__NOTOC__ Year 1870 (MDCCCLXX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar.

Events

January–March

January 1

* The first edition of ''The Northern Echo'' newspaper is published in Priestgate, Darlington, England.

* Plans for the Brooklyn Bridge are completed.

January 3 – Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge begins.

January 6 – The Musikverein, Vienna is inaugurated in Austria-Hungary.

January 10 – John D. Rockefeller incorporates Standard Oil.

January 15 – A political cartoon for the first time symbolizes the United States Democratic Party with a donkey ("A Live Jackass Kicking a Dead Lion" by Thomas Nast for ''Harper's Weekly'').

January 26 – Reconstruction: Virginia rejoins the Union.

January 27 – The first college sorority, Kappa Alpha Theta, is established at DePauw University.

February – Vrain Denis-Lucas is sentenced to 2 years in prison for multiple forgery in Paris.

February 1 – Goodna State School in Goodna, Queensland, Australia is founded.

February 2 – It is revealed that the famed Cardiff Giant is just carved gypsum and not the petrified remains of a human.

February 3 – The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution, guaranteeing African-Americans the right to vote, is passed.

February 9 – Army Weather Bureau (within Army Signal Corps) created.

February 10

* Anaheim, California is incorporated.

* The YWCA is founded in New York City.

February 12 – Women gain the right to vote in Utah Territory.

February 23 – Military control of Mississippi ends and it is readmitted to the Union.

February 25 – Hiram Rhodes Revels, a Republican from Mississippi, is sworn into the United States Senate, becoming the first African American ever to sit in the U.S. Congress.

February 26 – In New York City, the first pneumatic subway is opened.

February 28 – The Bulgarian Exarchate is established by decree of Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz of the Ottoman Empire.

March 1 – Marshal Francisco Solano López' last troops are cornered by Triple Alliance troops at Cerro Cora. López refuses to surrender and is killed. Fighting ends in Paraguay – the War of the Triple Alliance is over.

March 4 – Thomas Scott is executed by Louis Riel's provisional government during the Red River Rebellion in modern day Manitoba Canada.

March 5 – First ever international Association Football match between England and Scotland at the Oval, London. Organized by the Football Association.

March 19 – The Ohio Legislature passes the Cannon Act, thereby establishing the Ohio Agriculture and Mechanical College, later Ohio State University.

March 24 – Syracuse University is established and officially opens.

March 30

* The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution, giving blacks the right to vote, is ratified.

* Texas is readmitted to the Union following Reconstruction.

March 31 – Thomas Mundy Peterson is the first African-American to vote in an election.

April–June

April – The Chicago Base Ball Club, later to be known as the Chicago White Stockings, and ultimately the Chicago Cubs, play their first game against the St. Louis Unions of the National Association of Base Ball Players, an amateur league.

April 27 – Antonio Guzmán Blanco begins his first term as President of Venezuela.

May 12 – The Canadian province of Manitoba is created in response to Louis Riel's Red River Rebellion.

May 14 – The first rugby match is played in New Zealand, between the Nelson Football Club and Nelson College.

May 24 – The Port Adelaide Football Club plays their first match of Australian rules football at Buck's Flat, Glanville, South Australia.

June 22

* The office of the Solicitor General of the United States is set up to supervise and conduct government litigation in the United States Supreme Court.

* The U.S. Congress creates the United States Department of Justice.

June 26

* Christmas is declared a federal holiday in the United States.

* Richard Wagner's opera ''Die Walküre'' is first performed at Munich's National Theatre.

July–September

July 13 – The ''Ems Dispatch'' serves as a reason for a war between Prussia and France.

July 15 – Reconstruction: Georgia becomes the last former Confederate state to be readmitted to the Union, and the C.S.A. is dissolved.

July 18 – ''Pastor Aeternus'': Pope Pius IX declares papal infallibility in matters of faith and morals.

July 19 – Franco-Prussian War: France declares war on Prussia.

August 8 – The ''Republic of Ploieşti'', an uprising against Domnitor Carol of Romania, fails.

August 24 – The Red River Rebellion ends with the arrival of the Wolseley Expedition and the fleeing of Louis Riel.

September 2 – Franco-Prussian War – Battle of Sedan: Prussian forces defeat the French armies and take emperor Napoleon III and 100,000 of his soldiers prisoner at Sedan.

September 4 – Emperor Napoleon III of France is deposed and the Third Republic is declared. Empress Eugenie flees to England with her children.

September 6 – Louisa Ann Swain of Laramie, Wyoming, becomes the first woman in the United States to cast a vote legally since 1807.

September 18 – Old Faithful Geyser is observed and named by Henry D. Washburn during the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition to Yellowstone.

September 20 – With ''Bersaglieri'' soldiers entering Rome at Porta Pia, the unification of Italy is completed, ending the last remnant of the Papal States.

October–December

October 2 – A plebiscite held in Rome supports, by 133,681 votes to 1,507, the annexation of the city by Italy.

October 6 – Rome becomes the capital of unified Italy.

October 8 – Leon Michel Gambetta escapes the besieged Paris in a hot-air balloon.

October 20 – First Vatican Council adjourned.

November 1 – In the United States, the newly created Weather Bureau (later renamed the National Weather Service) makes its first official meteorological forecast: "High winds at Chicago and Milwaukee... and along the Lakes".

November 16 – The Spanish Cortes Generales proclaims Amadeo de Saboya as King Amadeus I of Spain.

December 30 – Juan Prim, prime minister of Spain, is assassinated.

Date unknown

Infanticide is banned in India.

Just one of the 916 members of the Indian Civil Service is Indian.

Births

January–June

January 2 – Ernst Barlach, German sculptor, graphic artist, and poet (d. 1938)

January 6 – Gustav Bauer, Chancellor of Germany (d. 1944)

January 8 – Miguel Primo de Rivera, dictator of Spain (d. 1930)

January 11 – Alexander Stirling Calder, American sculptor (d. 1945)

February 7 – Alfred Adler, Austrian psychologist (d. 1937)

February 12 – Marie Lloyd, English singer (d. 1922)

March 4 – Thomas Sturge Moore, English poet, author and artist (d. 1944)

March 5

* Rosa Luxemburg, Polish-born German political theorist, socialist philosopher, and revolutionary (d. 1919)

* Frank Norris, American writer (d. 1902)

March 13 – Seale Harris, American Physician (d. 1957)

March 17 – Horace Donisthorpe, English entomologist (d. 1951)

March 20 – Paul Erich von Lettow-Vorbeck, German general (d. 1964)

April 1 – Hamaguchi Osachi, 27th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1931)

April 3 – Agda Östlund, Swedish politician (d. 1942)

April 4 – George Albert Smith, president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1951)

April 17 – Ray Stannard Baker, American journalist and author (d. 1946)

April 22 – Vladimir Lenin, Russian revolutionary and first Premier of the Soviet Union (d. 1924)

April 30 – Franz Lehár, Austrian composer (d. 1948)

May 9 – Harry Vardon, English Golf Professional (d. 1937)

May 19 – Albert Fish, American serial killer (d. 1936)

June 13 – Jules Bordet, Belgian immunologist and microbiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1961)

June 20 – Georges Dufrénoy, French post-impressionnist painter (d. 1943)

July–December

July 3 – Richard Bedford Bennett, eleventh Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1947)

July 12 – Louis II, Prince of Monaco (d. 1949)

July 16 – Lambert McKenna, Irish scholar (d. 1956)

July 25 – Maxfield Parrish, American illustrator (d. 1966)

July 27 – Hilaire Belloc, French/English man of letters (d. 1953)

July 29 – George Dixon, Canadian boxer (d. 1909)

August 3 – Carrie Ingalls, younger sister of author Laura Ingalls Wilder (d. 1946)

August 4 – Harry Lauder, Scottish entertainer (d. 1950)

August 11 – Tom Richardson, English cricketer (d. 1912)

August 20 – Edward Stanley Kellogg, 16th Governor of American Samoa (d. 1948)

August 22 – Bertram Fletcher Robinson, journalist, editor and author (d. 1907)

August 31 – Maria Montessori, Italian educator (d. 1952)

September 25 – James A. Hawken, schoolteacher (d. 1964)

September 26 – King Christian X of Denmark (d. 1947)

September 30 – Jean Baptiste Perrin, French physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1942)

October 10 – Ivan Alekseyevich Bunin, Russian writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1953)

November 21 – Sigfrid Edström, Swedish sports official (d. 1964)

November 27 – Juho Kusti Paasikivi, Prime Minister and President of Finland (d. 1956)

November 28 – Gustavus M. Blech, German-American physician and surgeon (d. 1949)

December 5 – Vítězslav Novák, Czech composer (d. 1949)

December 10 – Mary Bonaparte, pretender to the French imperial throne (d. 1947)

December 12 – Walter Benona Sharp, American oil pioneer (d. 1912)

December 14 – Dirk Jan de Geer, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1960)

December 18 – Saki, English writer (d. 1916)

Date unknown

Joseph "Sport" Sullivan, gambler

Curtis Hidden Page, New Hampshire politician (d. 1946)

Deaths

January–June

January 29 – Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b. 1797)

February 7 – Sylvain Salnave a Haitian president (b. 1827)

February 19 – Nathaniel de Rothschild, French wine grower (b. 1812)

March 11 – Moshoeshoe I of Lesotho (b. 1786?)

March 28 – George Henry Thomas, American general (b. 1816)

May 6 – Sir James Young Simpson, Scottish physician and researcher (b. 1811)

June 6 – Ferdinand von Wrangel, Baltic German explorer (b. 1796/1797)

June 9 – Charles Dickens, British novelist (b. 1812)

June 20 – Jules de Goncourt, French writer (b. 1830)

June 24 – Adam Lindsay Gordon, Australian poet (b. 1833)

July–December

July 20 – Jules Alfred Huot de Goncourt, French writer and publisher (b. 1830)

August 17 – Pedro Figueredo, Cuban poet, musician, and freedom fighter (b. 1818)

September 12 – Fitz Hugh Ludlow, American author and explorer (b. 1836)

September 23 – Prosper Mérimée, French writer (b. 1803)

October 12 – Robert E. Lee, Confederate Civil War general (b. 1807)

November 24 – Comte de Lautreamont, French poet and writer (b. 1846)

November 28 – Frédéric Bazille, French painter (b. 1841)

December 5 – Alexandre Dumas, père, French author (b. 1802)

December 9 – Patrick MacDowell, Northern Irish sculptor (b. 1799)

December 27 – General Prim, Spanish dictator (b. 1814)

Date unknown

Friedrich Hohe, German lithographer and painter (b. 1802)

References

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Name	Robert Edward Lee
Birth place	Stratford Hall, Virginia
Death place	Lexington, Virginia
Placeofburial	Lee ChapelWashington and Lee UniversityLexington, Virginia
Religion	Episcopalian
Nickname	"Marble Man"
Allegiance	United States of America Confederate States of America
Serviceyears	1829–61 (USA)1861–65 (CSA)
Rank	Colonel (USA)General (CSA)
Commands	Superintendent, U.S. Military AcademyArmy of Northern Virginia
Battles	Mexican–American WarHarpers Ferry RaidAmerican Civil War
Relatives	Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee III (father)
Laterwork	President of Washington and Lee University }}

Robert Edward Lee (January 19, 1807 – October 12, 1870) was a career military officer who is best known for having commanded the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in the American Civil War. The son of U.S. Revolutionary War hero Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee III and a top graduate of West Point, Robert E. Lee distinguished himself as an exceptional officer and combat engineer in the United States Army for 32 years before resigning to join the Confederate cause. By the end of the American Civil War, he was commanding general of the Confederate army. He became a postwar icon of the South's "lost cause", and is still admired to this day.

In early 1861, President Abraham Lincoln invited Lee to take command of the entire Union Army. Lee declined because his home state of Virginia was, despite his wishes, seceding from the Union. When Virginia declared its secession from the Union in April 1861, Lee chose to follow his home state. Lee's eventual role in the newly established Confederacy was to serve as a senior military adviser to President Jefferson Davis. Lee soon emerged as the shrewdest battlefield tactician of the war, after he assumed command of the Confederate eastern army (soon christened "The Army of Northern Virginia") after the wounding of Joseph Johnston at the Battle of Seven Pines. His abilities as a tactician have been praised by many military historians. They were made evident in his many victories such as the Battle of Fredericksburg (1862), Battle of Chancellorsville (1863), Battle of the Wilderness (1864), Battle of Cold Harbor (1864), Seven Days Battles, and the Second Battle of Bull Run. His strategic vision was more doubtful—his invasions of the North in 1862 and 1863 were designed to help gain foreign recognition, seize supplies, take the pressure off his beloved Virginia, and mobilize antiwar elements in the North. After a defeat at Antietam in 1862 and disaster at Gettysburg in 1863, hopes for victory were dashed, and defeat for the South was almost certain. However, due to ineffectual pursuit by the commander of Union forces after both defeats, Lee escaped back to Virginia. His decision in 1863 to overrule his generals and invade the North, rather than help protect Vicksburg, proved a major strategic blunder and cost the Confederacy control of its western regions, according to critical historians such as Sears and Eicher. Nevertheless, there is no dispute that Lee's brilliant defensive maneuvers stopped the Union offenses one after another, as he defeated a series of Union commanders in Virginia.

In the spring of 1864, the new Union commander, Ulysses S. Grant, began a series of campaigns to wear down Lee's army. In the Overland Campaign of 1864 and the Siege of Petersburg in 1864–65, Lee inflicted heavy casualties on Grant's larger army, but was forced back into trenches; the Confederacy was unable to replace their losses or even provide adequate rations to the soldiers that did not desert. In the final months of the Civil War, as manpower drained away, Lee adopted a plan to arm slaves to fight on behalf of the Confederacy, but the decision came too late and the black soldiers were never used in combat. In early April 1865, Lee's depleted forces were overwhelmed at Petersburg; he abandoned Richmond and retreated west as Union forces encircled his army. Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865, marking the end of Confederate hopes; the remaining armies soon capitulated. Lee rejected as folly the starting of a guerrilla campaign against the Yankees and called for reconciliation between the North and South.

After the war, as a college president of what is now Washington and Lee University, Lee supported President Andrew Johnson's program of Reconstruction and intersectional friendship, while opposing the Radical Republican proposals to give freed slaves the vote and take the vote away from ex-Confederates. He urged them to rethink their position between the North and the South, and the reintegration of former Confederates into the nation's political life. Lee became the great Southern hero of the war, and his popularity grew in the North, as well, after his death in 1870. He remains an iconic figure of American military leadership.

Early life and career

Lee was born at Stratford Hall Plantation in Westmoreland County, Virginia, the son of Major General Henry Lee III (Light Horse Harry) (1756–1818), Governor of Virginia, and his second wife, Anne Hill Carter (1773–1829). His birth date has traditionally been recorded as January 19, 1807, but according to the historian Elizabeth Brown Pryor, "Lee's writings indicate he may have been born the previous year."

One of Lee's great-great grandparents, Henry Lee I, was a prominent Virginian colonist of English descent. Lee's family is one of Virginia's first families, originally arriving in Virginia from England in the early 1600s with the arrival of Richard Lee I, Esq., "the Immigrant" (1618–64). His mother grew up at Shirley Plantation, one of the most elegant homes in Virginia. Lee's father, a tobacco planter, suffered severe financial reverses from failed investments.

Little is known of Lee as a child; he rarely spoke of his boyhood as an adult. Nothing is known of his relationship with his father, who, after leaving his family, only mentioned Robert once in a letter. When given the opportunity to visit his father's Georgia grave, he remained there only briefly, yet while as president of Washington College, he defended his father in a biographical sketch while editing Light Horse Harry's memoirs. In 1809, Harry Lee was put in debtors prison; soon after his release the following year, Harry and Anne Lee and their five children moved to a small house on Cameron Street in Alexandria, Virginia, both because there were then terrific local schools there and because several members of her extended family lived nearby. In 1811, the family, including the newly born sixth child, Mildred, moved to a house on Oronoco Street, still close to the center of town and with the houses of a number of Lee relatives close by. In 1812, Harry Lee was badly injured in a political riot in Baltimore, and Secretary of State James Madison arranged for Lee to travel to the West Indies. He would never return, dying when his son Robert was 11. Left to raise six children alone in straitened circumstances, Anne Lee and her family often paid extended visits to relatives and family friends. Robert Lee attended school at Eastern View, a school for young gentlemen, in Fauquier County, and then at the Alexandria Academy, free for local boys, where he showed an aptitude for mathematics. Although brought up to be a practicing Christian, he was not confirmed in the Episcopal Church until age 46.

Anne Lee's family was often succored by a relative, William Henry Fitzhugh, who owned the Oronoco Street house and allowed the Lees to stay at his home in Fairfax County, Ravensworth. When Robert was 17 in 1824, Fitzhugh wrote to the Secretary of War, John C. Calhoun, urging that Robert be given an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point. Fitzhugh wrote little of Robert's academic prowess, dwelling much on the prominence of his family, and erroneously stated the boy was 18. Instead of mailing the letter, Fitzhugh had young Robert deliver it. In March 1824, Robert Lee received his appointment to West Point, but due to the large number of cadets admitted, Lee would have to wait a year to begin his studies there.

Lee entered West Point in the summer of 1825. At the time, the focus of the curriculum was engineering; the head of the Army Corps of Engineers supervised the school and the superintendent was an engineering officer. Cadets were not permitted leave until they had finished two years of study, and were rarely permitted to leave the grounds of the Academy. Lee graduated second in his class behind Charles Mason, who resigned from the Army a year after graduation, and Lee did not incur any demerits during his four-year course of study—five of his 45 classmates earned a similar distinction. In June 1829, Lee was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers. After graduation, he returned to Virginia while awaiting assignment to find his mother on her deathbed; she died at Ravensworth on July 26, 1829.

{{ahnentafel-compact5 |style=font-size: 90%; line-height: 110%; |border=1 |boxstyle=padding-top: 0; padding-bottom: 0; |boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc; |boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9; |boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc; |boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc; |boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe; |1= 1. Robert E. Lee |2= 2. Henry Lee III |3= 3. Anne Hill Carter |4= 4. Henry Lee II |5= 5. Lucy Grymes |6= 6. Charles Carter |7= 7. Anne Butler Moore |8= 8. Henry Lee I |9= 9. Mary Bland |10= 10. Charles Grymes |11= 11. Frances Jennings |12= 12. John Carter |13= 13. Elizabeth Hill |14= 14. Bernard Moore |15= 15. Anne Catherine Spotswood |16= 16. Richard Lee II |17= 17. Laetitia Corbin |18= 18. Richard Bland |19= 19. Elizabeth Randolph |20= 20. John Grymes |21= 21. Alice Towneley |22= 22. Edmund Jennings |23= 24. Frances Corbin |24= 24. Robert "King" Carter |25= 25. Judith Armistead |26= 26. Edward Hill III |27= 27. Elizabeth Williams |28= 28. Augustine Moore Sr. |29= 29. Elizabeth Todd |30= 30. Alexander Spotswood |31= 31. Anne Butler Brayne }}

Combat engineer career

On August 11, 1829, Brigadier General Charles Gratiot ordered Lee to Cockspur Island, Georgia; plans were to build a fort on the marshy island which would command the outlet of the Savannah River. Lee was involved in the early stages of construction, as the island was being drained and built up. In 1831, it became apparent the existing plan to build what became known as Fort Pulaski would have to be revamped, and Lee was transferred to Fort Monroe at the tip of the Virginia Peninsula (today in Hampton, Virginia).

While home in the summer of 1829, Lee had apparently courted Mary Custis, great granddaughter of Martha Washington whom he had known as a child. Lee obtained permission to write to her before leaving for Georgia, though Mary Custis warned Lee to be "discreet" in his writing, as her mother read her letters, especially from men. Custis refused Lee the first time he asked to marry her; her father, George Washington Custis did not believe the son of the disgraced Light Horse Harry Lee was a suitable man for his daughter. She accepted him, with her father's consent, in September 1830, while he was on summer leave, and the two were wed on June 30, 1831, at the Custis home at Arlington House in the southern portion of the District of Columbia (today in Arlington County, Virginia).

Lee's duties at Fort Monroe were varied, typical for a junior officer, and ranged from budgeting to designing buildings. Although Mary Lee accompanied her husband to Hampton Roads, she spent about a third of her time at Arlington, though the couple's first son, Custis Lee was born at Fort Monroe. Although the two were by all accounts devoted to each other, they were different in character: Robert Lee was tidy and punctual, qualities his wife lacked. Mary Lee also had trouble transitioning from being a rich man's daughter to having to manage a household with only one or two slaves. Beginning in 1832, Robert Lee began a platonic, but close relationship with Harriett Talcott, wife of his fellow officer Andrew Talcott.

Life at Fort Monroe was marked by conflicts between artillery and engineering officers; eventually the War Department transferred all engineering officers away from Fort Monroe, except Lee, who was ordered to take up residence on the artificial island of Rip Raps across the river from Fort Monroe, where Fort Wool would eventually rise, and continue work to improve the island. Lee duly moved there, then discharged all workers and informed the War Department he could not maintain laborers without the facilities of the fort. In 1834, Lee was transferred to Washington as General Gratiot's assistant. Lee had hoped to rent a house in Washington for his family, but was not able to find one; the family lived at Arlington, though Lieutenant Lee rented a room at a Washington boarding house for when the roads were impassable. In mid-1835, Lee was assigned to assist Andrew Talcott in surveying the southern border of Michigan. While on that expedition, he responded to a letter from an ill Mary Lee, which had requested he come to Arlington, "But why do you urge my ''immediate'' return, & tempt one in the ''strongest'' manner[?] ... I rather require to be strengthened & encouraged to the ''full'' performance of what I am called on to execute." Lee completed the assignment and returned to his post in Washington, finding his wife ill at Ravensworth. Mary Lee, who had recently given birth to their second child, remained bedridden for several months. In October 1836, Lee was promoted to first lieutenant.

Lee served as an assistant in the chief engineer's office in Washington, D.C. from 1834 to 1837, but spent the summer of 1835 helping to lay out the state line between Ohio and Michigan. As a first lieutenant of engineers in 1837, he supervised the engineering work for St. Louis harbor and for the upper Mississippi and Missouri rivers. Among his projects was blasting a channel through the Des Moines Rapids on the Mississippi by Keokuk, Iowa, where the Mississippi's mean depth of was the upper limit of steamboat traffic on the river. His work there earned him a promotion to captain. Around 1842, Captain Robert E. Lee arrived as Fort Hamilton's post engineer.

Marriage and family

While he was stationed at Fort Monroe, he married Mary Anna Randolph Custis (1808–73), great-granddaughter of Martha Washington by her first husband Daniel Parke Custis, and step-great-granddaughter of George Washington, the first president of the United States. Mary was the only surviving child of George Washington Parke Custis, George Washington's stepgrandson, and Mary Lee Fitzhugh Custis, daughter of William Fitzhugh and Ann Bolling Randolph. They were married on June 30, 1831, at Arlington House, her parents' house just across from Washington, D.C. The 3rd U.S. Artillery served as honor guard at the marriage. They eventually had seven children, three boys and four girls: # George Washington Custis Lee (Custis, "Boo"); 1832–1913; served as Major General in the Confederate Army and aide-de-camp to President Jefferson Davis; unmarried # Mary Custis Lee (Mary, "Daughter"); 1835–1918; unmarried # William Henry Fitzhugh Lee ("Rooney"); 1837–91; served as Major General in the Confederate Army (cavalry); married twice; surviving children by second marriage # Anne Carter Lee (Annie); June 18, 1839 – October 20, 1862; died of typhoid fever, unmarried # Eleanor Agnes Lee (Agnes); 1841 – October 15, 1873; died of tuberculosis, unmarried # Robert Edward Lee, Jr. (Rob); 1843–1914; served as Captain in the Confederate Army (Rockbridge Artillery); married twice; surviving children by second marriage # Mildred Childe Lee (Milly, "Precious Life"); 1846–1905; unmarried All the children survived him except for Annie, who died in 1862. They are all buried with their parents in the crypt of the Lee Chapel at Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia.

Lee was a great-great-great grandson of William Randolph and a great-great grandson of Richard Bland. He is also related to Helen Keller through Helen's mother, Kate.

On May 1, 1864, General Lee was at the baptism of General A.P. Hill's daughter, Lucy Lee Hill, to serve as her godfather. This is referenced in the painting ''Tender is the Heart'' by Mort Künstler.

Mexican-American War

Lee distinguished himself in the Mexican–American War (1846–48). He was one of Winfield Scott's chief aides in the march from Veracruz to Mexico City. He was instrumental in several American victories through his personal reconnaissance as a staff officer; he found routes of attack that the Mexicans had not defended because they thought the terrain was impassable.

He was promoted to brevet major after the Battle of Cerro Gordo on April 18, 1847. He also fought at Contreras, Churubusco, and Chapultepec and was wounded at the last. By the end of the war, he had received additional brevet promotions to Lieutenant Colonel and Colonel, but his permanent rank was still Captain of Engineers and he would remain a Captain until his transfer to the cavalry in 1855.

For the first time, Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant met and worked with each other during the Mexican-American War. Both Lee and Grant participated in Scott's march from the coastal town of Vera Cruz to Mexico City. Grant gained wartime experience as a quartermaster, Lee as an engineer who positioned troops and artillery. Both did their share of actual fighting. At Vera Cruz, Lee earned a commendation for "greatly distinguished" service. Grant was among the leaders at the bloody assault at Molino del Rey, and both soldiers were among the forces that entered Mexico City. Close observations of their commanders constituted a learning process for both Lee and Grant. The Mexican-American War concluded on February 2, 1848.

After the Mexican War, Lee spent three years at Fort Carroll in Baltimore harbor. During this time, his service was interrupted by other duties, among them surveying and updating maps in Florida. Lee declined an offer from Cuban rebels to lead their fight against Spain.

The 1850s

The 1850s were a difficult time for Lee, with his long absences from home, the increasing disability of his wife, and his often morbid concern with his personal failures.

In 1852, Lee was appointed Superintendent of the Military Academy at West Point; he was reluctant to enter what he called a "snake pit", but the War Department insisted and he obeyed. His wife occasionally came to visit. During his three years at West Point, Brevet Colonel Robert E. Lee improved the buildings and courses and spent much time with the cadets. Lee's oldest son, George Washington Custis Lee, attended West Point during his tenure. Custis Lee graduated in 1854, first in his class.

Lee was enormously relieved to receive a long-awaited promotion as second-in-command of the Second Cavalry regiment in Texas in 1855. It meant leaving the Engineering Corps and its sequence of staff jobs for the combat command he truly wanted. He served under Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston at Camp Cooper, Texas; their mission was to protect settlers from attacks by the Apache and the Comanche.

The death in 1857 of his father-in-law, George Washington Parke Custis, created a serious crisis, as Lee had to assume the main burden of executing the will. The Custis estate was in disarray, with vast landholdings and hundreds of slaves balanced against massive debts. The plantations had been poorly managed and were losing money. Lee took several leaves of absence from the army and became a planter and eventually straightened out the estate. On June 24, 1859, Lee was accused by the New York Tribune of having three runaway slaves whipped and of personally whipping a female slave, Mary Norris. One of the captured slaves, Wesley Norris, confirmed the account in an 1866 interview printed in the ''National Anti-Slavery Standard'', though he denied Lee personally whipped Mary Norris. Lee did not respond to the attack until 1866, claiming in a letter the accusation was not true. The Custis will called for emancipating the slaves within five years, but state law required they be funded in a livelihood outside Virginia, and that was impossible until the debts were paid off. They were all emancipated by 1862, within the five years specified.

Lee's views on slavery

Since the end of the Civil War, it has often been suggested Lee was in some sense opposed to slavery. In the period following the Civil War and Reconstruction, and after his death, Lee became a central figure in the Lost Cause interpretation of the war, and as succeeding generations came to look on slavery as a terrible immorality, the idea that Lee had always somehow opposed it helped maintain his stature as a symbol of Southern honor and national reconciliation.

The evidence cited in favor of the claim that Lee opposed slavery included his direct statements and his actions before and during the war, including Lee's support of the work by his wife and her mother to liberate slaves and fund their move to Liberia, the success of his wife and daughter in setting up an illegal school for slaves on the Arlington plantation, the freeing of Custis' slaves in 1862, and his insistence in 1864–65 that the Confederacy enroll slaves in Lee's Army, with manumission offered as an eventual reward for outstanding service.

In December 1864, Lee was shown a letter by Louisiana Senator Edward Sparrow, written by General St. John R. Liddell, which noted Lee would be hard-pressed in the interior of Virginia by spring, and the need to consider Patrick Cleburne's plan to emancipate the slaves and put all men in the army who were willing to join. Lee was said to have agreed on all points and desired to get black soldiers, saying "he could make soldiers out of any human being that had arms and legs."

A key source for Lee's views is his 1856 letter to his wife:

Freeman's analysis puts Lee's attitude toward slavery and abolition in historical context:

Harpers Ferry and Texas, 1859–61

Both Harpers Ferry and the secession of Texas were monumental events leading up to the Civil War. Robert E. Lee was at both events. Lee initially remained loyal to the Union after Texas seceded.

Harpers Ferry

John Brown led a band of 21 abolitionists who seized the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia in October 1859, hoping to incite a slave rebellion. President James Buchanan gave Lee command of detachments of militia, soldiers, and United States Marines, to suppress the uprising and arrest its leaders. By the time Lee arrived that night, the militia on the site had surrounded Brown and his hostages. At dawn, Brown refused the demand for surrender. Lee attacked, and Brown and his followers were captured after three minutes of fighting. Lee's summary report of the episode shows Lee believed it "was the attempt of a fanatic or mad­man". Lee said Brown achieved "temporary success" by creating panic and confusion and by "magnifying" the number of participants involved in the raid.

Texas

When Texas seceded from the Union in February 1861, General David E. Twiggs surrendered all the American forces (about 4,000 men, including Lee, and commander of the Department of Texas) to the Texans. Twiggs immediately resigned from the U. S. Army and was made a Confederate general. Lee went back to Washington and was appointed Colonel of the First Regiment of Cavalry in March 1861. Lee's colonelcy was signed by the new President, Abraham Lincoln. Three weeks after his promotion, Colonel Lee was offered a senior command (with the rank of Major General) in the expanding Army to fight the Southern States that had left the Union. Fort Mason, Texas was Lee's last command with the United States Army.

Civil War

Lee privately ridiculed the Confederacy in letters in early 1861, denouncing secession as "revolution" and a betrayal of the efforts of the founders. Writing to his son William Fitzhugh, Lee stated, "I can anticipate no greater calamity for the country than a dissolution of the Union." While he was not opposed in principle to secession, Lee wanted all peaceful ways of resolving the differences between North and South—such as the Crittenden Compromise—to be tried first, and was one of the few to foresee a long and difficult war.

The commanding general of the Union Army, Winfield Scott, told Lincoln he wanted Lee for a top command. Lee accepted a promotion to colonel on March 28. He had earlier been asked by one of his lieutenants if he intended to fight for the Confederacy or the Union, to which Lee replied, "I shall never bear arms against the Union, but it may be necessary for me to carry a musket in the defense of my native state, Virginia, in which case I shall not prove recreant to my duty." Meanwhile, Lee ignored an offer of command from the CSA. After Lincoln's call for troops to put down the rebellion, it was obvious that Virginia would quickly secede. Lee turned down an April 18 offer by presidential aide Francis P. Blair to command the defense of Washington D.C. as a major general, as he feared that the job might require him to invade the South. When Lee asked Scott if he could stay home and not participate in the war, the general replied "I have no place in my army for equivocal men."

Lee resigned from the Army on April 20 and took up command of the Virginia state forces on April 23. While historians have usually called his decision inevitable ("the answer he was born to make", wrote one; another called it a "no-brainer") given the ties to family and state, recent research shows that the choice was a difficult one that Lee made alone, without pressure from friends or family. His daughter Mary Custis was the only one among those close to Lee who favored secession, and wife Mary Anna especially favored the Union, so his decision astounded them. While Lee's immediate family followed him to the Confederacy others, such as cousins and fellow officers Samuel Phillips and John Fitzgerald, remained loyal to the Union, as did 40% of all Virginian officers.

Early role

At the outbreak of war, Lee was appointed to command all of Virginia's forces, but upon the formation of the Confederate States Army, he was named one of its first five full generals. Lee did not wear the insignia of a Confederate general, but only the three stars of a Confederate colonel, equivalent to his last U.S. Army rank. He did not intend to wear a general's insignia until the Civil War had been won and he could be promoted, in peacetime, to general in the Confederate Army.

Lee's first field assignment was commanding Confederate forces in western Virginia, where he was defeated at the Battle of Cheat Mountain and was widely blamed for Confederate setbacks. He was then sent to organize the coastal defenses along the Carolina and Georgia seaboard, appointed commander, "Department of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida” on November 5, 1861. Between then and the fall of Fort Pulaski, April 11, 1862, he put in place a defense of Savannah that proved successful in blocking Federal advance on Savannah.[1] Confederate fort and naval gunnery dictated night time movement and construction by the besiegers. Federal preparations required four months.[2] In those four months, Lee developed a defense in depth. Behind Fort Pulaski on the Savannah River, Fort Jackson was improved, and two additional batteries covered river approaches. In the face of the Union superiority in naval, artillery and infantry deployment, Lee was able to block any Federal advance on Savannah, and at the same time, well-trained Georgia troops were released in time to meet McClellan’s Peninsula Campaign. The City of Savannah would not fall until Sherman's approach from the interior at the end of 1864.[4]

At first, the press spoke to the disappointment of losing Fort Pulaski. Surprised by the effectiveness of large caliber Parrott Rifles in their first deployment, it was widely speculated that only betrayal could have brought overnight surrender to a Third System Fort.[5] Lee was said to have failed to get effective support in the Savannah River from the three sidewheeler gunboats of the Georgia Navy. Although again blamed by the press for Confederate reverses, he was appointed military adviser to Confederate President Jefferson Davis, the former U.S. Secretary of War. While in Richmond, Lee was ridiculed as the 'King of Spades' for his excessive digging of trenches around the capitol. These trenches would later play an pivotal role in battles near the end of the war.

Commander, Army of Northern Virginia

Following the wounding of Gen. Joseph E. Johnston at the Battle of Seven Pines, on June 1, 1862, Lee assumed command of the Army of Northern Virginia, his first opportunity to lead an army in the field. Early in the war, his men called him "Granny Lee" because of his allegedly timid style of command. Confederate newspaper editorials of the day objected to his appointment due to concerns that Lee would not be aggressive and would wait for the Union army to come to him. He oversaw substantial strengthening of Richmond's defenses during the first three weeks of June. In the spring of 1862, as part of the Peninsula Campaign, the Union Army of the Potomac under General George B. McClellan advanced upon Richmond from Fort Monroe, eventually reaching the eastern edges of the Confederate capital along the Chickahominy River. Lee then launched a series of attacks, the Seven Days Battles, against McClellan's forces. Lee's assaults resulted in heavy Confederate casualties. They were marred by clumsy tactical performances by his division commanders, but his aggressive actions unnerved McClellan, who retreated to a point on the James River and abandoned the Peninsula Campaign. These successes led to a rapid turnaround of Confederate public opinion, and the newspaper editorials quickly changed their tune on Lee's aggressiveness. After the Seven Days Battles until the end of the war his men called him simply "Marse Robert", a term of respect and affection. thumb|left|Lee mounted on [[Traveller (horse)|Traveller (September 1866)]]This stunning Unionist setback – followed by an alarming drop in Northern morale – impelled Lincoln to adopt a new policy of relentless, committed warfare. Three weeks after the Seven Days Battles, Lincoln informed his cabinet that he intended to issue an executive order to free slaves as a military necessity. After McClellan's retreat, Lee defeated another Union army at the Second Battle of Bull Run. Within 90 days of taking command, Lee had run McClellan off the Peninsula, defeated Pope at Second Manassas, and the battle lines had moved from 6 miles outside Richmond, to 20 miles outside Washington. Instead of a quick end to the war that McClellen's Peninsula Campaign had promised, the war would go on for almost another 3 years and claim a half million more lives, and end with liberation of four million slaves and the devastation of the Southern slave-based society. Lee then invaded Maryland, hoping to replenish his supplies and possibly influence the Northern elections to fall in favor of ending the war. McClellan's men recovered a lost order that revealed Lee's plans. McClellan always exaggerated Lee's numerical strength, but now he knew the Confederate army was divided and could be destroyed by an all-out attack at Antietam. McClellan, however, was too slow in moving, not realizing Lee had been informed by a spy that McClellan had the plans. Lee urgently recalled Stonewall Jackson, concentrating his forces west of Antietam Creek, near Sharpsburg, Maryland. In the bloodiest day of the war, with both sides suffering enormous losses, Lee withstood the Union assaults. He withdrew his battered army back to Virginia while President Abraham Lincoln used the Confederate reversal as an opportunity to announce the Emancipation Proclamation which put the Confederacy on the diplomatic and moral defensive, and would ultimately devastate the Confederacy's slave-based economy. Disappointed by McClellan's failure to destroy Lee's army, Lincoln named Ambrose Burnside as commander of the Army of the Potomac. Burnside ordered an attack across the Rappahannock River at Fredericksburg. Delays in getting bridges built across the river allowed Lee's army ample time to organize strong defenses, and the attack on December 12, 1862, was a disaster for the Union. Lincoln then named Joseph Hooker commander of the Army of the Potomac. Hooker's advance to attack Lee in May, 1863, near Chancellorsville, Virginia, was defeated by Lee and Stonewall Jackson's daring plan to divide the army and attack Hooker's flank. It was a victory over a larger force, but it also came with high casualties; It was particularly costly in one respect: Lee’s finest corps commander, Stonewall Jackson, was accidentally fired upon by his own troops. Weakened by his wounds, he succumbed to pneumonia.

Battle of Gettysburg

The critical decisions came in May–June 1863, after Lee's smashing victory at the Battle of Chancellorsville. The western front was crumbling, as multiple uncoordinated Confederate armies were unable to handle General Ulysses S. Grant's campaign against Vicksburg. The top military advisers wanted to save Vicksburg, but Lee persuaded Davis to overrule them and authorize yet another invasion of the North. The immediate goal was to acquire urgently needed supplies from the rich farming districts of Pennsylvania; a long-term goal was to stimulate peace activity in the North by demonstrating the power of the South to invade. Lee's decision proved a significant strategic blunder and cost the Confederacy control of its western regions, and nearly cost Lee his own army as Union forces cut him off from the South. Lee had to fight his way out at Gettysburg.

In the summer of 1863, Lee invaded the North again, marching through western Maryland and into south central Pennsylvania. He encountered Union forces under George G. Meade at the three-day Battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania in July; the battle would produce the largest number of casualties in the American Civil War. With some of his subordinates being new and inexperienced in their commands, J.E.B. Stuart's cavalry being out of the area, and Lee being slightly ill, he was less than comfortable with how events were unfolding. While the first day of battle was controlled by the Confederates, key terrain that should have been taken by General Ewell was not. The second day ended with the Confederates unable to break the Union position, and the Union being more solidified. Lee's decision on the third day, against the sound judgment of his best corps commander General Longstreet, to launch a massive frontal assault on the center of the Union line was disastrous. The assault known as Pickett's Charge was repulsed and resulted in heavy Confederate losses. The general rode out to meet his retreating army and proclaimed, "All this has been my fault." Lee was compelled to retreat. Despite flooded rivers that blocked his retreat, he escaped Meade's ineffective pursuit. Following his defeat at Gettysburg, Lee sent a letter of resignation to President Davis on August 8, 1863, but Davis refused Lee's request. That fall, Lee and Meade met again in two minor campaigns that did little to change the strategic standoff. The Confederate Army never fully recovered from the substantial losses incurred during the 3-day battle in southern Pennsylvania. The historian Shelby Foote stated, "Gettysburg was the price the South paid for having Robert E. Lee as commander."

Ulysses S. Grant and the Union offensive

In 1864 the new Union general-in-chief, Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, sought to use his large advantages in manpower and material resources to destroy Lee's army by attrition, pinning Lee against his capital of Richmond. Lee successfully stopped each attack, but Grant with his superior numbers kept pushing each time a bit farther to the southeast. These battles in the Overland Campaign included the Wilderness, Spotsylvania Court House and Cold Harbor.

Grant eventually was able to stealthily move his army across the James River. After stopping a Union attempt to capture Petersburg, Virginia, a vital railroad link supplying Richmond, Lee's men built elaborate trenches and were besieged in Petersburg. (This development presaged the trench warfare of World War I, exactly 50 years later.) He attempted to break the stalemate by sending Jubal A. Early on a raid through the Shenandoah Valley to Washington, D.C., but was defeated early on by the superior forces of Philip Sheridan. The Siege of Petersburg lasted from June 1864 until March 1865, with Lee's outnumbered and poorly supplied army shrinking daily because of desertions by disheartened Confederates.

General-in-chief

On January 31, 1865, Lee was promoted to general-in-chief of Confederate forces.

As the South ran out of manpower the issue of arming the slaves became paramount. By late 1864, the army so dominated the Confederacy that civilian leaders were unable to block the military's proposal, strongly endorsed by Lee, to arm and train slaves in Confederate uniform for combat. In return for this service, slave soldiers and their families would be emancipated. Lee explained, "We should employ them without delay ... [along with] gradual and general emancipation." The first units were in training as the war ended. As the Confederate army was devastated by casualties, disease and desertion, the Union attack on Petersburg succeeded on April 2, 1865. Lee abandoned Richmond and retreated west. Lee then made an attempt to escape to the southwest and join up with Joseph E. Johnston's Army of Tennessee in North Carolina. However, his forces were soon surrounded and he surrendered them to Grant on April 9, 1865, at Appomattox Court House, Virginia. Other Confederate armies followed suit and the war ended. The day after his surrender, Lee issued his Farewell Address to his army.

Lee resisted calls by some officers to reject surrender and allow small units to melt away into the mountains, setting up a lengthy guerrilla war. He insisted the war was over and energetically campaigned for inter-sectional reconciliation. "So far from engaging in a war to perpetuate slavery, I am rejoiced that slavery is abolished. I believe it will be greatly for the interests of the South."

Lee's Civil War battle summaries

The following are summaries of Civil War battles where Robert E. Lee was the commanding officer:

Union victory 95,000 August 28–30, 1862 September 14, 1862 September 16–18, 1862 December 11, 1862 May 1, 1863 July 1, 1863 May 5, 1864 May 12, 1864 June 1, 1864 August 14, 1864 March 29, 1865

Battle !! Date !! Result !! Opponent !! Confederate troop strength !! Union troop strength !! Confederate casualties !! Union casualties !! Notes
Cheat Mountain	September 11–13, 1861	|	Reynolds	15,000	2,000	100	21	Lee's first battle of the Civil War. Lee was severely criticized for the defeat and named "Granny Lee". Lee was sent to South Carolina to supervise fortifications.
Seven Days	June 25 – July 1, 1862	*Oak Grove: Draw (Union withdrawal)	*Beaver Dam Creek: Union victory	*Gaine's Mill: Confederate victory	*Savage's Station: Draw	*Glendale: Draw (Union withdrawal)	*Malvern Hill: Union victory		McClellan	|	91,000	20,614	15,849
Second Manassas	|	Confederate victory	Pope	49,000	76,000	9,197	16,054
South Mountain	|	Union victory	McClellan	18,000	28,000	2,685	1,813
Antietam	|	Inconclusive (strategic Union victory)	McClellan	52,000	75,000	13,724	12,410
Fredericksburg	|	Confederate victory (Lee's troops and supplies depleted)	Burnside	72,000	114,000	5,309	12,653
Chancellorsville	|	Confederate victory	Hooker	57,000	105,000	12,764	16,792
Gettysburg	|	Union victory	Meade	75,000	83,000	23,231–28,063	23,049	The Confederate army that returned from the fight at Gettysburg was physically and spiritually exhausted. Lee would never again attempt an offensive operation of such monumental proportions. Meade, who had forced Lee to retreat, was criticized for not immediately pursuing Lee's army. This battle become known as the High Water Mark of the Confederacy. Lee would never personally invade the North again after this battle. Rather he was determined to defend Richmond and eventually Petersburg at all costs.
Wilderness	|	Inconclusive (Lee's tactical victory, yet Grant continued his offensive)	Grant	61,000	102,000	11,400	18,400
Spotsylvania	|	Inconclusive (although beaten and unable to take Lee's staunch line defenses, Grant continued the Union offensive)	Grant	52,000	100,000	12,000	18,000
Cold Harbor	|	Inconclusive (tactically, Lee was the victor, but Grant continue the strategic offensive)	Grant	62,000	108,000	2,500	12,000
Deep Bottom	|	Confederate victory	Hancock	20,000	28,000	1,700	2,901	Union attempt to attack Richmond, the Confederate capital
Appomattox (campaign)	|	Union victory, Confederate surrender	Grant	50,000	113,000	no record available	10,780	General Robert E. Lee surrenders to General Ulysses S. Grant. Casualties on Confederate side are enormous. After the surrender Grant gave Lee's army much-needed food rations, made them lay down their arms and return to their homes, never to take up arms against the Union again.

After the war

After the war, Lee was not arrested or punished, but he did lose the right to vote as well as some property. Lee supported President Johnson's plan of Reconstruction, but joined with Democrats in opposing the Radical Republicans who demanded punitive measures against the South, distrusted its commitment to the abolition of slavery and, indeed, distrusted the region's loyalty to the United States. Lee supported civil rights for all, as well as a system of free public schools for blacks, but dissented regarding black suffrage. Most of all he became an icon of reconciliation between the North and South, and the reintegration of former Confederates into the national fabric.

Lee's prewar family home, the Custis-Lee Mansion, was seized by Union forces during the war and turned into Arlington National Cemetery. The family was compensated in 1883.

Lee hoped to retire to a farm of his own, but he was too much a regional symbol to live in obscurity. He accepted an offer to serve as the president of Washington College (now Washington and Lee University) in Lexington, Virginia, and served from October 1865 until his death. The Trustees used his famous name in large-scale fund-raising appeals and Lee transformed Washington College into a leading Southern college. Lee was well liked by the students, which enabled him to announce an "honor system" like West Point's, explaining "We have but one rule here, and it is that every student be a gentleman." To speed up national reconciliation Lee recruited students from the North and made certain they were well treated on campus and in town.

Several glowing appraisals of Lee's tenure as college president have survived, depicting the dignity and respect he commanded among all. Previously, most students had been obliged to occupy the campus dormitories, while only the most mature were allowed to live off-campus. Lee quickly reversed this rule, requiring most students to board off-campus, and allowing only the most mature to live in the dorms as a mark of privilege; the results of this policy were considered a success. A typical account by a professor there states that "the students fairly worshipped him, and deeply dreaded his displeasure; yet so kind, affable, and gentle was he toward them that all loved to approach him... No student would have dared to violate General Lee's expressed wish or appeal; if he had done so, the students themselves would have driven him from the college." Elsewhere, the same professor recalls the following:

While at Washington College, Lee told a colleague that the greatest mistake of his life was taking a military education.

President Johnson's first amnesty pardon

On May 29, 1865, President Andrew Johnson issued a Proclamation of Amnesty and Pardon to persons who had participated in the rebellion against the United States. There were fourteen excepted classes, though, and members of those classes had to make special application to the President. Lee sent an application to Grant and wrote to President Johnson on June 13, 1865:

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On October 2, 1865, the same day that Lee was inaugurated as president of Washington College (today named Washington and Lee, in Lee's honor) in Lexington, Virginia, he signed his Amnesty Oath, thereby complying fully with the provision of Johnson's proclamation. Lee was not pardoned, nor was his citizenship restored. The fact that he had submitted an amnesty oath at all was soon lost to history.

Apparently Secretary of State William H. Seward had given Lee's application to a friend as a souvenir, and the State Department had pigeonholed the oath. More than a hundred years later, in 1970, an archivist at the National Archives discovered Lee's Amnesty Oath among State Department records (reported in Prologue, Winter 1970). For 110 years Lee remained without a country, as the Confederacy had dissolved and Lee's United States application and oath were lost and disregarded. It is probable that someone at the State Department did not want Robert E. Lee to regain citizenship while Lee was alive.

President Johnson's second amnesty pardon

President Andrew Johnson, in a proclamation dated December 25, 1868 (15 Stat. 711), gave an unconditional pardon to those who "directly or indirectly" rebelled against the United States.

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Lee, with this full amnesty pardon by President Johnson, could not be held liable for treason or insurrection against the United States. Lee was posthumously officially reinstated as a United States citizen by President Gerald Ford in 1975.

Postwar politics

Lee, who had opposed secession and remained mostly indifferent to politics before the Civil War, supported President Johnson's plan of Presidential Reconstruction that took effect in 1865–66. However, he opposed the Congressional Republican program that took effect in 1867. In February 1866, he was called to testify before the Joint Congressional Committee on Reconstruction in Washington, where he expressed support for President Andrew Johnson's plans for quick restoration of the former Confederate states, and argued that restoration should return, as far as possible, the status quo ante in the Southern states' governments (with the exception of slavery).

Lee told the Committee, "...every one with whom I associate expresses kind feelings towards the freedmen. They wish to see them get on in the world, and particularly to take up some occupation for a living, and to turn their hands to some work." Lee also expressed his "willingness that blacks should be educated, and ... that it would be better for the blacks and for the whites." Lee forthrightly opposed allowing blacks to vote: "My own opinion is that, at this time, they [black Southerners] cannot vote intelligently, and that giving them the [vote] would lead to a great deal of demagogism, and lead to embarrassments in various ways." Lee also recommended the deportation of African Americans from Virginia and even mentioned that Virginians would give aid in the deportation. "I think it would be better for Virginia if she could get rid of them [African Americans]. ... I think that everyone there would be willing to aid it."

In an interview in May 1866, Lee said, "The Radical party are likely to do a great deal of harm, for we wish now for good feeling to grow up between North and South, and the President, Mr. Johnson, has been doing much to strengthen the feeling in favor of the Union among us. The relations between the Negroes and the whites were friendly formerly, and would remain so if legislation be not passed in favor of the blacks, in a way that will only do them harm."

In 1868, Lee's ally Alexander H. H. Stuart drafted a public letter of endorsement for the Democratic Party's presidential campaign, in which Horatio Seymour ran against Lee's old foe Republican Ulysses S. Grant. Lee signed it along with thirty-one other ex-Confederates. The Democratic campaign, eager to publicize the endorsement, published the statement widely in newspapers. Their letter claimed paternalistic concern for the welfare of freed Southern blacks, stating that "The idea that the Southern people are hostile to the negroes and would oppress them, if it were in their power to do so, is entirely unfounded. They have grown up in our midst, and we have been accustomed from childhood to look upon them with kindness." However, it also called for the restoration of white political rule, arguing that "It is true that the people of the South, in common with a large majority of the people of the North and West, are, for obvious reasons, inflexibly opposed to any system of laws that would place the political power of the country in the hands of the negro race. But this opposition springs from no feeling of enmity, but from a deep-seated conviction that, at present, the negroes have neither the intelligence nor the other qualifications which are necessary to make them safe depositories of political power."

In his public statements and private correspondence, Lee argued that a tone of reconciliation and patience would further the interests of white Southerners better than hotheaded antagonism to federal authority or the use of violence. Lee repeatedly expelled white students from Washington College for violent attacks on local black men, and publicly urged obedience to the authorities and respect for law and order. In 1869–70 he was a leader in successful efforts to establish state-funded schools for blacks. He privately chastised fellow ex-Confederates such as Jefferson Davis and Jubal Early for their frequent, angry responses to perceived Northern insults, writing in private to them as he had written to a magazine editor in 1865, that "It should be the object of all to avoid controversy, to allay passion, give full scope to reason and to every kindly feeling. By doing this and encouraging our citizens to engage in the duties of life with all their heart and mind, with a determination not to be turned aside by thoughts of the past and fears of the future, our country will not only be restored in material prosperity, but will be advanced in science, in virtue and in religion."

Illness and death

On September 28, 1870, Lee suffered a stroke. He died two weeks later, shortly after 9 a.m. on October 12, 1870, in Lexington, Virginia from the effects of pneumonia. According to one account, his last words on the day of his death, were "Tell Hill he must come up. Strike the tent", but this is debatable because of conflicting accounts and because Lee's stroke had resulted in aphasia, possibly rendering him unable to speak.

He was buried underneath Lee Chapel at Washington and Lee University, where his body remains.

Legacy

Among Southerners, Lee came to be even more revered after his surrender than he had been during the war, when Stonewall Jackson had been the great Confederate hero. In an address before the Southern Historical Society in Atlanta, Georgia in 1874, Benjamin Harvey Hill described Lee as:

... a foe without hate; a friend without treachery; a soldier without cruelty; a victor without oppression, and a victim without murmuring. He was a public officer without vices; a private citizen without wrong; a neighbour without reproach; a Christian without hypocrisy, and a man without guile. He was a Caesar, without his ambition; Frederick, without his tyranny; Napoleon, without his selfishness, and Washington, without his reward.

His reputation continued to build, and by 1900 his followers had spread into the North, signaling a national apotheosis. Today among the devotees of the Lost Cause, General Lee is referred to as "The Marble Man."

Lee's admirers have pointed to his character and devotion to duty, and his brilliant tactical successes in battle after battle against a stronger foe. Military historians continue to pay attention to his battlefield tactics and maneuvering, though many think he should have designed better strategic plans for the Confederacy. However, it should be noted that he was not given full direction of the Southern war effort until late in the conflict.

Civil War–era letters

On September 29, 2007, General Lee's three Civil War–era letters were sold for $61,000 at auction by Thomas Willcox, much less than the record of $630,000 for a Lee item in 2002. The auction included more than 400 documents of Lee's from the estate of the parents of Willcox that had been in the family for generations. South Carolina sued to stop the sale on the grounds that the letters were official documents and therefore property of the state, but the court ruled in favor of Willcox.

Citizenship restored

On January 30, 1975, Senate Joint Resolution 23, ''A joint resolution to restore posthumously full rights of citizenship to General R. E. Lee'' was introduced into the Senate by Senator Harry F. Byrd, Jr. (I-VA). The resolution was to restore the U.S. citizenship to Robert E. Lee effective June 13, 1865. This resolution was the result of a five year campaign to posthumously restore Robert E. Lee's U.S. citizenship.

Congressional summary

January 30, 1975 S. J. Res. 23 introduced.

March 19, 1975 Reported to Senate from the Committee on the Judiciary, S. Rept. 94-44.

April 10, 1975 Passed/agreed to in Senate: Measure passed Senate.

June 24, 1975 Reported to House from the Committee on the Judiciary, H. Rept. 94–324.

July 22, 1975 Passed/agreed to in House: Measure passed House, roll call #415 Vote: 407 Yea 10 Nay

July 22, 1975 Cleared for White House

On July 24, 1975, after passing the Senate and House of Representatives, the resolution was presented to President Gerald Ford. The resolution, S.J. Res. 23, was signed on August 5, 1975 by the President and became Public Law 94-67 (89 Stat. 380). The signing took place at a ceremony at Arlington House, Arlington, Virginia. The house was formerly known as the Custis-Lee Mansion, and was the home of General Lee. The ceremony was attended by a dozen of Lee's descendants, including Robert E. Lee V, the general's great-great-grandson. Also attending were: Governor Mills E. Godwin, Jr., Senator Harry F. Byrd, Jr., and congressmen M. Caldwell Butler, Herbert E. Harris II, David E. Satterfield III, Thomas N. Downing, and Robert W. Daniel, Jr.

President Ford signing and speech

July 24, 1975 Measure presented to President.

August 5, 1975 Signed by President.

August 5, 1975 Public law 94-67

Before signing President Ford spoke at 2:12 p.m. at the signing ceremony:

Monuments, memorials and commemorations

Monuments

Since it was built in 1884, the most prominent monument in New Orleans has been a -tall monument to General Lee. A sixteen and a half foot statue of Lee stands tall upon a towering column of white marble in the middle of Lee Circle. The statue of Lee, which weighs more than 7,000 pounds, faces the North. Lee Circle is situated along New Orleans' famous St. Charles Avenue. The New Orleans streetcars roll past Lee Circle and New Orleans' best Mardi Gras parades go around Lee Circle (the spot is so popular that bleachers are set up annually around the perimeter for Mardi Gras). Around the corner from Lee Circle is New Orleans' Confederate Museum, which contains the second largest collection of Confederate memorabilia in the world. In a tribute to Lee Circle (which had formerly been known as Tivoli Circle), former Confederate soldier George Washington Cable wrote: ::"In Tivoli Circle, New Orleans, from the centre and apex of its green flowery mound, an immense column of pure white marble rises in the ... majesty of Grecian proportions high up above the city's house-tops into the dazzling sunshine ... On its dizzy top stands the bronze figure of one of the worlds greatest captains. He is alone. Not one of his mighty lieutenants stand behind, beside or below him. His arms are folded on that breast that never knew fear, and his calm, dauntless gaze meets the morning sun as it rises, like the new prosperity of the land he loved and serve so masterly, above the far distant battle fields where so many thousands of his gray veterans lie in the sleep of fallen heroes." (''Silent South'', 1885, The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine)

A large equestrian statue of Lee by French sculptor Jean Antonin Mercié is the centerpiece of Richmond, Virginia's famous Monument Avenue, which boasts four other statues to famous Confederates. This monument to Lee was unveiled on May 29, 1890. Over 100,000 people attended this dedication.

Robert E. Lee is also featured in the carving on Stone Mountain.

Robert E. Lee is shown mounted on Traveller in Gettysburg National Military Park on top of the Virginia Monument

A large double equestrian statue of Lee and Jackson in Baltimore's Wyman Park, directly across from the Baltimore Museum of Art, was dedicated in 1948. Designed by Laura Gardin Fraser, Robert E. Lee is depicted astride his horse Traveller next to Stonewall Jackson who is mounted on "Little Sorrel." Architect John Russell Pope created the base, which was dedicated on the anniversary of the eve of the Battle of Chancellorsville.

Holidays

The birthday of Robert E. Lee is celebrated or commemorated: In Virginia as part of Lee-Jackson Day, which is celebrated on the Friday preceding Martin Luther King, Jr. Day which is the third Monday in January.

In Texas as part of Confederate Heroes Day on January 19, Lee's actual birthday.

In Alabama, Arkansas, and Mississippi on the same day as Martin Luther King, Jr. Day

In Georgia on the day after Thanksgiving.

In Florida, as a legal and public holiday, on January 19.

Geographic features

Robert Lee, Texas

The Leesville half of Batesburg-Leesville, South Carolina.

Fort Lee in Prince George County, Virginia.

Lee County, Alabama; Lee County, Arkansas; Lee County, Florida; Lee County, Kentucky; Lee County, Mississippi; Lee County, North Carolina; Lee County, South Carolina; Lee County, Texas.

Lee Drive, Baton Rouge, Louisiana—one of the city's major streets, it is located near the Louisiana State University. Robert E. Lee High School is located on the street.

Lee Highway, a National Auto Trail in the United States connecting New York City and San Francisco, California via the South and Southwest.

Lee Avenue, in Manassas, Virginia, was named after Robert E. Lee and intersects with Grant Avenue in front of the old Prince William County Courthouse. Grant Avenue was named after General Ulysses S. Grant.

Robert E. Lee Memorial Park, Baltimore County, Maryland

Robert E. Lee is on the carving on Stone Mountain in Georgia

Robert E. Lee Blvd. in New Orleans

Lee Circle, New Orleans, with doric column surmounted by a statue of Lee

Schools and universities

Robert E. Lee Academy, Bishopville, South Carolina

Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Virginia

Lee College, Baytown, Texas

Several high schools and middle schools. See ''Robert E. Lee High School (disambiguation)''.

* Lee High School, Houston, Texas

* Lee-Davis High School, Mechanicsville, Virginia

* Southern Lee High School, Sanford, North Carolina

* Lee County High School, Sanford, North Carolina

* Robert E. Lee High School, Baytown, Texas

* Upson-Lee High School, Thomaston, Georgia

* Washington-Lee High School, Arlington, Virginia

* Robert E. Lee Junior High School, Monroe, Louisiana

* Robert E. Lee Junior High School, San Angelo, Texas

* Robert E. Lee High School, Jacksonville, Florida

* Robert E. Lee Middle School, Orlando, Florida

* Robert E. Lee High School, Springfield, Virginia

Several elementary schools. See ''Robert E. Lee Elementary School (disambiguation)''.

Memorials

Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial, also known as the Custis-Lee Mansion and located in present-day Arlington National Cemetery, is maintained by the National Park Service as a memorial to Lee.

The Virginia State Memorial at Gettysburg Battlefield is topped by an equestrian statue of Lee by Frederick William Sievers, facing roughly in the direction of Pickett's Charge.

Lee is one of the figures depicted in bas-relief carved into Stone Mountain near Atlanta, Georgia. Accompanying him on horseback in the relief are Stonewall Jackson and Jefferson Davis.

An equestrian statue of Lee is located in Robert E. Lee Park, in Dallas, Texas.

Despite his presidential pardon by Gerald Ford and his continuing to being held in high regard by many Americans, Lee's portrayal on a mural on Richmond's Flood Wall on the James River was considered offensive by some, was removed in the late 1990s, but currently is back on the flood wall.

In 1900, Lee was one of the first 29 individuals selected for the Hall of Fame for Great Americans (the first Hall of Fame in the United States), designed by Stanford White, on the Bronx, New York, campus of New York University, now a part of Bronx Community College.

On September 21, 1955, the United States Postal Service released a 30¢ Liberty Issue postage stamp honoring Lee.

A statue of Lee is on display at the main mall of The University of Texas at Austin.

Vehicles

The , a George Washington class ballistic missile submarine built in 1958, was named for Lee.

The Mississippi River steamboat, ''Robert E. Lee'', was named for Lee after the Civil War. It was the participant in an 1870 St. Louis – New Orleans race with the ''Natchez VI'', which was featured in a Currier and Ives lithograph. The ''Robert E. Lee'' won the said race. The steamboat also inspired a song ''Waiting for the Robert E. Lee'' (Lewis Muir-L. Wolfe Gilbert).

The Commonwealth of Virginia issues an optional license plate honoring Lee, making reference to him as 'The Virginia Gentleman'.

The M3 Lee tank.

In other media

Robert E. Lee serves as a main character in the Shaara novels ''The Killer Angels'', ''Gods and Generals'', and ''The Last Full Measure'', as well as the film adaptations of ''The Killer Angels'' and ''Gods and Generals''. He is played by Martin Sheen in the former and his descendent Robert Duvall in the latter. Lee is portrayed as a hero in the historical children's novel ''Lee and Grant at Appomattox'' by MacKinlay Kantor. He is a major character in Harry Turtledove's alternate history novel, Guns of the South, in which he ends up as President of a victorious Confederacy.

On September 18, 1960, the American actor George Macready portrayed Lee in the episode "Johnny Yuma at Appomattox" of the ABC television series ''The Rebel'', starring Nick Adams in the title role.

Notes

References

. . . . . . . . . .

Pryor, Elizabeth Brown (October 29, 2009). "Robert Edward Lee (ca. 1806-1870)". Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved February 18, 2011.

. .

Bibliography

Biographical

Blount, Roy, Jr. ''Robert E. Lee'' Penguin Putnam, 2003. 210 pp., short popular biography, ISBN 0670032204.

Carmichael, Peter S., ed. ''Audacity Personified: The Generalship of Robert E. Lee'' Louisiana State University Press, 2004, ISBN 0807129291.

Connelly, Thomas L., "Robert E. Lee and the Western Confederacy: A Criticism of Lee's Strategic Ability." Civil War History 15 (June 1969): 116–32

Cooke, John E., "A Life of General Robert E. Lee" Kessinger Publishing, 2004.

Dowdey, Clifford. ''Lee'' 1965.

Fellman, Michael (2000), ''The Making of Robert E. Lee''. New York: Random House (ISBN 0-679-45650-3).

Fishwick, Marshall W. ''Lee after the War'' 1963.

Flood, Charles Bracelen. ''Lee — The Last Years'' 1981.

Freeman, Douglas Southall. ''Lee'', (4 vol. 1935); abridged one-volume edition, edited by Richard Harwell (1961); the standard biography

Gallagher, Gary W. ''Lee the Soldier.'' (University of Nebraska Press, 1996)

Nolan, Alan T. ''Lee Considered'', University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC (1991)

Pryor, Elizabeth Brown; ''Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee Through His Private Letters.'' New York: Viking, 2007.

Smith, Eugene O. ''Lee and Grant: a Dual Biography'', McGraw-Hill, New York (1991)

Thomas, Emory ''Robert E. Lee'' W.W. Norton & Co., 1995 (ISBN 0-393-03730-4) full-scale scholarly biography

Military campaigns

Bonekemper, III, Edward H. ''How Robert E. Lee Lost the Civil War.'' Sergeant Kirkland's Press, Fredericksburg, Virginia. 1997. ISBN 1-887901-15-9

Bowden, Scott and Ward, Bill. ''Last Chance For Victory: Robert E. Lee And The Gettysburg Campaign.'' DaCapo Press, 2003.

Brown, Kent Masterson. ''Retreat from Gettysburg: Lee, Logistics, and the Pennsylvania Campaign.'' University of North Carolina Press, 2005.

Cagney, James. "Animations of the Campaigns of Robert E. Lee" Click Here for the Animations (2008)

Cavanaugh, Michael A., and William Marvel, ''The Petersburg Campaign: The Battle of the Crater: "The Horrid Pit", June 25 – August 6, 1864'' (1989)

Davis, William C. ''Death in the Trenches: Grant at Petersburg'' (1986).

Dowdey, Clifford. ''The Seven Days'' 1964.

Dugard, Martin. ''The Training Ground: Grant, Lee, Sherman, and Davis in the Mexican War, 1846–1848'' (2009) and text search

Freeman, Douglas S., ''Lee's Lieutenants: A Study in Command'' (3 volumes), Scribners, 1946, ISBN 0-684-85979-3.

Fuller, Maj. Gen. J. F. C., ''Grant and Lee, A Study in Personality and Generalship'', Indiana University Press, 1957, ISBN 0-253-13400-5.

Glatthaar, Joseph T. ''General Lee's Army: From Victory to Collapse'' (2009) excerpt and text search

Grimsley, Mark, ''And Keep Moving On: The Virginia Campaign, May–June 1864'' University of Nebraska Press, 2002.

Harmon, Troy D. ''Lee's Real Plan at Gettysburg'' Stackpole Books, 2001

Harsh, Joseph L. ''Taken at the Flood: Robert E. Lee and Confederate Strategy in the Maryland Campaign of 1862'' (Kent State University Press, 1999)

Johnson, R. U., and Buel, C. C., eds., ''Battles and Leaders of the Civil War''. 4 vols. New York, 1887–88; essays by leading generals of both sides; online edition

McWhiney, Grady, ''Battle in the Wilderness: Grant Meets Lee'' (1995)

Maney, R. Wayne, ''Marching to Cold Harbor. Victory and Failure, 1864'' (1994).

Marvel, William. ''Lee's Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox.'' University of North Carolina Press, 2002.

Matter, William D. ''If It Takes All Summer: The Battle of Spotsylvania'' (1988)

Miller, J. Michael. ''The North Anna Campaign: "Even to Hell Itself", May 21–26, 1864'' (1989).

Rafuse, Ethan S. ''Robert E. Lee and the Fall of the Confederacy, 1863–1865'' (2008) excerpt and text search

Rhea, Gordon C. and Chris E. Heisey. ''In the Footsteps of Grant and Lee: The Wilderness Through Cold Harbor'' (2007)

Rhea, Gordon C. ''The Battle of the Wilderness May 5–6, 1864'', Louisiana State University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-8071-1873-7.

Rhea, Gordon C. ''The Battles for Spotsylvania Court House and the Road to Yellow Tavern May 7–12, 1864'', Louisiana State University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8071-2136-3.

Rhea, Gordon C. ''To the North Anna River: Grant and Lee, May 13–25, 1864'', Louisiana State University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8071-2535-0.

Rhea, Gordon C. ''Cold Harbor: Grant and Lee, May 26 – June 3, 1864'', Louisiana State University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8071-2803-1.

Historiography and legacy

Adams, Michael C. C. "Robert E. Lee and Perspective over Time," ''Civil War History'' v. 49#1 (2003) pp 64–70

Connelly, Thomas L., "The Image and the General: Robert E. Lee in American Historiography." Civil War History 19 (March 1973): 50–64.

Connelly, Thomas L., ''The Marble Man. Robert E. Lee and His Image in American Society''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977.

Fulmer, Hal W. "Southern Clerics and the Passing of Lee: Mythic Rhetoric and the Construction of a Sacred Symbol," ''Southern Communication Journa'' l55 (1990): 355-71

Gallagher, Gary W. ''Lee and His Army in Confederate History.'' University of North Carolina Press, 2001

Gallagher, Gary W. ''Lee and His Generals in War and Memory'' (1998).

McCaslin, Richard B. ''Lee in the Shadow of Washington.'' Louisiana State University Press, 2001.

McPherson, James M., and William J. Cooper, Jr., eds. ''Writing the Civil War: The Quest to Understand'' (University of South Carolina Press, 1998)

Reid, Brian Holden. ''Robert E. Lee: Icon for a Nation'', London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005.

Ross, Michael A. "The Commemoration of Robert E. Lee's Death and the Obstruction of Reconstruction in New Orleans," ''Civil War History,'' Volume 51#2 June 2005, pp. 135–150 DOI: 10.1353/cwh.2005.0032

Primary sources

Dowdey, Clifford. and Louis H. Manarin, eds. ''The Wartime Papers of R. E. Lee.'' (1961).

Freeman, Douglas Southall. ed. ''Unpublished Letters of General Robert E. Lee, C.S.A. to Jefferson Davis and the War Department of the Confederate States of America, 1862–65''. Rev. ed. with foreword by Grady McWhiney. (1957).

Lee, Robert E. ''Recollections and Letters of General Robert E. Lee'' (2008 edition) excerpt and text search

Johnson, R. U. and Buel, C. C. eds. ''Battles and Leaders of the Civil War'' (4 vols. 1887–88; essays by leading generals of both sides; online edition

''Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee Through His Private Letters'' ed. by Elizabeth Brown Pryor (2008) excerpt and text search

Taylor, Walter H. ''Four Years with General Lee'' (1877). full text online

Taylor, Walter H. ''General Lee — His Campaigns in Virginia, 1861–1865''. (1906) online complete edition

External links

Robert E. Lee by Elizabeth Brown Pryor in ''Encyclopedia Virginia''

Freeman's biography of Lee

Biographical article in Appleton's Encyclopedia

Obituary of Robert E. Lee, from a Northern point of view. ''The New York Times''; October 13, 1870

Primary sources

Recollections and Letters of General Robert E. Lee, by Captain Robert E. Lee, His Son

A Leadership Walk Across Gettysburg, DVD that reflects on Lee's leadership decisions during the three-day battle at Gettysburg

Interactive Animation of the Battle of Gettysburg - A chronicle of the 3-day battle, it also touches on Lee's tactical strategies during the American Civil War.

Monuments and memorials

Lee Chapel at Washington and Lee University where Robert E. Lee is buried

Robert E Lee / Virginia Monument at Gettysburg

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name	Tom Nelson
state	Wisconsin
state assembly	Wisconsin
district	5th
term start	2005
term end	2011
preceded	Becky Weber
succeeded	Jim Steineke
party	Democrat
birth date	March 03, 1976
birth place	St. Paul, Minnesota
alma mater	Carleton College,Princeton University
residence	Kaukauna, Wisconsin
religion	Lutheran
website	nelsonforassembly.com }}

Tom Nelson is a Democratic politician from Kaukana, Wisconsin and the County Executive of Outagamie County, having taken office on April 19, 2011.

Background

Born in St. Paul, Minnesota on March 3, 1976, Nelson graduated from Little Chute High School in 1994, earned a B.A. from Carleton College in 1998, and an M.P.A. from Princeton in 2004.

Legislative service

Nelson is a former member of the Wisconsin State Assembly representing the 5th Assembly District (northeastern Outagamie County and the Town of Maple Grove) from 2005 - 2011. He was first elected to the Assembly in 2004, defeating Republican incumbent Becky Weber 15,014 to 14,249; and was assigned to the standing committees on health, insurance, rural development and transportation.

He was re-elected twice, and was elected Assembly Majority Leader in 2008.

Run for Lieutenant Governor

In 2010, Nelson announced that he was running for the position of Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin, rather than seek re-election to the Assembly. On September 14, he won the Democratic nomination in a four-way race, winning an absolute majority (52%) over state senator Spencer Coggs (21%) and two others. Nelson and running mate Tom Barrett (who ran as a ticket) were defeated in the 2010 general election by Rebecca Kleefisch and Scott Walker. His assembly seat was taken by Republican Jim Steineke.

County executive

On April 5, 2011, Nelson defeated former Republican State Treasurer of Wisconsin Jack Voight for county executive of Outagamie County, by roughly 52% - 48%. Voight blamed the political unrest stemming from Scott Walker's policy drive to eliminate public workers' collective bargaining powers, saying "The labor movement has not only energized the Democratic Party base but a lot of the independents."

References

External links

''Follow the Money'' - Tom Nelson

*2008 2006 2004 campaign contributions

Campaign 2008 campaign contributions at ''Wisconsin Democracy Campaign''

Category:Carleton College alumni Category:Leaders of counties in Wisconsin Category:Members of the Wisconsin State Assembly Category:People from Saint Paul, Minnesota Category:People from Outagamie County, Wisconsin Category:Wisconsin Democrats Category:Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton alumni Category:1976 births Category:Living people

bgcolour	silver
name	Krzysztof Kieślowski
birth date	June 27, 1941
birth place	Warsaw, Poland
death date	March 13, 1996
death place	Warsaw, Poland
spouse	Maria Cautillo (1967-1996)
alma mater	National Film School in Łódź }}

Krzysztof Kieślowski (; 27 June 1941 – 13 March 1996) was an influential Polish film director and screenwriter, known internationally for his film cycles ''The Decalogue'' and ''Three Colors''.

Early life

Kieślowski was born in Warsaw and grew up in several small towns, moving wherever his engineer father, a tuberculosis patient, could find treatment. At sixteen, he briefly attended a firefighters' training school, but dropped out after three months. Without any career goals, he then entered the College for Theatre Technicians in Warsaw in 1957 because it was run by a relative. He decided to become a theatre director, but at the time there was no specific training program for directors, so he chose to study film as an intermediate step. He was raised Roman Catholic and retained what he called a "personal and private" relationship with God.

Career

Leaving college and working as a theatrical tailor, Kieślowski applied to the Łódź Film School, the famed Polish film school which also has Roman Polanski and Andrzej Wajda among its alumni. He was rejected twice. To avoid compulsory military service during this time, he briefly became an art student, and also went on a drastic diet in an attempt to make himself medically unfit for service. After several months of successfully avoiding the draft, he was accepted to the Łódź Film School on his third attempt.

He attended from 1964 to 1968, during a period in which the government allowed a relatively high degree of artistic freedom at the school. Kieślowski quickly lost his interest in theatre and decided to make documentary films. Kieślowski also married his lifelong love, Maria (Marysia) Cautillo, during his final year in school (m. January 21, 1967 to his death), and they had a daughter, Marta (b. January 8, 1972).

Kieślowski retired from film making with a public announcement after the premiere of his last film ''Red'' at the 1994 Cannes Film Festival. Just under two years after announcing his retirement, Krzysztof Kieślowski died on March 13, 1996 at age 54 during open-heart surgery following a heart attack, and was interred in Powązki Cemetery in Warsaw. His grave is located within the prestigious plot 23 and has a sculpture of the thumb and forefingers of two hands forming an oblong space—the classic view as if through a movie camera. The small sculpture is in black marble on a pedestal slightly over a meter tall. The slab with Kieślowski's name and dates lies below. He was survived by his wife Maria and daughter Marta.

Documentaries

Kieślowski's early documentaries focused on the everyday lives of city dwellers, workers, and soldiers. Though he was not an overtly political filmmaker, he soon found that attempting to depict Polish life accurately brought him into conflict with the authorities. His television film ''Workers '71'', which showed workers discussing the reasons for the mass strikes of 1970, was only shown in a drastically censored form. After ''Workers '71'', he turned his eye on the authorities themselves in ''Curriculum Vitae'', a film that combined documentary footage of Politburo meetings with a fictional story about a man under scrutiny by the officials. Though Kieślowski believed the film's message was anti-authoritarian, he was criticized by his colleagues for cooperating with the government in its production.

Kieślowski later said that he abandoned documentary filmmaking due to two experiences: the censorship of ''Workers '71'', which caused him to doubt whether truth could be told literally under an authoritarian regime, and an incident during the filming of ''Station'' (1981) in which some of his footage was nearly used as evidence in a criminal case. He decided that fiction not only allowed more artistic freedom, but could portray everyday life more truthfully.

Polish feature films

His first non-documentary feature, ''Personnel'' (1975), was made for television and won him first prize at the Mannheim Film Festival. Both ''Personnel'' and his next feature, ''The Scar'' (''Blizna''), were works of social realism with large casts: ''Personnel'' was about technicians working on a stage production, based on his early college experience, and ''The Scar'' showed the upheaval of a small town by a poorly-planned industrial project. These films were shot in a documentary style with many nonprofessional actors; like his earlier films, they portrayed everyday life under the weight of an oppressive system, but without overt commentary. ''Camera Buff'' (''Amator'', 1979) (which won the grand prize at the Moscow International Film Festival) and ''Blind Chance'' (''Przypadek'', 1981) continued along similar lines, but focused more on the ethical choices faced by a single character rather than a community. During this period, Kieślowski was considered part of a loose movement with other Polish directors of the time, including Janusz Kijowski, Andrzej Wajda, and Agnieszka Holland, called the Cinema of Moral Anxiety. His links with these directors (Holland in particular) caused some raised eyebrows within the Polish government, and each of his early films was subjected to censorship and enforced re-shooting/re-editing, if not banned outright (''Blind Chance'' was not released domestically until 1987, almost six years after it was completed).

''No End'' (''Bez końca'', 1984) was perhaps his most clearly political film, depicting political trials in Poland during martial law, from the unusual point of view of a lawyer's ghost and his widow. It was harshly criticized by both the government and dissidents. Starting with ''No End'', Kieślowski's career was closely associated with two regular collaborators, the screenwriter Krzysztof Piesiewicz and the composer Zbigniew Preisner. Piesiewicz was a trial lawyer whom Kieślowski met while researching political trials under martial law for a planned documentary on the subject; Piesiewicz co-wrote the screenplays for all of Kieślowski's subsequent films. Preisner provided the musical score for ''No End'' and most of the subsequent films; the score often plays a prominent part in Kieślowski's films and many of Preisner's pieces are referred to within the films themselves. In these cases, they are usually discussed by the films' characters as being the work of the (fictional) Dutch composer Van den Budenmayer. ''The Decalogue'' (1988), a series of ten short films set in a Warsaw tower block, each nominally based on one of the Ten Commandments, was created for Polish television with funding from West Germany; it is now one of the most critically acclaimed film cycles of all time. Co-written by Kieślowski and Piesiewicz, the ten one-hour-long episodes had originally been intended for ten different directors, but Kieślowski found himself unable to relinquish control over the project; in the end, each episode featured a different director of photography. Episodes five and six were released internationally in a longer form as ''A Short Film About Killing'' and ''A Short Film About Love'' respectively. Kieślowski had also planned to shoot a full-length version of Episode 9 under the title ''A Short Film About Jealousy'', but exhaustion eventually prevented him from making what would have been his thirteenth film in less than a year.

Foreign productions

Kieślowski's last four films were foreign co-productions, made mainly with money from France and in particular Romanian-born producer Marin Karmitz. These focused on moral and metaphysical issues along similar lines to ''The Decalogue'' and ''Blind Chance'' but on a more abstract level, with smaller casts, more internal stories, and less interest in communities. Poland appeared in these films mostly through the eyes of European outsiders. The four films were his most commercially successful by some distance.

The first of these was ''The Double Life of Véronique'' (''La double vie de Véronique'', 1990), which starred Irène Jacob. The relative commercial success of this film gave Kieślowski the funding for his ambitious final films, the trilogy ''Three Colors'' (''Blue'', ''White'', ''Red''), which explores the virtues symbolized by the French flag. The three films together garnered a host of prestigious international awards, including the Golden Lion for Best Film at the Venice Film Festival and the Silver Bear for Best Director at the Berlin Film Festival, in addition to receiving three Academy Award nominations.

Casting

Kieślowski often used the same actors in key roles in his films, including:

Artur Barciś in ''No End'', ''The Decalogue'', ''A Short Film About Love'', and ''A Short Film About Killing''

Aleksander Bardini in ''No End'', ''The Decalogue'', ''The Double Life of Véronique'', and ''Three Colors: White''

Irène Jacob in ''The Double Life of Véronique'' and ''Three Colors: Red''

Boguslaw Linda in ''Blind Chance'' and ''The Decalogue''

Maria Pakulnis in ''No End'' and ''The Decalogue''

Jerzy Stuhr in ''The Scar'', ''Camera Buff'', ''Blind Chance'', ''The Decalogue'', and ''Three Colors: White''

Grażyna Szapołowska in ''No End'', ''The Decalogue'', and ''A Short Film About Love''

Zbigniew Zamachowski in ''The Decalogue'', and ''Three Colors: White''

Legacy

Kieślowski remains one of Europe's most influential directors, his works included in the study of film classes at universities throughout the world. The 1993 book ''Kieślowski on Kieślowski'' describes his life and work in his own words, based on interviews by Danusia Stok. He is also the subject of a biographical film, ''Krzysztof Kieślowski: I'm So-So'' (1995), directed by Krzysztof Wierzbicki.

After Kieślowski's death, Harvey Weinstein (then head of Miramax Films, which distributed the last four Kieślowski films in the US) wrote a eulogy for him in ''Premiere'' magazine. In it he said that Quentin Tarantino saw ''The Double Life of Véronique'' at the 1991 Cannes Film Festival and took note of its star, Irène Jacob. He apparently wrote the part of Bruce Willis's wife in ''Pulp Fiction'' for her, but she was unavailable for the shoot. She was working on Kieślowski's ''Three Colors: Red'' at the time. According to the same article, Tarantino saw ''Red'' at Cannes and declared that it would win the Palme d'Or. Instead his own ''Pulp Fiction'' received the top prize at the festival.

Though he had claimed to be retiring after ''Three Colors'', at the time of his death Kieślowski was working on a new trilogy co-written with Piesiewicz, consisting of ''Heaven'', ''Hell'', and ''Purgatory'' and inspired by Dante's ''The Divine Comedy''. As was originally intended for the ''Decalogue'', the scripts were ostensibly intended to be given to other directors for filming, but Kieślowski's untimely death means it is unknown whether he might have broken his self-imposed retirement to direct the trilogy himself. The only completed screenplay, ''Heaven'', was filmed by Tom Tykwer and released in 2002 at the Toronto International Film Festival. The other two scripts existed only as thirty-page treatments at the time of Kieślowski's death; Piesiewicz has since completed these screenplays, with ''Hell'' — directed by Bosnian director Danis Tanović and starring Emmanuelle Béart — released in 2005, whilst ''Purgatory'', which is about a photographer killed in the Bosnian war, remains unproduced. The 2007, Ibo Kurdo and Stanislaw Mucha directed Nadzieja (Hope), also scripted by Piesiewicz, has been incorrectly identified as the third part of the trilogy, but is in fact, an unrelated project. Jerzy Stuhr, who starred in several Kieślowski films and co-wrote the script for ''Camera Buff'', filmed his own adaptation of an unfilmed Kieślowski script as ''Big Animal'' (''Duże zwierzę'') in 2000. Kieślowski said the following in an interview:

Stanley Kubrick wrote the foreword to Kieślowski & Piesiewicz, ''Decalogue: The Ten Commandments'', London: Faber & Faber, 1991:

Filmography

Documentaries/short subjects

''The Face'' (''Twarz'' 1966), as actor

''The Office'' (''Urząd'' 1966)

''Tramway'' (''Tramwaj'' 1966)

''Concert of Requests'' (''Koncert życzeń'' 1967)

''The Photograph'' (''Zdjęcie'' 1968)

''From the City of Łódź'' (''Z miasta Łodzi'' 1968)

''I Was a Soldier'' (''Byłem żołnierzem'' 1970)

''Factory'' (''Fabryka'' 1970)

''Workers '71: Nothing About Us Without Us'' (''Robotnicy '71: Nic o nas bez nas'' 1971)

''Before the Rally'' (''Przed rajdem'' 1971)

''Between Wrocław and Zielona Góra'' (''Między Wrocławiem a Zieloną Górą'' 1972)

''The Principles of Safety and Hygiene in a Copper Mine'' (''Podstawy BHP w kopalni miedzi'' 1972)

''Gospodarze'' (1972)

''Refrain'' (''Refren'' 1972)

''The Bricklayer'' (''Murarz'' 1973)

''First Love'' (''Pierwsza miłość'' 1974)

''X-Ray'' (''Przeswietlenie'' 1974)

''Pedestrian Subway'' (''Przejście podziemne'' 1974)

''Curriculum Vitae'' ''(Życiorys'' 1975)

''Hospital'' (''Szpital'' 1976)

''Slate'' (''Klaps'' 1976)

''From a Night Porter's Point of View'' (''Z punktu widzenia nocnego portiera'' 1977)

''I Don't Know'' (''Nie wiem'' 1977)

''Seven Women of Different Ages'' (''Siedem kobiet w roznym wieku'' 1978)

''Railway Station'' (''Dworzec'' 1980)

''Talking Heads'' (''Gadające glowy'' 1980)

''Seven Days a Week'' (''Siedem dni tygodniu'' 1988)

Features and TV fiction

''Personnel'' (''Personel'' TV drama 1975)

''The Scar'' (''Blizna'' 1976)

''The Calm'' ''(Spokój'' TV drama 1978)

''Camera Buff'' (''Amator'' 1979)

''Short Working Day'' (''Krótki dzień pracy'' 1981)

''Blind Chance'' (''Przypadek'' 1981)

''No End'' (''Bez końca'' 1984)

''The Decalogue'' (''Dekalog'' 1988)

''A Short Film About Killing'' (''Krótki film o zabijaniu'' 1988)

''A Short Film About Love'' (''Krótki film o miłości'' 1988)

''The Double Life of Véronique'' (''La Double vie de Véronique/Podwójne życie Weroniki'' 1991)

''Three Colors: Blue'' (''Trois couleurs: Bleu/Trzy kolory: Niebieski'' 1993)

''Three Colors: White'' (''Trois couleurs: Blanc/Trzy kolory: Biały'' 1994)

''Three Colors: Red'' (''Trois couleurs: Rouge/Trzy kolory: Czerwony'' 1994)

Bibliography

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Fritz, Heiko. (2004). ''Was von der DDR bleibt oder die produzierte Geschichte mit einem Blick auf das filmwerk von Krzysztof Kieślowski''. Oldenberg: Igel Verlag. ISBN 3-89621-178-1

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Insdorf, A. (2002). ''Double lives, second chances: the cinema of Krzysztof Kieślowski''. New York: Hyperion Miramax Books. ISBN 0-7868-8474-6

Jazdon, Mikolaj. (2002). ''Dokumenty Kieślowskiego''. Pozna'n: Wydawnictwo Pozna'nskie. ISBN 83-7177-022-7

Kickasola, Joe. (2004). ''The films of Krzysztof Kieślowski''. London: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-1558-X (hbk) ISBN 0-8264-1559-8 (pbk)

Kieślowski, Krzysztof. (1998). ''Przypadek i inne teksty''. Kraków: Znak. ISBN 83-7006-702-6

Kieślowski, Krzysztof. Piesiewicz, Krzystof. (1999). ''Raj, czyś'ciec, pieklo: [three novels in one case]''. Warsaw: Skorpion. ISBN 83-86466-30-8 (vol 1) ISBN 83-86466-31-6 (vol 2) ISBN 83-86466-32-4 (vol 3)

Kieślowski, Krzystof. Piesiewicz, Krzystof. (1991). ''The decalogue: the ten commandments [screenplays]''. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-14498-5

Kieślowski, Krzystof. Piesiewicz, Krzystof. (1998). ''Three colours trilogy [screenplays]''. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-17892-8

Lagorio, Gina. (1992). ''Il decalogo di Kieślowski: ricreazione narritiva''. Casale Monferrato: Piemme. ISBN 88-384-1634-6

Lesch, Walter. Loretan, Matthias, ''et al.'' (1993). ''Das Gewicht der Gebote und die Moglichkeiten der Kunst: Krzysztof Kieślowskis Dekalog Filme als ethische Modelle''. Freiburg, Schweiz: Universitatsverlag; Freiburg: Herder. ISBN 3-7278-0910-8 (Univerlag) ISBN 3-451-23275-8 (Herder)

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Spadaro, Antonio. (1999). ''Lo sguardo presente : una lettura teologica di "Breve film sull'amore" di K. Kieślowski''. Rimini: Guaraldi. ISBN 88-8049-166-0

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Termine, Laborio. (2002). ''Immagine e rappresentazione''. Torino: Testo and immagine. ISBN 88-8382-081-9

Wach, Margarete. (2000). ''Krzysztof Kieślowski: kino der moralischen Unruhe''. Köln: KIM; Marburg: Schuren. ISBN 3-934311-06-7 (KIM) ISBN 3-89472-360-2 (Schuren)

Wilson, Emma. (2000). ''Memory and survival: the French cinema of Krzysztof Kieślowski''. Oxford: Legenda. ISBN 1-900755-27-0

Wizner, Dariusz. (2002). ''Stile cinematografico di Krzysztof Kieślowski''. Roma: Universita Pontificia Salesiana. Thesis.

Wollermann, Tobias. (2002). ''Zur musik in der Drei Farben: triologie von Krzysztof Kieślowski''. Osnabrück: Epos Musik. ISBN 3-923486-38-3

Zawiśliński, Stanislaw, ed. (1996). ''Kieślowski: album pod redakcja Stanislawa Zawiślińskiego; teksty [by] Krzysztof Kieślowski ...[et al.]''. Warsaw: Skorpion. ISBN 83-86466-11-1

Žižek, Slavoj. (2001). ''The Fright of Real Tears: Krzysztof Kieślowski Between Theory and Post-Theory''. London: BFI Publishing. ISBN 0-85170-755-6 (hbk) ISBN 0-85170-754-8 (pbk)

References

External links

Senses of Cinema: Krzysztof Kieślowski

Kieślowski's "Three Colours" Trilogy at the Galilean Library

Transcript from 1994 seminar by Kieślowski on "Directing actors"

Interview with Agnieska Holland on her friend and colleague Kieślowski

Profile on Krzysztof Kieślowski

Monografia: "Nic prócz humoru, czarnego, różowego, okrutnego..."

Kieślowski's World The Wonderful And Mysterious World Of Krzysztof Kieślowski

Category:1941 births Category:1996 deaths Category:Alumni of National Film School in Łódź Category:Cardiovascular disease deaths in Poland Category:People from Warsaw Category:Polish film directors Category:Polish Roman Catholics Category:Polish screenwriters Category:Posthumous films

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