Conventional long name	Punjab
Common name	Punjab
Nation	British India
Status text	British colony
Era	New Imperialism
Year start	1849
Year end	1947
Event end	Partition of India
Image coat	Arms of British Punjab.jpg
Image map caption	Map of British Punjab 1909

Punjab was a province of British India, it was one of the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to fall under British rule. With the end of British rule in 1947 the province was split between Pakistan and India. It comprised the present day areas of:

Punjab, Pakistan

Punjab, India

Islamabad Capital Territory, Pakistan

Haryana, India

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan (until 1901, see North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955))

Himachal Pradesh, India

Delhi, India

Chandigarh, India

Etymology

The word Punjab is named from the "five rivers" by which it is watered: the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, all tributaries of the Indus.

Geography

Geographically the Punjab province of India was a triangular tract of country of which the Indus and the Sutlej to their confluence formed the two sides, the base being the lower Himalaya hills between those two rivers; but the British province also included a large tract outside those boundaries. Along the northern border Himalayan ranges divided it from Kashmir and Tibet. On the west it was separated from the North-West Frontier Province by the Indus, until that river reaches the border of Dera Ghazi Khan District, which was divided from Baluchistan by the Sulaiman Range. To the south lay Sindh and Rajputana, while on the east the rivers Jumna and Tons separated it from the United Provinces.

The province included the important city of Lahore.

History

On 21 February 1849 the Sikhs were defeated at the battle of Gujrat by the British, the victory of the British allowed them to take over the Punjab. Punjab was annexed on the 2nd of April 1849 and became part of British India.

In 1901 the frontier districts beyond the Indus were separated from Punjab and made into a new province - the North-West Frontier Province.

References

External links

Sikhs in British Empire

Sikhs in British Empire

Category:Provinces of British India Category:History of Punjab (India)

Name	Bade Ghulam Ali Khan
Background	solo_singer
Alias	Sabrang
Born	April 2, 1902
Died	April 25, 1968Hyderabad, India
Origin	Kasur, Punjab
Genre	Indian classical music
Occupation	singer
Years active	1920? - 1967
Label	HMV, Times Music

Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan (Devanagari: बड़े ग़ुलाम अली ख़ान, Shahmukhi: بڑے غلام علی خان, ) (c. 1902 – 25 April 1968) was an Indian classical singer. He belonged to the Patiala Gharana of Hindustani classical music., and is considered to be an important representative of the Hindustani music tradition in the early and mid 20th century.

Early life and background

Bade Ghulam Ali was born in Kasur, Punjab, British India (Now in Pakistan). His father was a famous singer, Ali Baksh Khan, in a West Punjabi family of musical heritage.

At the age of seven, he learned sarangi and vocal from his paternal uncle Kale Khan, who was also a singer and composer of repute, and after his death he picked up a few compositions from his father who had re-married by this time. Bade Ghulam Ali thus mainly trained himself in the style of his late uncle. This tenure lasted for almost three years. It was at this juncture that he improvised the musical instrument "Kanoon" to the present "Swaramandal" which became his trademark. When aged about 21, he moved to Benaras where he accompanied a courtesan named Zarabai on the sarangi and started to perform in public. He died on 23rd April 1968.

Singing career

Though Khan started his career by playing the sarangi, he also used to sing a few compositions of his late uncle and perhaps his only teacher. He became popular as a vocalist after his debut concert in Kolkata. Khan amalgamated the best of four traditions: his own Patiala-Kasur style, the Behram Khani elements of Dhrupad, the gyrations of Jaipur, and the behlavas (embellishments) of Gwalior. His voice had a wide range, spanning three octaves, effortless rendition, sweetness, flexibility and ease of movement in all tempi.

After the partition of India in 1947, Khan went to his home in Pakistan, but returned to India later to reside permanently. He did not approve of the partition, stating: "If in every home one child was taught Hindustani classical music this country would never have been partitioned." In 1957, he acquired Indian citizenship and lived at various times in Lahore, Bombay, Calcutta, and Hyderabad.

For a long time, Bade Ghulam Ali stayed away from singing in films despite requests and persuasions from well known producers and music directors. However, he was coaxed and convinced by K. Asif to sing two songs based on ragas Sohni and Rageshree for the 1960 film Mughal-e-Azam, in which his voice was represented as Tansen's by the music director Naushad. In order to dissuade both Asif and Naushad who actually hit upon the idea to utilise the "golden voice" in the film, he demanded a very, very high price, reportedly Rs. 25,000/- per song, when the rate for popular and star playback singers such as Lata Mangeshkar (b.1929) and Mohammed Rafi(1925-1980) was below Rs. 500/- per song.

Khan was awarded the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award and the Padma Bhushan in 1962.

Khan was married to Ali Jiwai, who died in 1932. Khan's son, Munawar Ali Khan (1930–1989), was a classical singer. His grandson, Raza Ali Khan, is also a Hindustani classical singer.

Khan died in Hyderabad at Basheerbagh Palace in 1968, after a prolonged illness which left him partially paralysed in his last years. He continued to sing and perform in public with the support of his son Munawar until his death.

The legacy

Today, the Bade Ghulam Ali Khan Yaadgar Sabha, founded by his disciple Malti Gilani, keeps his music and memory alive. It aims to promote Hindustani classical music and organises many concerts to this end. Its primary aim, however, is to provide medical aid to ailing musicians. The Sabha organises a Sabrang Utsav every year in the memory of the maestro. Under his pen name, Sabrang, Khan left numerous compositions.

Discography

Mehfil - Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan - Times Music

Golden Milestones - Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan

Classical Vocal - Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan

Sab Rang

Footnotes

References

External links

http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1915/19151250.htm

Category:1902 births Category:1968 deaths Category:Hindustani singers Category:Indian Muslims Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan Category:Patiala Gharana Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award Category:Thumri Category:Punjabi people Category:People with acquired Indian citizenship Category:Indian people of Pakistani descent Category:People from Kasur District

Name	Rafic Hariri رفيق حريري
Order	Prime Minister of Lebanon
Term start	31 October 1992
Term end	2 December 1998
Predecessor	Rashid el-Solh
Successor	Selim al-Hoss
Term start2	23 October 2000
Term end2	21 October 2004
Predecessor2	Selim al-Hoss
Successor2	Omar Karami
Birth date	November 01, 1944
Birth place	Sidon, Lebanon
Death date	February 14, 2005
Death place	Beirut, Lebanon
Party	Future Movement
Religion	Sunni Islam

Rafic Baha El Deen Al-Hariri (November 1, 1944 – February 14, 2005, ), was a business tycoon and the Prime Minister of Lebanon from 1992 to 1998 and again from 2000 until his resignation, 20 October 2004.

He headed five cabinets during his tenure. Hariri dominated the country's post-war political and business life and is widely credited with reconstructing Beirut after the 15-year civil war.

Hariri was assassinated on 14 February 2005 when explosives equivalent to around 1000 kg of TNT were detonated as his motorcade drove past the St. George Hotel in the Lebanese capital, Beirut. The investigation, by the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, into his assassination is still ongoing and currently led by the independent investigator Daniel Bellemare. In its first two reports, UNIIIC indicated that the Syrian government may be linked to the assassination. According to a Canadian Broadcasting Corporation news investigation, the special UN investigation team had found strong evidence for the responsibility of the Hezbollah in the assassination. Hariri's killing led to massive political change in Lebanon, including the Cedar Revolution and the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon.

Background

Hariri was born in a modest Sunni Muslim family, along with two siblings (brother, Shafic and sister Bahia) in the Lebanese port city of Sidon. Hariri attended elementary and secondary school in his city and pursued his business administration studies at the Beirut Arab University.

Rise to wealth

In 1969, Hariri established Ciconest, a small subcontracting firm, which went out of business soon. He then went in business with the French construction firm Oger for the construction of a hotel in Ta’if, Saudi Arabia, the timely construction of which brought him in good graces with King Khaled. Hariri took over Oger, forming Oger International, which became the main construction firm used by the Saudi Royal family for all of their important developments. As a result, only a few years after his first contract with King Khaled, Hariri had become a multi-billionaire.

Beginnings in philanthropy

Having accumulated his wealth, Hariri started a number of philanthropic projects, including the building of educational facilities in Lebanon. Hariri became progressively more embroiled in politics. His appeals to the U.N. and services as an emissary to the Saudi Royal family won him international recognition on the political stage for his humanitarian efforts but also slowly caught him in the web of Lebanese politics.

In 1982, he donated $12 million to Lebanese victims of the 1978 South Lebanon conflict and helped clean up Beirut's streets with his company's money. After the conflict, he acted as an envoy of the Saudi royal family to the country. He laid the groundwork that led to the 1989 Taif Accord, which Saudi Arabia organised to bring the warring factions together. Taif put an end to the civil war and paved the way for Hariri to become prime minister.

Political career

Hariri returned to Lebanon in the early 80s as a wealthy man and began to build a name for himself by making large donations and contributions to various groups in Lebanon. He was implanted as the Saudis' strong man following the collapse of the PLO and the paucity of any viable Sunni leadership in the country, as well as a response to the rising power of the Shiite militia Amal. In 1992, becoming prime minister under Syria's watchful military occupation of Lebanon, he put the country back on the financial map through the issuing of Eurobonds and won plaudits from the World Bank for his plan to borrow reconstruction money as the country's debt grew to become the largest per capita in the world.

1992-1998 economic political policies

Hariri implemented an aggressive new economic policy. Perhaps Hariri's most important creation in the beginning of his career was "Horizon 2000" the government's name for its new rejuvenation plan. A large component of "Horizon 2000" was Solidere, the privately-owned construction company that was established to reconstruct post-war Lebanon. Solidere was owned by the government and private investors. Solidere was largely focused on redeveloping Beirut's downtown and turning it into a new urban center as quickly as possible as one aspect of the various infrastructure redevelopment plans that would be implemented by "Horizon 2000". Another aspect of the decade-long plan was the privatization of major industries. Numerous contracts were awarded in important industries such as energy, telecommunications, electricity, airports and roads. The last and perhaps most significant aspect of "Horizon 2000" was economic stimulus via foreign direct investment. Specifically, Hariri supported foreign firms and individuals taking an interest in Lebanon's developmental potential. Hariri simplified tax codes and provided tax breaks to foreign investors. Due to his previous successes in the private sector and the numerous resulting international connections, Hariri was able to garner a significant amount of low-interest loans from foreign investors. Hariri also pursued aggressive macroeconomic policy such as maintaining strict regulations on bank reserves and inter-bank interest rates to curb inflation and raise the value of the Lebanese pound relative to the dollar. Hariri's economic policies were a remarkable success during his first year in office. From 1992-1993 there was a 6 percent increase in real national income, the capital base of commercial banks effectively doubled, the budgetary earnings hovered at around a billion dollars, and commercial banks’ consolidated balance sheets increased about 25%. By 1998, however, real GDP growth was around 1%, a year later it would be -1%, national debt had skyrocketed 540% from two to eighteen billion dollars, Lebanon's economy was in a miserable state.

Hariri and Lebanon's political environment

and Hariri meeting in the White House]] Amid the political crisis brought on by the extension of President Émile Lahoud's term, Hariri resigned as Prime Minister, saying: "I have... submitted the resignation of the government, and I have declared that I will not be a candidate to head the (next) government."

During a BBC interview in 2001, Harīrī was asked by Tim Sebastian why he refused to hand over members of Hezbollah that were accused by America of being terrorists. He responded that Hezbollah were the ones protecting Lebanon against the Israeli occupation and called for implementation of passed United Nations resolutions against Israel. He was further accused of making the American coalition in the War on Terrorism worthless and asked if he was ready for the consequences of his refusal, reminding him that George W. Bush had said: "Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists". He replied that he had hoped that there would be no consequences, but would deal with them if they arrive. Hariri further said that he opposed the killing of all humans - Israeli, Palestinian, Syrian or Lebanese - and believed in dialogue as a solution. He further went on to say that Syria will have to stay in Lebanon for protection of Lebanon until they are no longer needed and Lebanon asks them to leave.

Lebanese Druze leader Walid Jumblatt, a recent recruit of the anti-Syrian opposition, emboldened by popular anger and civic action now being called Lebanon's "Cedar Revolution," alleged in the wake of the assassination that in August 2004 Syrian President Bashar al-Assad threatened Hariri, saying "[President of Lebanon] Lahoud is me. ... If you and Chirac want me out of Lebanon, I will break Lebanon.". He was quoted as saying "When I heard him telling us those words, I knew that it was his condemnation of death."

On June 22, 2005, Beirut International Airport was renamed Rafic Hariri International Airport. Additionally, Beirut General University hospital was renamed Rafiq Hariri Hospital.

Aftermath

Hariri was well regarded among international leaders, for example, he was a close friend of French President Jacques Chirac. Chirac was one of the first foreign dignitaries to offer condolences to Hariri's widow in person at her home in Beirut. The Special Tribunal for Lebanon was also created at his instigation.

Syria was initially accused of the assassination, which led to the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon following widespread protests.

Following Hariri's death, there were several other bombings and assassinations against minor anti-Syrian figures. These included Samir Kassir, George Hawi, Gebran Tueni, Pierre Amine Gemayel, and Walid Eido. Assassination attempts were made on Elias Murr, May Chidiac, and Samir Shehade (who was investigating Hariri's death).

The United Nations special tribunal (see Special Tribunal for Lebanon) investigating the murder of Hariri is expected to issue draft indictments accusing Hezbollah of murdering Hariri.

Hezbollah has accused Israel of the assassination of Hariri. According to Hezbollah officials, the assassination of Hariri was planned by the Mossad as a means of expelling the Syrian army from Lebanon. In August 2010, Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah presented "evidence", consisting of intercepted Israeli spy-drone video footage, which he said implicated Israel in the assassination of Hariri. After an altercation between male Tribunal staff and women at a gynecology clinic in October 2010, Hezbollah demanded that the Lebanese government stop all cooperation with the Special Tribunal, claiming the tribunal to be an infringement on Lebanese sovereignty by western governments. On November 1, 2010, a report was leaked by Al-Akhbar, a local secular, leftist newspaper, stating that Hezbollah has drafted plans for a quick takeover of the country in the case an indictment against its members is issued by the UN Special Tribunal. The report states that Hezbollah conducted a simulation of the plan on October 28, immediately following a speech by its secretary general.

On the other side, it has been revealed by leaked US embassy cables that Egyptian General Intelligence Directorate director Omar Suleiman reported that Syria "desperately" wanted to stop the investigation of the Tribunal.

Corruption

Hariri was the principal actor in the widespread corruption that plagued Lebanon during the Syrian occupation. His wealth grew from less than $1 billion dollars when he was appointed prime minister in 1992, to over $16 billion when he died. The Company for the Development and Reconstruction of Beirut's Central District, known as Solidere, in which Hariri is the primary shareholder, expropriated most property in the central business district of Beirut, compensating each owner with shares in the company, were worth as little as 15% of the property's value. That Hariri and his business associates profited immensely from this project was an open secret.

Hariri and his protégés were not the only beneficiaries of this spending spree. In order to secure support from militia chieftains, such as Walid Jumblat and Nabih Berri, and pro-Syrian ideologues that Damascus had installed in the government, Hariri allowed kickbacks from public spending to enrich all major government figures. For example, a contract to build a section of the coastal motorway was awarded to the firm of Randa Berri, the wife of Parliament Speaker Nabih Berri, at a price estimated to be at least $100 million in excess of construction costs. Contracts for the import of petroleum were awarded to the two sons of President Elias Hrawi.

As result of the growing criticism and popular discontent with Hariri's policies, the government banned public demonstrations in 1994 and relied upon the Army to enforce the decree.

In return for a relatively free hand in economic matters, Hariri cooperated with Syria's drive to consolidate its control over Lebanon. Under the guise of "regulating" the audiovisual media, the government placed control of all major television and radio stations in the hands of pro-Syrian elites. Supporters of Michel Aoun were also perpetually harassed and detained.

References

Books

Sallam, Qasim (1980). Al-Baath wal Watan Al-Arabi [Arabic, with French translation] ("The Baath and the Arab Homeland"). Paris: EMA. ISBN 2-86584-003-4

External links

Rafic Hariri Official site with news, video, press releases, speeches, statements, government policy, Cabinet decisions and UN resolutions

Future Movement Forum Future Movement Discussion Forum

*Lebanon unhappy over US sanction move, 12 October 2003

;Obituaries

Obituary-Rafīq Harīrī, BBC News, 14 February 2005

Obituary-Rafīq Harīrī - Lebanese Club @ MIT, President, Loai Naamani 15 February 2005

Obituary-Rafīq Harīrī, Daily Telegraph, 15 February 2005

Obituary-Rafīq Harīrī, The Guardian, 15 February 2005

Obituary-Rafīq Harīrī, The Times, 16 February 2005

Obituary-Rafīq Harīrī, Islamica Magazine, [Summer] 2005

;Articles

'Beirut bombshell' - Fortune, Mitchell Protero, 4 May 2006

Connecting the dots in Lebanon - Ya Libnan, 2 December 2006

RafiqHariri.tk ongoing news reports

Harīrī.org memorial page with news reports

'March for the martyr: Harīrī Remembered' Arabian Business, Massoud A. Derhally 14 February 2006

Timeline: Lebanon A chronology of key events - BBC News 14 February 2005

Harīrī's Absence Hard to Fill - New York Newsday 14 February 2005

Lebanese prime minister Harīrī resigns - Aljazeera.net 20 October 2004

The Los Angeles World Affairs Council Speech LAWAC 18 December 1996

"Mr. Miracle" - TIME EUROPE 8 February 1993

;Other

The Fitzgerald report (link to the UN website) - 24 March 2005

The Mehlis report (link to the UN website) - 20 October 2005

Lebanese prime minister quits, By Brent Sadler, Caroline Faraj and Nada el-Husseini, CNN 15 April 2003

Ambassador Farid Abboud discusses assassination: Farid Abboud

Huge blast kills Lebanese ex-PM — Previously unknown group claims responsibility, CNN 14 February 2005

Harīrī's comeback in Lebanon, BBC News 4 September 2000

Al-Harīrī, Rafīq & family, 58, self-made, Forbes October 2002

US Warns of UN Penalties After Lebanon Killing, Reuters Mon 14 February 2005

Blasts, then silence: Cease-fire begins, CNN 26 April 1996

INDEPTH: LEBANON Lebanon CBC News Online, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 15 February 2005

Syria accused of killing Lebanon's ex-leader By Ramsay Short in Beirut and Anton La Guardia, Diplomatic Editor-The Daily Telegraph 15 February 2005

Dossier: Rafiq Harīrī-Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, July 2001

Brinkley, Joel Rice Says Syria Is at Least Indirectly Responsible for the Blast The New York Times, February 17, 2005

Fattah, Hassan M. Wails at Loss of Lebanese Leader, Cries for His Vision The New York Times, February 17, 2005

Saidi, Leena Huge Crowds Mourn Lebanon's Ex-Premier The New York Times, February 16, 2005

Friedman, Thomas L. 'Hama Rules' The New York Times, February 17, 2005

MacDonald, Neil. CBC Investigation: Who killed Lebanon's Rafik Hariri?, CBC News, November 21, 2010

:*CBC Video links: Getting Away With Murder: Part 1; Part 2.

;Print articles

Family of Slain Lebanese Leader Demands Probe Into Killing -The Associated Press/New York Times 17 February 2005

Death of Businessman By Ajami, Fouad The Wall Street Journal-17 February 2005 Page A12

Category:1944 births Category:2005 deaths Category:People from Sidon District Category:Lebanese Sunni Muslims Category:Prime Ministers of Lebanon Category:Arab politicians Category:Assassinated Lebanese politicians Category:Lebanese businesspeople Category:Businesspeople in construction Category:Recipients of the Star of Romania Order Category:Deaths by car bomb in Lebanon Category:Lebanese billionaires Category:Terrorism deaths in Lebanon Category:Lebanese terrorism victims Category:People murdered in Lebanon Category:American University of Beirut trustees Category:Arab businesspeople Category:People from South Lebanon Category:Movement of the Future politicians

Region	Pakistani philosophy
Era	Modern philosophy
Image name	Iqbal.jpg
Name	Muhammad Iqbal
Birth date	November 09, 1877
Birth place	Sialkot, Punjab, British India, now Pakistan
Death date	April 21, 1938
Death place	Lahore, Punjab, British India, now Pakistan
School tradition	Islamic philosophy
Main interests	Urdu poetry, Persian poetry, Sufism
Influences	Aristotle, Rumi, Ahmad Sirhindi, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Nietzsche, Henri Bergson, Maulana Mohammad Ali, Thomas Walker Arnold
Influenced	Indian independence movement, Khilafat Movement, Israr Ahmed, Abul Ala Maududi, Khalilullah Khalili, Jawdat Said, Bahadur Yar Jung
Website

Sir Muhammad Iqbal (Urdu: محمد اقبال) born (November 9, 1877 – April 21, 1938) was a converted Muslim poet and philosopher born in Sialkot, British India (now in Pakistan), whose poetry in Urdu and Persian is considered to be among the greatest of the modern era, and whose vision of an independent state for the Muslims of British India was to inspire the creation of Pakistan. He is commonly referred to as Allama Iqbal (, Allama lit. Scholar).

After studying in England and Germany, Iqbal established a law practice, but concentrated primarily on writing scholarly works on politics, economics, history, philosophy and religion. He is best known for his poetic works, including Asrar-e-Khudi—which brought a knighthood— Rumuz-e-Bekhudi, and the Bang-e-Dara, with its enduring patriotic song Tarana-e-Hind. In Afghanistan and Iran, where he is known as Iqbāl-e Lāhorī ( Iqbal of Lahore), he is highly regarded for his Persian works.

Iqbal was a strong proponent of the political and spiritual revival of Islamic civilization across the world, but specifically in India; a series of famous lectures he delivered to this effect were published as The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. One of the most prominent leaders of the All-India Muslim League, Iqbal encouraged the creation of a "state in northwestern India for Indian Muslims" in his 1930 presidential address. Iqbal encouraged and worked closely with Muhammad Ali Jinnah, and he is known as Muffakir-e-Pakistan ("The Thinker of Pakistan"), Shair-e-Mashriq ("The Poet of the East"), and Hakeem-ul-Ummat ("The Sage of the Ummah"). He is officially recognised as the "national poet" in Pakistan. The anniversary of his birth ( - Yōm-e Welādat-e Muḥammad Iqbāl) on November 9 is a holiday in Pakistan.

Early life

Muhammad Iqbal was born on November 9, 1877 in Sialkot, in the Punjab province of British India in what is now Pakistan. During the reign of Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan—according to scholar Bruce Lawrence—Iqbal's brahmin ancestors from Kashmir had converted to Islam. Other scholars have also placed the conversion to around this time. However, according to Iqbal biographer Mustansir Mir, the conversion to Islam took place even earlier, some four and a half centuries before Iqbal's birth. Much later, around the turn of the nineteenth century, as the Kashmir region was coming under Sikh rule, his grandfather's family emigrated to the Punjab. According to scholar Annemarie Schimmel, Iqbal often wrote about his being "a son of Kashmiri-Brahmans but (being) acquainted with the wisdom of Rûm and Tabriz."

Iqbal's father, Nur Muhammad, was a tailor, After his mother's death in 1914, Iqbal wrote an elegy for her:

Who would wait for me anxiously in my native place?
Who would display restlessness if my letter fails to arrive
I will visit thy grave with this complaint:
Who will now think of me in midnight prayers?
All thy life thy love served me with devotion—When I became fit to serve thee, thou hast departed.

Literary career

Upon his return to India in 1908, Iqbal took up an assistant professorship at Government College in Lahore, but for financial reasons he relinquished it within a year to practice law. During this period, Iqbal's personal life was in turmoil. He divorced Karim Bibi in 1916, but provided financial support to her and their children for the rest of his life.

While maintaining his legal practice, Iqbal began concentrating on spiritual and religious subjects, and publishing poetry and literary works. He became active in the Anjuman-e-Himayat-e-Islam, a congress of Muslim intellectuals, writers and poets as well as politicians. In 1919, he became the general secretary of the organisation. Iqbal's thoughts in his work primarily focus on the spiritual direction and development of human society, centred around experiences from his travels and stays in Western Europe and the Middle East. He was profoundly influenced by Western philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Henri Bergson and Goethe. He soon became a strong critic of Western society's separation of religion from state and what he perceived as its obsession with materialist pursuits.

The poetry and philosophy of Mawlana Rumi bore the deepest influence on Iqbal's mind. Deeply grounded in religion since childhood, Iqbal began intensely concentrating on the study of Islam, the culture and history of Islamic civilization and its political future, while embracing Rumi as "his guide." Iqbal would feature Rumi in the role of guide in many of his poems. Iqbal's works focus on reminding his readers of the past glories of Islamic civilization, and delivering the message of a pure, spiritual focus on Islam as a source for socio-political liberation and greatness. Iqbal denounced political divisions within and amongst Muslim nations, and frequently alluded to and spoke in terms of the global Muslim community, or the Ummah.

Works in Persian

Iqbal's poetic works are written primarily in Persian rather than Urdu. Among his 12,000 verses of poetry, about 7,000 verses are in Persian. In 1915, he published his first collection of poetry, the Asrar-e-Khudi (Secrets of the Self) in Persian. The poems emphasise the spirit and self from a religious, spiritual perspective. Many critics have called this Iqbal's finest poetic work In Asrar-e-Khudi, Iqbal explains his philosophy of "Khudi," or "Self." Iqbal's use of the term "Khudi" is synonymous with the word "Rooh" mentioned in the Quran. "Rooh" is that divine spark which is present in every human being, and was present in Adam, for which God ordered all of the angels to prostrate in front of Adam. One has to make a great journey of transformation to realize that divine spark which Iqbal calls "Khudi".

A similitude of this journey can be understood by the relationship between fragrance and seed. Every seed has the potential for fragrance within it, but to reach its fragrance the seed must go through all the different changes and stages: First breaking out of its shell. Then breaking the ground to come into the light, developing roots at the same time. Then fighting against the elements to develop leaves and flowers. Finally reaching its pinnacle by attaining the fragrance that was hidden within it. Similarly, in order to reach one's khudi or rooh, one needs to go through the multiple spiritual stages which Iqbal himself went through, and encourages others to travel. Not all seeds reach the level of fragrance; many die along the way - incomplete. In this same way, only a few people can climb this Mount Everest of spirituality; most get consumed along the way by materialism.

The same concept was used by Farid ud Din Attar in his "Mantaq-ul-Tair". He proves by various means that the whole universe obeys the will of the "Self." Iqbal condemns self-destruction. For him, the aim of life is self-realization and self-knowledge. He charts the stages through which the "Self" has to pass before finally arriving at its point of perfection, enabling the knower of the "Self" to become a viceregent of God.

garche Urdū dar uzūbat shekkar ast

tarz-e goftar-e Dari shirin tar ast

Translation: Even though in sweetness Urdu* is sugar - (but) speech method in Dari (Persian) is sweeter *

Works in Urdu

Iqbal's first work published in Urdu, the Bang-e-Dara (The Call of the Marching Bell) of 1924, was a collection of poetry written by him in three distinct phases of his life. Sir Muhammad Iqbal was elected president of the Muslim League in 1930 at its session in Allahabad, in the United Provinces as well as for the session in Lahore in 1932. In his presidential address on December 29, 1930, Iqbal outlined a vision of an independent state for Muslim-majority provinces in northwestern India:

and other Muslim activists]]

"I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single state. Self-government within the British Empire, or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated Northwest Indian Muslim state appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of Northwest India." Iqbal thus stressed not only the need for the political unity of Muslim communities, but the undesirability of blending the Muslim population into a wider society not based on Islamic principles. He thus became the first politician to articulate what would become known as the Two-Nation Theory — that Muslims are a distinct nation and thus deserve political independence from other regions and communities of India. However, he would not elucidate or specify if his ideal Islamic state would construe a theocracy, even as he rejected secularism and nationalism. The latter part of Iqbal's life was concentrated on political activity. He would travel across Europe and West Asia to garner political and financial support for the League, and he reiterated his ideas in his 1932 address, and during the Third Round-Table Conference, he opposed the Congress and proposals for transfer of power without considerable autonomy or independence for Muslim provinces. He would serve as president of the Punjab Muslim League, and would deliver speeches and publish articles in an attempt to rally Muslims across India as a single political entity. Iqbal consistently criticised feudal classes in Punjab as well as Muslim politicians averse to the League. He fell prey to Punjabi dominated Muslims of region. Muslims across Indian subcontinent opposed the idea of two nation theory. Many unnoticed account of Iqbal's frustration toward Congress leadership were also pivotal of visioning the two nation theory. He also wanted to prove that defeat of Muslim ummat can be at least saved in this region by dividing the societies within British India in the name of Islam.

Patron of The Journal Tolu-e-Islam

He was also the first patron of the historical, political, religious, cultural journal of Muslims of British India and Pakistan. This journal played an important part in the Pakistan movement. The name of this journal is The Journal Tolu-e-Islam. In 1935, according to his instructions, Syed Nazeer Niazi initiated and edited, a journal Tolu-e-Islam named after the famous poem of Sir Muhammad Iqbal, Tulu'i Islam. He also dedicated the first edition of this journal to Sir Muhammad Iqbal. For a long time Sir Muhammad Iqbal wanted a journal to propagate his ideas and the aims and objective of Muslim league. It was Syed Nazeer Niazi, a close friend of his and a regular visitor to him during his last two years, who started this journal. He also made Urdu translation of The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, by Sir Muhammad Iqbal.

In the first monthly journal of Oct. 1935, an article "Millat Islamia Hind" The Muslim nation of India was published. In this article Syed Nazeer Niazi described the political conditions of British India and the aims and objectives of the Muslim community. He also discussed the basic principles of Islam which were aims and objective of Sir Muhammad Iqbal' concept of an Islamic State.

The early contributors to this journal were eminent Muslim scholars like Maulana Aslam Jairajpuri, Ghulam Ahmed Pervez, Dr. Zakir Hussain Khan, Syed Naseer Ahmed, Raja Hassan Akhtar, Maulvi Ghulam Yezdani, Ragheb Ahsan, Sheikh Suraj ul Haq, Rafee ud din Peer, Prof. fazal ud din Qureshi, Agha Muhammad Safdar, Asad Multani, Dr. Tasadaq Hussain, Prof. Yusuf Saleem Chisti.

Afterward, this journal was continued by Ghulam Ahmed Pervez, who had already contributed many articles in the early editions of this journal. After the emergence of Pakistan, the mission of the journal Tolu-e-Islam was to propagate the implementation of the principle which had inspired the demand for separate Muslim State according to the Quran. This journal is still published by Idara Tolu-e-Islam, Lahore.

Relationship with Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Ideologically separated from Congress Muslim leaders, Iqbal had also been disillusioned with the politicians of the Muslim League owing to the factional conflict that plagued the League in the 1920s. Discontent with factional leaders like Sir Muhammad Shafi and Sir Fazl-ur-Rahman, Iqbal came to believe that only Muhammad Ali Jinnah was a political leader capable of preserving this unity and fulfilling the League's objectives on Muslim political empowerment. Building a strong, personal correspondence with Jinnah, Iqbal along with Moulana Abdur Raheem Dard (Resident missionary of the Ahmadiyya movement in London) were influential forces in convincing Jinnah to end his self-imposed exile in London, return to India and take charge of the League. Iqbal firmly believed that Jinnah was the only leader capable of drawing Indian Muslims to the League and maintaining party unity before the British and the Congress:

"I know you are a busy man but I do hope you won't mind my writing to you often, as you are the only Muslim in India today to whom the community has right to look up for safe guidance through the storm which is coming to North-West India and, perhaps, to the whole of India." Iqbal had backed the Khilafat struggle; Jinnah had dismissed it as "religious frenzy." And while Iqbal espoused the idea of Muslim-majority provinces in 1930, Jinnah would continue to hold talks with the Congress through the decade and only officially embraced the goal of Pakistan in 1940. Some historians postulate that Jinnah always remained hopeful for an agreement with the Congress and never fully desired the partition of India. Iqbal's close correspondence with Jinnah is speculated by some historians as having been responsible for Jinnah's embrace of the idea of Pakistan. Iqbal elucidated to Jinnah his vision of a separate Muslim state in a letter sent on June 21, 1937:

"A separate federation of Muslim Provinces, reformed on the lines I have suggested above, is the only course by which we can secure a peaceful India and save Muslims from the domination of Non-Muslims. Why should not the Muslims of North-West India and Bengal be considered as nations entitled to self-determination just as other nations in India and outside India are."

Final years & death

In 1933, after returning from a trip to Spain and Afghanistan, Iqbal began suffering from a mysterious throat illness. He spent his final years helping Chaudhry Niaz Ali Khan establish the Dar ul Islam Trust Institute at the latter's Jamalpur estate near Pathankot, an institution where studies in classical Islam and contemporary social science would be subsidised, and advocating the demand for an independent Muslim state. Iqbal ceased practising law in 1934 and he was granted pension by the Nawab of Bhopal. After suffering for months from his illness, Iqbal died in Lahore on 21 April 1938. His tomb is located in Hazuri Bagh, the enclosed garden between the entrance of the Badshahi Mosque and the Lahore Fort, and official guards are maintained there by the Government of Pakistan.

Iqbal is commemorated widely in Pakistan, where he is regarded as the ideological founder of the state. His Tarana-e-Hind is a song that is widely used in India as a patriotic song speaking of communal harmony. His birthday is annually commemorated in Pakistan as Iqbal Day, a national holiday. Iqbal is the namesake of many public institutions, including the Allama Iqbal Medical College, Allama Iqbal Open University, the Allama Iqbal International Airport in Lahore, and Gulshan-e-Iqbal Town in Karachi and in Lahore. Government and public organizations have sponsored the establishment of colleges and schools dedicated to Iqbal, and have established the Iqbal Academy to research, teach and preserve the works, literature and philosophy of Iqbal. Allama Iqbal Stamps Society established for the promotion of Iqbaliyat in philately and in other hobbies. His son Javid Iqbal has served as a justice on the Supreme Court of Pakistan.

Influence and legacy

Allama Iqbal's poetry has also been translated into several European languages where his works were famous during the early part of the 20th century. Iqbal’s Asrar-i-Khudi and Javed Nama were translated into English by R A Nicholson and A J Arberry respectively.

See also

Iqbal bibliography

References

Further reading

Sailen Debnath, Secularism: Western and Indian, ISBN 978-81-269-1366-4, Atlantic Publishers, New Delhi

External links

Some of his best Urdu poems from Columbia University site

Muhammad Iqbal: A Spiritual Bridge between East and West

Category:Leaders of the Pakistan Movement Category:Urdu poets Category:Indian poets Category:Pakistani poets Category:Knights Bachelor Category:Muslim scholars of Islam Category:Ravians Category:University of Heidelberg alumni Category:Persian poets Category:Muslim philosophers Category:Contemporary Indian philosophers Category:Pakistani philosophers Category:Kashmiri people Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Category:Alumni of the Inns of Court School of Law Category:Members of Lincoln's Inn Category:20th-century philosophers Category:1877 births Category:1938 deaths Category:People from Lahore Category:People from Sialkot Category:Punjabi people