over the Vietnam War," Historical Journal 52 (Sept. 2009), 813–29.
External links[link]
| Find more about Vietnam War on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
 |
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
|
Images and media from Commons |
|
Learning resources from Wikiversity |
|
News stories from Wikinews |
|
Quotations from Wikiquote |
|
Source texts from Wikisource |
|
Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- Fallout of the War from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
- American Ethnography – On collecting engraved Zippos from the Vietnam War
- Battlefield Vietnam PBS interactive site
- Casualties – U.S. vs NVA/VC
- Complete text of the Gravel Edition of the Pentagon Papers with supporting documents, maps, and photos
- Documents Relating to American Foreign Policy-Vietnam primary sources on U.S. involvement
- The Effects of Vietnamization on the Republic of Vietnam's Armed Forces, 1969–1972
- Glossary of Military Terms & Slang from the Vietnam War
- History of US Interventions, by Derek, Mitchell
- Impressions of Vietnam and descriptions of the daily life of a soldier from the oral history of Elliott Gardner, U.S. Army
- Sober thoughts on 30 April : The South Vietnam Liberation Front and Hanoi, Myth and Reality Speech by the former Minister of Information of the Republic of Vietnam.
- Stephen H. Warner Southeast Asia Photograph Collection at Gettysburg College
- Timeline US – Vietnam (1947–2001) in Open-Content project
- The U.S. Army in Vietnam the official history of the United States Army
- UC Berkeley Library Social Activism Sound Recording Project: Anti-Vietnam War Protests
- Vietnam Casualties database searchable by first name, last name and location
- Vietnam War Bibliography covers online and published resources
- The Vietnam War at The History Channel
- Vietnam war timeline comprehensive timeline of the Vietnam War
- Virtual Vietnam Archive – Texas Tech University
- War, propaganda, and the media: Vietnam
|
||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 20th century in Vietnam | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| World War I | Antebellum | World War II | French War | American War | Subsidy phase | Đổi Mới (Renovation) |
Major events
http://wn.com/Vietnam_War
Related pages:
http://ru.wn.com/Война во Вьетнаме
http://es.wn.com/Guerra de Vietnam
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
4:00
Pierce The Veil - "King For A Day" ft. Kellin Quinn (Lyric Video)
FearlessRecords
Pierce The Veil - "King For A Day" ft. Kellin Quinn (Lyric Video)
"King for a Day" by Pierce the Veil featuring Kellin Quinn of Sleeping With Sirens. Taken from the album 'Collide with the Sky' available July 17th, 2012. Download "King For A Day" now on iTunes: smarturl.it Pre-Order 'Collide With The Sky' iTunes Digital Pre-Order: smarturl.it More from Pierce The Veil: piercetheveil.net http twitter.com
3:56
Lion King - Circle of Life
parkerjademerce
Lion King - Circle of Life
tinyurl.com Lion King - Circle of Life Hey check out my DeviantArt account: parkerjademerce.deviantart.com Permission from MP3 Rocket #48 - Most Discussed (All Time) - Film & Animation #27 - Most Viewed (All Time) - Film & Animation #17 - Top Favorited (All Time) - Film & Animation #22 - Top Rated (All Time) - Film & Animation
3:20
That's My King Dr. SM Lockridge - [OFFICIAL]
PeculiarEagle
That's My King Dr. SM Lockridge - [OFFICIAL]
(Official video from the creator.) Visuals set to the audio of the famous sermon "Seven Way King" (aka That's My King) as spoken by Dr. SM Lockridge. The audio is slightly edited for a better flow in the video. The music in the background was performed live by the GCC band while the video played on the screens. It then led directly into the worship song "Here is Our King" (To see the performance in it's entirety go here: gccwired.com/mediaplayer/playeropener.asp?id=478 ) Created entirely using After Effects with footage from the movie "The Passion of the Christ". The video took 30 hours to create plus around 6 hours of rendering. The final After Effects project file totaled well over 600 layers.
show more
add to playlist
clear
.jpg){kind=link}
