York Castle
Yorkshire, England
300px Clifford's Tower, the keep of York Castle
Shown within North Yorkshire
Type	Shell keep and bailey
Coordinates	grid reference SE603514
Construction materials	Magnesian limestone
Current condition	Ruined keep, restored part curtain-wall, surviving 18th century buildings used as a museum and York's Crown Court
Current owner	English Heritage, York Museums Trust, Her Majesty's Courts Service
Battles/wars	Siege of York in 1644
Events	Jewish massacre of 1190

York Castle in the city of York, England, is a fortified complex comprising, over the last nine centuries, a sequence of castles, prisons, law courts and other buildings on the south side of the River Foss. The now-ruinous keep of the medieval Norman castle is sometimes referred to as Clifford's Tower. Built originally on the orders of William I to dominate the former Viking city of York, the castle suffered a tumultuous early history before developing into a major fortification with extensive water defences. After a major explosion in 1684 rendered the remaining military defences uninhabitable, York Castle continued to be used as a jail and prison until 1929.

The first motte and bailey castle on the site was built in 1068 following the Norman conquest of York. After the destruction of the castle by rebels and a Viking army in 1069, York Castle was rebuilt and reinforced with extensive water defences, including a moat and an artificial lake. York Castle formed an important royal fortification in the north of England.

In 1190, 150 local Jews were killed in a pogrom in the castle keep. Henry III rebuilt the castle in stone in the middle of the 13th century, creating a keep with a unique quatrefoil design, supported by an outer bailey wall and a substantial gatehouse. During the Scottish wars between 1298 and 1338, York Castle was frequently used as the centre of royal administration across England, as well as an important military base of operations.

York Castle fell into disrepair by the 15th and 16th centuries, becoming used increasingly as a jail for both local felons and political prisoners. By the time of Elizabeth I the castle was estimated to have lost all of its military value but was maintained as a centre of royal authority in York. The outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642 saw York Castle being repaired and refortified, playing a part in the Royalist defence of York in 1644 against Parliamentary forces. York Castle continued to be garrisoned until 1684, when an explosion destroyed the interior of Clifford's Tower. The castle bailey was redeveloped in a neoclassical style in the 18th century as a centre for county administration in Yorkshire, and was used as a jail and debtors' prison. Prison reform in the 19th century led to the creation of a new prison built in a Tudor Gothic style on the castle site in 1825; used first as a county and then as a military prison, this facility was demolished in 1935. By the 20th century the ruin of Clifford's Tower had become a well-known tourist destination and national monument; today the site is owned by English Heritage and open to the public. The other remaining buildings serve as the York Castle Museum and the Crown Court.

History[link]

11th century[link]

York was a Viking capital in the 10th century, and continued as an important northern city in the 11th century.^[1] In 1068, on William the Conqueror's first northern expedition after the Norman Conquest,^[2] he built a number of castles across the north-east of England, including one at York.^[2] This first castle at York was a basic wooden motte and bailey castle built between the rivers Ouse and Foss on the site of the present-day York Castle.^[2] It was built in haste; contemporary accounts imply it was constructed in only eight days, although this assertion has been challenged.^[3] The motte was originally around 200 feet (61 metres) wide at the base.^[4] As it was built in an urban environment, hundreds of houses had to be destroyed to make way for the development.^[5] William Malet, the sheriff of Yorkshire, was placed in charge of the castle and successfully defended it against an immediate uprising by the local population.^[6]

In response to the worsening security situation, William conducted his second northern campaign in 1069. He built another castle in York, on what is now Baile Hill on the west bank of the Ouse opposite the first castle, in an effort to improve his control over the city.^[7] This second castle was also a motte and bailey design, with the Baile Hill motte probably reached by a horizontal bridge and steps cut up the side of the motte.^[8] Later that year, a Danish Viking fleet sailed up to York along the Humber and the Ouse, and attacked both castles with the assistance of Cospatrick of Northumbria and a number of local rebels.^[9] The Normans, attempting to drive the rebels back, set fire to some of the city's houses.^[9] The fire grew out of control and also set fire to York Minster and, some argue, the castles as well.^{[10][nb 1]} The castles were captured and partially dismantled, and Malet was taken hostage by the Danes.^[11]

William conducted a widespread sequence of punitive operations across the north of England in the aftermath of the attacks in 1069 and 1070.^[9] This "Harrying of the North" restored sufficient order to allow the rebuilding of the two castles, again in wood.^[9] The bailey at York Castle was enlarged slightly in the process; buildings believed to have been inside the bailey at this time include "halls, kitchens, a chapel, barracks, stores, stables, forges [and] workshops".^[12] By the time Domesday Book was written in 1086, York Castle was also surrounded by a water-filled moat and a large artificial lake called the King's Pool, fed from the river Foss by a dam built for the purpose.^[13] More property, including two watermills, had to be destroyed to make way for the water defences.^[4] Over time the Baile Hill site was abandoned in favour of the first castle site, leaving only the motte, which still exists.^[14]

12th century[link]

A cross-section of the motte at York Castle, produced in 1903 by Sir Basil Mott; "A" marks the 20th century concrete underpinnings of the motte; the low walls enclosing the base of the motte are a 19th century addition

Henry II visited York Castle four times during his reign.^[15] The royal chambers at the time were inside the keep for safety, and Henry paid £15 for repairs to the keep.^{[15][nb 2]} During his 1175 visit, Henry used the castle as the base for receiving the homage of William the Lion of Scotland.^[15] Castle mills were built close by to support the garrison, and the military order of the Knights Templar was granted ownership of the mills in the mid-12th century.^[17] The mills proved to be vulnerable to the flooding of the two rivers and had to be repeatedly repaired.^[18]

In 1190, York Castle was the location of one of the worst pogroms in England during the medieval period.^[19] The Normans had introduced the first Jewish communities into England, where they occupied a special economic role as moneylenders, an essential but otherwise banned activity.^[20] English Jews were subject to considerable religious prejudice and primarily worked from towns and cities in which there was a local royal castle that could provide them with protection in the event of attacks from the majority Christian population.^[21] Royal protection was usually granted as the Norman and Angevin kings had determined that Jewish property and debts owed to Jews ultimately belonged to the crown, reverting to the king on a Jew's death.^[22]

Richard I was crowned King in 1189 and announced his intention to join the Crusades; this inflamed anti-Jewish sentiment.^[23] Rumours began to spread that the king had ordered that the English Jews be attacked.^[24] In York, tensions broke out into violence the following year. Richard de Malbis, who owed money to the powerful Jewish merchant Aaron of Lincoln, exploited an accidental house fire to incite a local mob to attack the home and family of a recently deceased Jewish employee of Aaron in York.^[19] Josce of York, the leader of the Jewish community, led the local Jewish families into the royal castle, where they took refuge in the wooden keep.^[19] The mob surrounded the castle, and when the constable left the castle to discuss the situation, the Jews, fearing the entry of the mob or being handed over to the sheriff, refused to allow him back in.^[19] The constable appealed to the sheriff, who called out his own men and laid siege to the keep.^[19] The siege continued until 16 March when the Jews' position became untenable.^[19] Their religious leader, Rabbi Yomtob, proposed an act of collective suicide to avoid being killed by the mob, and the castle was set on fire to prevent their bodies being mutilated after their deaths.^[19] Several Jews perished in the flames but the majority took their own lives rather than give themselves up to the mob.^[25] A few Jews did surrender, promising to convert to Christianity, but they were killed by the angry crowd.^[19] Around 150 Jews died in total in the massacre.^[26] The keep was rebuilt, again in wood, on the motte, which was raised in height by 13 feet (4 metres) at a cost of £207.^{[27][nb 3]}

13th and 14th centuries[link]

A reconstruction of York Castle in the 14th century, viewed from the south-east

King John used York Castle extensively during his reign, using the keep as his personal quarters for his own security.^[29] The castle was kept in good repair during that time.^[30] During this period, the first records of the use of the castle as a jail appeared, with references to prisoners taken during John's Irish campaigns being held at York Castle.^[31] By the 13th century there was a well-established system of castle-guards in place, under which various lands around York were granted in return for the provision of knights and crossbowmen to assist in protecting the castle.^[32]

Henry III also made extensive use of the castle, but during his visit at Christmas 1228 a gale destroyed the wooden keep on the motte.^[33] The keep was apparently not repaired, and a building for the king's use was built in the bailey instead.^[34] In 1244, when the Scots threatened to invade England, King Henry III visited the castle and ordered it to be rebuilt in white limestone, at a cost of about ₤2,600.^{[35][nb 4]} The work was carried out between 1245 and 1270, and included the construction of a towered curtain wall, a gatehouse of considerable size with two large towers, two smaller gatehouses, a small watergate, a small gateway into the city, a chapel, and a new stone keep, first known as the King's, later Clifford's, Tower.^{[36][nb 5]}

Clifford's Tower is of an unusual design. The two storey tower has a quatrefoil plan with four circular lobes. Each lobe measures 22 feet (6.5 metres) across, with walls 9 feet 6 inches (3 metres) thick; at its widest, the tower is 79 feet (24 metres) across.^[37] A square gatehouse, 21 feet (6.5 metres) wide, protected the entrance on the south side between two of the lobes.^[37] There are defensive turrets between the other lobes.^[37] Large corbels and a central pier supported the huge weight of stone and the first floor.^[38] Loopholes of a design unique to York Castle provided firing points.^[39] A chapel was built over the entrance, measuring 15 feet by 14 feet (4.5 metres by 4.2 metres), doubling as a portcullis chamber as at Harlech and Chepstow castles.^[40] The tower is believed to be an experiment in improving flanking fire by making more ground visible from the summit of the keep. Although unique to England, the design of the tower closely resembles that at Étampes in France, and may have influenced the design of the future keep of Pontefract Castle.^[41] Henry employed master mason Henry de Rayns and chief carpenter Simon of Northampton for the project, and the cost of the tower accounted for the majority of the overall expenditure on the castle during this period of work.^[42]

A plan of Clifford's Tower. A=Gateway; B=Stairway to Chapel above; C=Staircases to upper levels and parapet; D=Loop hole recesses; E=Well; F=Fireplaces; G=Guardrobe chambers

The new castle needed constant investment in order to maintain its quality as a military fortification.^[43] Winter floods in 1315–16 damaged the soil at the base of the motte, requiring immediate repairs.^[44] Around 1358–60, the heavy stone keep again suffered from subsidence and the south-eastern lobe cracked from top to bottom.^[45] Royal officials recommended that the keep be completely rebuilt, but, instead, the lobe was repaired at a cost of £200.^{[44][nb 6]}

Edward I gave wide-reaching powers to the sheriff of Yorkshire for enforcing law and order in the city of York, and the sheriffs established their headquarters in Clifford's Tower.^[46] During the wars against the Scots under both Edward and his son, York Castle also formed the centre of royal administration in England for almost half the years between 1298 and 1338.^[47] Many Westminster institutions followed the king north to York, basing themselves in the castle compound.^[47] The existing castle buildings were insufficient to house all the administrative institutions; a temporary building inside the castle was built for the Court of Common Pleas at the beginning of the period, and rebuilt on a larger scale during 1319–20.^[47] The Exchequer took over Clifford's Tower.^[47] Other buildings around the city had to be commandeered to absorb the overflow from the castle itself.^[47] As a result of the extended use of the castle for these purposes, the law courts at York Castle began to compete with those in London, a pattern that lasted into the 1360s.^[47] The castle eventually acquired its own mint in 1344, when Edward III decided to create a permanent mint in York Castle to produce gold and silver coins to serve the needs of the north of England.^[48] European coiners were brought to York to establish the facility.^[48]

Henry III extended the castle's role as a jail for holding a wide range of prisoners.^[49] The sheriff was responsible for the jail at this time, and his deputy usually took the role of a full-time jailer.^[50] Up to three hundred and ten prisoners were held in the castle at any one time.^[51] The conditions in which prisoners were held were "appalling", and led to the widespread loss of life amongst detainees.^[52] Prison escapes were relatively common, and many of them, such as the breakout by 28 prisoners in 1298, were successful.^[50] When the Military Order of the Knights Templar was dissolved in England in 1307, York Castle was used to hold many of the arrested knights.^[53] The castle mills, as former Templar property, returned to royal control at the same time.^[54] Edward II also used the castle as a jail in his campaign against his rebellious barons in 1322, and after the battle of Boroughbridge many of the defeated rebel leaders were executed at York Castle.^[55]

By the end of the 14th century, the castle bailey was primarily occupied by the local county administration. It was used extensively as a jail, with prisoners being kept in the various towers around the bailey.^[49] The old castle-guard system for securing the castle had changed into a system whereby the crown used rents from local royal lands to hire local guards for the castle.^[56] Increasingly, royalty preferred to stay at the Franciscan friary, between the Castle and King's Staith on the Ouse, while their staff resided at St Mary's Abbey and St Andrew's Priory in the Fishergate area.^[44]

15th and 16th centuries[link]

A panorama of 15th century York by E. Ridsdale Tate; York Castle is on the right hand side of river, opposite the abandoned motte of Baile Hill

In the 15th century, York Castle, along with Nottingham Castle, was considered a key security asset in the north of England, but investment even in these castles diminished.^[57] Repairs to York Castle grew infrequent from 1400 onwards, and it fell into increasing disrepair.^[58] Richard III recognised the issue and in 1483 had some of the most decrepit structures removed, but he died at the battle of Bosworth before replacement work could commence.^[59] By the reign of Henry VIII, the antiquary John Leland reported that the castle was in considerable disrepair; nonetheless the water defences remained intact, unlike those of many other castles of the period.^[60] As a result of the deterioration, Henry had to be advised that the king's councillors no longer had any official residence in which to stay and work when they were in York.^[61] The castle mint was shut down after the death of Edward VI in 1553, and the castle mills were given to a local charitable hospital in 1464.^[62] The hospital was then closed during the Reformation, and the mills passed into private ownership once again.^[54]

The castle continued to be used as a jail, increasingly for local felons, and a location for political executions.^[63] By the 16th century it had become traditional to execute traitors by hanging them from the top of Clifford's Tower, rather than killing them at Micklegate Bar, the usual previous location for capital punishment in York.^[64] In 1536, for example, the political leader Robert Aske was executed at York Castle on the orders of Henry VIII, following the failure of Aske's Pilgrimage of Grace protest against the dissolution of the monasteries.^[64] For most of the period the sheriffs of Yorkshire remained in control of the castle, although there were some notable exceptions such as the appointment of the royal favourite Sir Robert Ryther by Edward IV in 1478.^{[65][nb 7]} At the end of the 16th century, however, the Clifford family (Earls of Cumberland), became the hereditary constables of the castle, and Clifford's Tower took its name from the family at around this time.^[66]

The deterioration of the castle continued into the reign of Elizabeth I, who was advised that it no longer had any military utility.^[67] Robert Redhead, the tower keeper, became infamous at the time for taking parts of the castle to pieces and selling off the stonework for his own profit.^[64] Despite numerous attempts by local city and crown officials to halt this, Redhead continued to cause considerable damage before being forced to stop.^[68] Proposals were made to pull down Clifford's Tower altogether in 1596, but were turned down because of the strength of local feeling.^[67]

17th century[link]

York Castle in 1644 during the English Civil War, after Francis Place

Maintaining the castle was becoming increasingly expensive, and in 1614 King James sold the lease on Clifford's Tower and the surrounding land to John Babington and Edmund Duffield, a pair of property speculators.^[69] In turn, Babington and Duffield sold Clifford's Tower to a York merchant family.^[70] In 1642, however, the English Civil War broke out between the rival factions of the Royalists and Parliament. Forces loyal to Charles I, under the command of Henry Clifford, garrisoned York Castle and the surrounding city in 1643. York effectively became the "northern capital" for the Royalist cause.^[71] Clifford repaired the castle and strengthened the walls to permit them to support cannon, placing his arms alongside those of the king above the entrance.^[72] Clifford's Tower's gatehouse was substantially remodelled, losing its original medieval appearance.^[66] Baile Hill, on the other side of the river, became a gun emplacement.^[72] The castle mint was reopened to supply the king's forces with coins.^[73]

The war turned against the Royalist factions, and on 23 April 1644 Parliamentary forces commenced the siege of York. A Scottish army under Alexander Leslie came from the south, while a Parliamentary force under Ferdinando Fairfax came from the east.^[74] Six weeks later, Edward Montagu brought a third contingent to York, bringing the number of forces besieging the city to over 30,000 men. William Cavendish commanded the city during the siege, while Colonel Sir Francis Cobb was appointed the governor of the castle.^[72] Despite bombardment, attempts to undermine the walls and attacks on the gates, the city held out through May and June.^[75] Prince Rupert, sent to relieve York, approached with reinforcements, and through clever manoeuvring was able to force the besiegers to withdraw, lifting the siege on 1 July.^[76] The next day, Parliamentary forces defeated Rupert at the Battle of Marston Moor, six miles west of York, making the surrender of York and the castle inevitable.^[77] On 14 July the city and castle surrendered to the Parliamentary forces, who permitted the Royalists to march out with full honours.^[78]

Parliament then appointed Thomas Dickenson, the local mayor, as the governor of Clifford's Tower.^[72] Control of the castle rested with the post of mayor until the Restoration.^[79] Efforts were made to separate the structures of Clifford's Tower, which Parliament used as a garrison, from the buildings of the bailey, which continued to be used as a prison.^[80] Oliver Cromwell visited Clifford's Tower in 1650, and received a salute from the guns stationed on top of it.^[80] The cost of the garrison was levied on the city of York.^[81]

A massive explosion in 1684 destroyed the roof, floor and central pillar of Clifford's Tower, leaving only the walls intact

After the Restoration of Charles II, the pre-war owners of the property laid claim to Clifford's Tower, eventually being granted ownership.^[82] A garrison continued to be stationed there, however, which prevented the owners from actually occupying or using the property.^[83] Repairs were made to the tower, and it became a magazine for storing gunpowder and shot.^[83] Attempts were made to restore the condition of the moat, which had become badly silted.^[84] Some political prisoners continued to be held at the castle during the Restoration period, including George Fox, the founder of the Society of Friends.^[85]

The county facilities in the bailey were expanded during these years, with improvements to the Grand Jury House and the Common Hall, but by the 1680s the role of the military garrison at York Castle was being called into question.^[86] Sir Christopher Musgrave produced a report for the Crown in 1682; he argued that it would cost at least £30,000 to turn the castle into a modern fortification, producing a proposal for the six bastions that such a star fort would require.^[86] This work was never carried out.^[86] Meanwhile, the garrison and the castle had become extremely unpopular with the people of York, who disliked both the cost and the imposition of external authority.^[87]

On St George's Day in 1684 at around 10 pm, an explosion in the magazine destroyed the interior of Clifford's Tower entirely.^[83] The official explanation was that the celebratory salute from the guns on the roof had set fire to parts of the woodwork, which later ignited the magazine.^[88] Most historians, however, believe the explosion was not accidental.^[83] At the time, it was common in the city to toast the potential demolition of the "Minced Pie", as the castle was known to locals; suspiciously, some members of the garrison had moved their personal belongings to safety just before the explosion, and no-one from the garrison was injured by the event.^[89] The heat of the fire turned the limestone of the tower to its current, slightly pink, colour.^[66] The now-ruined tower was returned fully to private ownership, eventually forming part of the lands of the neighbouring house and gardens belonging to Samuel Waud.^[90]

18th century[link]

A sketch of the York Castle site in around 1730; left to right, the site of the former bailey, including the Sessions House, the County Gaol and the Jury House; Clifford's Tower, with the River Foss in front and the Ouse behind; Samuel Waud's house and gardens

By 1701, the conditions of the county jail had become scandalous and the decision was taken to redevelop the area occupied by the old bailey.^[49] A local tax helped to fund the development, and the king agreed for the ruins of St Mary's Abbey to be cannibalised for building stone.^[49] Three new buildings were erected to the south of Clifford's Tower. A new county jail, built between 1701 and 1705 by William Wakefield, was placed on the south side, closely resembling the fashionable work of John Vanbrugh.^[91] The local architect John Carr then built the Assize Courts on the site of the old Jury House between 1773 and 1777 on the west side, and oversaw the replacement of the Sessions House and Common Hall by the Female Prison between 1780 and 1783 on the east side.^[92] The Female Prison and county jail were later combined to become the Debtors' Prison.^[49] Both of Carr's buildings were designed in a distinctive neoclassical style; the Assize Court building was particularly praised at the time as being "a superb building of the Ionic order".^[93] The castle courtyard was grassed over to form a circle in 1777 and became known as the "Eye of the Ridings" because it was used for the election of Members of Parliament for York.^[94]

Visits by the prison reformer John Howard as part of the research for his book The State of the Prisons found these prisons flawed, but in relatively good condition compared to others at the time.^[95] The Debtors' Prison as a whole was an "honour to the county" of York, with "airy and healthy" rooms, but the felons' wing of the prison attracted some criticism.^[96] The felons' wing was "too small" and had "no water" for the inmates; felons were forced to sleep on piles of straw on the floor.^[96] Indeed, conditions were so bad in the felons' wing that nine prisoners suffocated in one night during 1739.^[94]

Just outside the main walls, the castle mills had become increasingly ineffective from the 16th century onwards because of a reduction in the flow of the rivers driving the water-wheels.^[97] As a result, in 1778 they were rebuilt with a new steam engine to drive the machinery; this steam engine caused considerable discomfort to the prisoners affected by the smoke and noise.^[98]

19th and 20th centuries[link]

The crenelated Tudor Gothic gatehouse of the new 1825 prison at York Castle, alongside Clifford's Tower, depicted in 1846

Criticism of the castle prison increased at the end of the 18th century.^[99] The facilities were felt to be inadequate and the crowds of spectators who gathered outside the prison to see inmates being taken into York for execution unseemly.^[99] Attempts were made to improve the way executions were carried out from 1803 onwards: the former castle courtyard, the Eye of the Ridings, was used for this purpose instead, although crowds still gathered outside the bailey to watch the slow deaths of the prisoners.^[94] By 1813 the execution process had been sped up by the introduction of the "short drop" method of hanging, allowing the unusually rapid execution of fourteen Luddite agitators at the castle in 1814.^[94] Overcrowding in the jail was now also a problem, with up to 114 prisoners being held at any one time; occasionally, around forty prisoners awaiting trial had to be kept in the jail yard for lack of space elsewhere.^[61]

The suitability of the prison was finally brought to a head at the 1821 assizes in York, when an official complaint was made and an investigation begun.^[99] The decision was taken to purchase Clifford's Tower and the Waud house, with the aim of demolishing them both to make room for a new, more modern prison.^[100] Sydney Smith, the famous wit, writer and vicar of Foston-le-Clay, successfully led a campaign to save Clifford's Tower, emphasising the historic importance of the location for the surrounding city.^[101] An alternative proposal, put forward by architect Robert Wallace, would have seen the conversion of Clifford's Tower back into a habitable building to form the hub of a radial prison design, but this was turned down.^[94]

In 1825, Clifford's Tower and the Waud house were purchased by the county of Yorkshire at the cost of £8,800 (£665,000 at 2009 prices).^[102][103] The new prison buildings, designed by architects P. F. Robinson and G. T. Andrews, were constructed in a Tudor Gothic style, including a gatehouse 35 feet (11 metres) high and a radial prison block, protected by a long, high stone wall.^[104] The prison, considered to be the strongest such building in England, was built entirely of stone in order to be both secure and fireproof.^[105] Dark grey gritstone was used in the construction to produce a forbidding appearance, although the prison itself was considered healthy and well ventilated.^[106] Clifford's Tower played no part in the formal design of the prison, although the talus, or sloping edge of the motte, was cut away and replaced by a retaining wall in order to allow more space for the new prison building.^[107] The backyard of the Female Prison, concealed from public view by the new wall, was used for hangings from 1868 onwards.^[94] The Prison Act, 1877, reformed the English prison system, and York Castle gaol was passed into the control of central government the following year.^[108] It was used as the county prison until 1900, when the remaining prisoners were transferred to Wakefield Prison, and from then onwards the facility was used as a military prison instead.^[109]

Architects Robinson and Andrews' original design for the front (l) and interior (r) elevations of the new 1825 York Castle prison gatehouse

By the early 19th century, dredging and other improvements to the river Foss had made it possible to import flour into York by river, reducing the economic significance of the castle mills.^[110] In 1856, the castle mills were finally demolished as part of a further sequence of improvements to this part of the river.^[111] The King's Pool that formed part of the castle's water defences was drained.^[110] With the construction of several new bridges near the castle, the site became "surrounded by roads instead of moats".^[110]

In 1890 the Prison Commissioners agreed to declare Clifford's Tower a national monument and to conserve it as a historic location.^[108] In 1902 Clifford's Tower was given to Yorkshire County Council, together with a grant of £3,000 (£242,000 at 2009 prices) arranged by Lord Wenlock for conservation and repairs.^[103][112] The removal of the talus and the damage to the castle stonework in the 16th century had put excessive pressure on the supporting motte, causing a recurrence of the 14th century subsidence.^[113] Sir Basil Mott, a leading Victorian engineer, installed concrete underpinnings to stabilise the structure beneath the gatehouse.^[113] By the early 20th century, Clifford's Tower was regularly open to visitors, and in 1915 it was passed to the Office of Works as a national monument.^[114]

Today[link]

The Female Prison, now part of York Castle Museum

York Prison finally closed in 1929, and the Tudor Gothic Victorian prison buildings were demolished in 1935.^[109] The Assize Courts building now houses the York Crown Court, while the former Debtors' Prison and Female Prison, together with a modern entrance area, are now the Castle Museum. The circular grassed area between these buildings that was once known as the "Eyes of the Ridings" is now known as Castle Green, or the "Eye of York".^[94] Clifford's Tower is the most prominent surviving part of the original medieval fortification, although the stone steps up the side of the motte are modern.^[25] Fragments of the bailey wall, parts of the south gatehouse and one of the corner towers also survive.^[115]

The castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and a Scheduled monument.^[116] The site, managed by English Heritage, is open to the public. Until the 1970s, the pogrom of 1190 was often underplayed by official histories of the castle; early official guides to the castle made no reference to it.^[117] In 1978, however, the first memorial tablet to the victims was laid at the base of Clifford's Tower, and in 1990 the 800th anniversary of the killings was commemorated at the tower.^[117] Recently, commercial interests have sought to introduce retail development to the area surrounding it. Citizens, visitors, academics, environmentalists, local businesspeople and Jewish groups have opposed the development with some success, winning a lengthy and bitter public inquiry in 2003.^[118]

The view today from Clifford's Tower facing York Minster

Notes[link]

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

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• Butler, Lawrence. (1997) Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York. London: English Heritage. ISBN 1-85074-673-7.
• Clark, G. T. (1874) "The Defences of York," in The Archaeological Journal, Vol. 31 pp. 221–61.
• Cooper, Thomas Parsons. (1911) The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower. London: Elliot Stock. OCLC 4246355.
• Dobson, Barry. (2003) "The Medieval York Jewry Reconsidered," in Skinner (ed) (2003).
• Hillaby, Joe. (2003) "Jewish Colonisation in the Twelfth Century," in Skinner (ed) (2003).
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• Musson, Anthony. (2008) "Court Venues and the Politics of Justice," in Saul (ed) (2008).
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• Sears, Robert. (1847) A New and Popular Pictorial Description of England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales and the British Islands. New York: Robert Sears. OCLC 557568051.
• Skinner, Patricia. (ed) (2003) The Jews in Medieval Britain: Historical, Literary, and Archaeological Perspectives. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-0-85115-931-7.
• Stenton, Doris Mary. (1976) English Society in the Early Middle Ages (1066–1307). Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-020252-8.
• Timbs, John and Alexander Gunn. (2008) Abbeys, Castles and Ancient Halls of England and Wales: Their Legendary Lore and Popular History, Volume 3. Alcester, UK: Read Books. ISBN 978-1-4437-8400-9.
• Toy, Sidney. (1985) Castles: Their Construction and History. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-24898-1.
• Twyford, Anthony William. (2010) Records of York Castle - Fortress, Courthouse and Prison. Alcester, UK: Read Books. ISBN 978-1-4455-7111-9.
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External links[link]

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Coordinates: 53°57′21″N 1°4′48.30″W / 53.95583°N 1.080083°W / 53.95583; -1.080083

York
—  Unitary Authority and City  —
An aerial view of York, with York Minster in the centre
Arms of City of York Council
Nickname(s): "Capital of the North",[1] "Chocolate City"[2]
Motto: 'Let the Banner of York Fly High'
York York shown within North Yorkshire and England
Coordinates: 53°57′30″N 1°4′49″W / 53.95833°N 1.08028°W / 53.95833; -1.08028Coordinates: 53°57′30″N 1°4′49″W / 53.95833°N 1.08028°W / 53.95833; -1.08028
Sovereign state	United Kingdom
Constituent country	England
Region	Yorkshire and the Humber
Ceremonial county	North Yorkshire
Admin HQ	York City Centre
Founded	as Eboracum c. 71 AD
Government
• Type	Unitary Authority, City
• Governing body	City of York Council
• Leadership:	Leader and Executive
• Executive:	Labour
• MPs:	Hugh Bayley (L) Julian Sturdy (C)
Area
• Total	105.00 sq mi (271.94 km2)
Population (2010 est.)
• Total	202,400 (Ranked 80th)
• Density	1,780/sq mi (687/km2)
• Ethnicity (2009 Estimates)[3]	92.8% Any White 3.4% Any Asian 1.3% Mixed 1.2% Any Black 1.4% Any Chinese or other
Time zone	Greenwich Mean Time (UTC+0)
• Summer (DST)	British Summer Time (UTC+1)
Postcode	YO
Area code(s)	01904
ISO 3166-2	GB-YOR
ONS code	00FF
OS grid reference	SE603517
NUTS 3	UKE21
Website	www.york.gov.uk

York (local ⁱ/ˈjɔːk/) is a walled city, situated at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The city has a rich heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events throughout much of its two millennia of existence. The city offers a wealth of historic attractions, of which York Minster is the most prominent, and a variety of cultural and sporting activities.

The city was founded by the Romans in 71 AD, under the name of Eboracum. It became in turn the capital of the Roman province of Britannia Inferior, and of the kingdoms of Northumbria and Jorvik. In the Middle Ages, York grew as a major wool trading centre and became the capital of the northern ecclesiastical province of the Church of England, a role it has retained.^[4]

In the 19th century York became a hub of the railway network and a confectionery manufacturing centre. In recent decades, the economy of York has moved from being dominated by its confectionery and railway-related industries to one that provides services. The University of York and health services have become major employers, whilst tourism has become an important element of the local economy.

From 1996, the term City of York describes a unitary authority area which includes rural areas beyond the old city boundaries. In 2001 the urban area had a population of 137,505,^[5] while in 2010 the entire unitary authority had an estimated population of 202,400 ^[3]

History[link]

Toponymy[link]

The word 'York' is partly related to the Latin name for the city, variously rendered as Eboracum, Eburacum or Eburaci. The first mention of York by this name is dated to c. 95–104 AD as an address on a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda in Northumberland.^[6]

The toponymy of Eboracum is uncertain because the language of the pre-Roman indigenous population of the area was never recorded. These people are thought to have spoken a Celtic language, related to modern Welsh.^[7][8][9] Therefore, it is thought that Eboracum is derived from the Brythonic word Eborakon, that is a combination of eburos "yew-tree" (cf. Old Irish ibar "yew-tree", Welsh efwr "alder buckthorn", Breton evor "alder buckthorn") and suffix *-āko(n) "place" (cf. Welsh -og)^[10] meaning either "place of the yew trees" (cf. efrog in Welsh, eabhrac in Irish Gaelic and eabhraig in Scottish Gaelic, by which names the city is known in those languages) or less probably “Eburos′property”, that is really a personal Celtic name, mentioned in different documents Eβουρος, Eburus, Eburius combined with the same suffix *-āko(n), that could mark a property.^[11][12]

The name Eboracum was turned into Eoforwic by the Anglians in the 7th century : a compound of Eofor-, from the old name, and -wic “village”. This was probably by conflation of the element Ebor- with a Germanic root *eburaz (boar); by the 7th century the Old English for 'boar' had become eofor. When the Danish army conquered the city in 866, the name became rendered as Jórvík.^[13]

Jórvík was gradually reduced to York in the centuries following the Norman Conquest, moving from the Middle English Yerk in the 14th century through to Yourke in the 16th century and then Yarke in the 17th century. The form York was first recorded in the 13th century.^[4][14] Many present day names of companies and places, such as Ebor taxis and the Ebor race meeting, refer to the Roman name.^[15] The Archbishop of York also uses Ebor as his surname in his signature.^[16]

Early history[link]

Roman wall and the west corner tower of Eboracum. The top half is medieval.

Archaeological evidence suggests that Mesolithic people settled in the region of York between 8000 and 7000 BC, although it is not known whether these settlements were permanent or temporary. By the time of the Roman conquest of Britain, the area was occupied by a tribe known to the Romans as the Brigantes. The Brigantian tribal area initially became a Roman client state, but, later its leaders became more hostile to Rome. As a result the Roman Ninth Legion was sent north of the Humber into Brigantian territory.^[17]

The city itself was founded in 71 AD, when the Ninth Legion conquered the Brigantes and constructed a wooden military fortress on flat ground above the River Ouse close to its confluence with the River Foss. The fortress, which was later rebuilt in stone, covered an area of 50 acres (20 ha) and was inhabited by 6,000 soldiers. The site of the Roman fortress lies under the foundations of York Minster, and excavations in the Minster's undercroft have revealed some of the original walls.^[13][18]

The Emperors Hadrian, Septimius Severus and Constantius I all held court in York during their various campaigns. During his stay, the Emperor Severus proclaimed York capital of the province of Britannia Inferior, and it is likely that it was he who granted York the privileges of a colonia or city. Constantius I died in 306 AD during his stay in York, and his son Constantine the Great was proclaimed Emperor by the troops based in the fortress.^[18][19]

While the Roman colonia and fortress were located on high ground, by 400 the town itself was victim to periodic flooding from the rivers Ouse and Foss and lay abandoned.^[20] York declined in the post-Roman era, and was taken and settled by the Angles in the 5th century.^[21]

Reclamation of the flooded parts of the town were initiated in the 7th century under King Edwin of Northumbria, and York became his chief city.^[22] The first Minster church was built in York for the baptism of Edwin in 627.^[23] Edwin ordered that this small wooden church should be rebuilt in stone, however, he was killed in 633 and the task of completing the stone Minster fell to his successor Oswald.^[13][24] In the following century Alcuin of York came to the cathedral school of York. He had a long career as a teacher and scholar, first at the school at York now known as St Peter's School, York, which was founded in 627 AD, and later as Charlemagne's leading advisor on ecclesiastical and educational affairs.^[25]

In 866, Northumbria was in the midst of internecine struggles when the Vikings raided and captured York. Under Viking rule the city became a major river port, part of the extensive Viking trading routes throughout northern Europe. The last ruler of an independent Jórvík, Eric Bloodaxe, was driven from the city in the year 954 by King Edred in his successful attempt to complete the unification of England.^[26]

Post conquest[link]

The Shambles, a medieval street in York

In 1068, two years after the Norman Conquest of England, the people of York rebelled. Initially the rebellion was successful, however, upon the arrival of William the Conqueror the rebellion was put down. William at once built two wooden fortresses on mottes, which are still visible, on either side of the river Ouse. York was ravaged by him as part of the harrying of the North.^[27]

The first stone Minster church was badly damaged by fire in the uprising and the Normans later decided to build a new Minster on a new site. Around the year 1080 Archbishop Thomas started building a cathedral that in time became the current Minster.^[24] In the 12th century York started to prosper. In 1190, York Castle was the site of an infamous massacre of its Jewish inhabitants, in which at least 150 Jews died (although some authorities put the figure as high as 500).^[28]

The city, through its location on the River Ouse and its proximity to the Great North Road became a major trading centre. King Henry I granted the city's first charter, confirming trading rights in England and Europe.^[24][29] During the course of the later Middle Ages York merchants imported wine from France, cloth, wax, canvas, and oats from the Low Countries, timber and furs from the Baltic and exported grain to Gascony and grain and wool to the Low Countries.^[30] York became a major cloth manufacturing and trading centre. Edward I further stimulated the city's economy by using the city as a base for his war in Scotland. The city was the location of significant unrest during the so-called Peasants' Revolt in 1381. The city acquired an increasing degree of autonomy from central government including the privileges granted by a charter of Richard II in 1396.

Tudor and Stuart times[link]

A panorama of 15th century York by E Ridsdale Tate, York Castle is on the right hand side of river, opposite the abandoned motte of Baile Hill

The city underwent a period of economic decline during Tudor times. Under Henry VIII, the Dissolution of the Monasteries saw the end of the York's many monastic houses, including several orders of friars, the hospitals of St Nicholas and of St Leonard, the largest such institution in the north of England. This led to the Pilgrimage of Grace, an uprising of northern Catholics in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire who were opposed to religious reform. Henry VIII restored his authority through the establishmnent of the Council of the North in York in the dissolved St Mary's Abbey. The city very much became a trading and service centre during this period.^[31][32]

Guy Fawkes, who was born and educated in York, was a member of a group of Roman Catholic restorationists that planned the Gunpowder Plot.^[33] Its aim was to displace Protestant rule by blowing up the Houses of Parliament while King James I and the entire Protestant and even most of the Catholic aristocracy and nobility were inside.

In 1644, during the Civil War, the Parliamentarians besieged York, and many medieval houses outside the city walls were lost. The barbican at Walmgate Bar was undermined and explosives laid, but, the plot was discovered. On the arrival of Prince Rupert, with an army of 15,000 men, the siege was lifted. The Parliamentarians retreated some 6 miles (10 km) from York with Rupert in pursuit, before turning on his army and soundly defeating it at the Battle of Marston Moor. Of Rupert's 15,000 troops, no fewer than 4,000 were killed and 1,500 captured. The siege was renewed, nevertheless, the city could not hold out for long, and on 15 July the city surrendered to Sir Thomas Fairfax.^[31]

Following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, and the removal of the garrison from York in 1688, the city was dominated by the local gentry and merchants, although the clergy were still important. Competition from the nearby cities of Leeds and Hull, together with silting of the River Ouse, resulted in York losing its pre-eminent position as a trading centre. Nevertheless, the city's role as the social and cultural centre for wealthy northerners was on the rise. York's many elegant townhouses, such as the Lord Mayor's Mansion House and Fairfax House (now owned by York Civic Trust) date from this period, as do the Assembly Rooms, the Theatre Royal, and the Racecourse.^[32][34]

Modern history[link]

The Minster and railway war memorial seen from the Station Road walls

mak all t'railways cum to York

—George Hudson, ^[35]

The railway promoter George Hudson was responsible for bringing the railway to York in 1839. Although Hudson's career as a railway entrepreneur eventually ended in disgrace and bankruptcy, his promotion of his own railway company, the York and North Midland Railway and of York over Leeds, helped establish York as a major railway centre by the late 1800s.^[36]

The introduction of the railways also established engineering in the city.^[37][38] At the turn of the 20th century, the railway accommodated the headquarters and works of the North Eastern Railway, which employed over 5,500 people in York. The railway was also instrumental in the expansion of Rowntree's Cocoa Works. Rowntree's was founded in York in 1862 by Henry Isaac Rowntree, who was joined in 1869 by his brother the philanthropist Joseph Rowntree.^[39] Terry's Confectionery Works was also a major employer in the city.^[32][40] By 1900 the railways and confectionary had become the two major industries of the city.^[38]

With the emergence of tourism as a major industry, the historic core of York became one of the city's major assets, and in 1968 it was designated a conservation area.^[41] The existing tourist attractions were supplemented by the establishment of the National Railway Museum in York in 1975^[42] and the Jorvik Viking Centre in 1984. The opening of the University of York in 1963 added to the prosperity of the city.^[43]

York was voted as European Tourism City of the Year by European Cities Marketing in June 2007. York beat 130 other European cities to gain first place, surpassing Gothenburg in Sweden (second) and Valencia in Spain (third).^[44]

Governance[link]

Parliamentary constituencies[link]

From 1997 to 2010 the central part of the district was covered by the City of York constituency, while the remainder was split between the constituencies of Ryedale, Selby, and Vale of York.^[45] These constituencies were represented by Hugh Bayley, John Greenway, John Grogan, and Anne McIntosh respectively.

Following their review in 2003 of parliamentary representation in North Yorkshire, the Boundary Commission for England recommended the creation of two new seats for the City of York, in time for the general election in 2010. These are York Central, which covers the inner urban area, and is entirely surrounded by the York Outer constituency.^[46]

The whole of the city and local authority area lies within the Yorkshire and the Humber constituency of the European Parliament.^[47]

Local government[link]

The Guildhall where members of the City of York Council meet.

York is the traditional county town of Yorkshire, yet it did not form part of any of the three historic ridings, or divisions, of Yorkshire. York is an ancient borough, and was one of the boroughs reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 to form a municipal borough. It gained the status of a county borough in 1889, under the Local Government Act 1888, and existed so until 1974, when, under the Local Government Act 1972, it became a non-metropolitan district in the county of North Yorkshire.^[48][49]

As a result of 1990s UK local government reform, York regained unitary status and saw a substantial alteration in its borders, taking in parts of Selby and Harrogate districts, and about half the population of the Ryedale district.^[50] The new boundary was imposed after central government rejected the council's own proposal.

The City of York Council has 47 councillors.^[51][52] As a result of the 2011 local elections the Labour Party won 26 seats to give them a majority of five seats. The Liberal Democrats have eight councillors. The Conservative Party has ten councillors and the Greens have two with one Independent.^[53]

York Council operates on a Leader and Cabinet style of governance. Councillors are appointed to the cabinet by the full council of 47. Cabinet Members make decisions on their portfolio areas individually.^[54][55]

As of May 2011^[update], York’s Right Honourable Lord Mayor is Councillor David Horton and his wife, Jane Horton, is the new Lady Mayoress. Alan Deller is the new Sheriff with his wife, Ann, the Sheriff's Lady.^[56] Both appointments are made each May for a period of one year. Although York’s Sheriff office is the oldest in England it is now a purely ceremonial post. The Lord Mayor also carries out civic and ceremonial duties in addition to chairing full meetings of the council.^[52]

The York Youth Council consists of several young people who negotiate with the councillors to get better facilities for York's young people.^[57][58]

Geography[link]

Location[link]

York lies within the Vale of York, a flat area of fertile arable land bordered by the Pennines, the North York Moors and the Yorkshire Wolds The original city was built at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss on a terminal moraine left by the last Ice Age.^[59]

During Roman times, the land surrounding the rivers Ouse and Foss was very marshy, making the site easier to defend. The city is prone to flooding from the River Ouse, and has an extensive (and mostly effective) network of flood defences. These include walls along the Ouse, and a liftable barrier across the River Foss where it joins the Ouse at the 'Blue Bridge'. In October and November 2000 York experienced the worst flooding in 375 years with over 300 homes being flooded.^[60] Much land in and around the city is on flood plains and has always been too flood-prone for development other than agriculture. The ings are flood meadows along the River Ouse, while the strays are open common grassland in various locations around the city.

Climate[link]

York has a temperate climate with four distinct seasons. As with the rest of the Vale of York the city's climate is drier and warmer than the rest of the Yorkshire and Humberside region. Because of its lowland location York is prone to frosts, fog, and cold winds during winter, spring and very early summer.^[61] In summer the average maximum temperature is 22 °C (72 °F) although some days can see highs of up to 28 °C (82 °F) rarely exceeding 30 °C (86 °F). Nights are significantly colder averaging minimum of 15 °C (60 °F), although these can consistently dip below 10 °C (50 °F). The average daytime temperature in winter is 7 °C (45 °F) and 2 °C (36 °F) at night. Snow can fall in winter from December onwards to as late as April, but, quickly melts. The wettest months are November, December and January with an average of 17 days per month with rainfall more than 0.25 millimetres (0.01 in). From May to July York experiences the most sunshine with an average of six hours per day.^[62] Extremes recorded at the University of York campus between 1998 and 2010 include a highest temperature of 33 °C (91.4 °F) (Monday 17 July 2006) and a lowest temperature of -12.3 °C (9.9 °F) (Monday 6 December 2010). The most rainfall in one day was 62.4 millimetres (2.5 in).^[63]

Demography[link]

The York urban area had a population of 137,505^[5] comprising 66,142 males and 71,363 females in 2001. Also at the time of the 2001 UK census, the City of York had a total population of 181,094 of whom 93,957 were female and 87,137 were male. Of the 76,920 households in York, 36.0% were married couples living together, 31.3% were one-person households, 8.7% were co-habiting couples and 8.0% were lone parents. The figures for lone parent households were below the national average of 9.5%, and the percentage of married couples was also close to the national average of 36.5%; the proportion of one person households was slightly higher than the national average of 30.1%.^[65]

The population density was 4,368 /km² (11,310 /sq mi).^[5] Of those aged 16–74 in York, 24.6% had no academic qualifications, a little lower than 28.9% in all of England. Of York’s residents, 5.1% were born outside the United Kingdom, significantly lower than the national average of 9.2%. White British form 95% of the population, the largest single minority group was recorded as Asian, at 1.9% of the population.

The number of theft-from-a-vehicle offences and theft of a vehicle per 1,000 of the population was 8.8 and 2.7 compared to the English national average of 6.9 and 2.7 respectively.^[66] The number of sexual offences was 0.9, in line with the national average.^[66] The national average of violence against another person was 16.2 compared to the York average of 16.8.^[66] The figures for crime statistics were all recorded during the 2006–07 financial year.

Population change[link]

The table below details the population change since 1801.

Religion[link]

At the time of the 2001 UK census the population of York was 181,094 and its ethnic composition was 97.84% white, compared with the English average of 90.92%. York's population has a slightly higher elderly population than the national average.^[68] Christianity is the religion with the largest following in York with 74.4% residents reporting themselves as Christian in the 2001 census.

These census figures show no other single religion returned affiliation, as a percentage of population, above the national average for England, but, those responding as "No Religion" was higher than the national average.

There are 33 active Anglican churches in York which is home to the Archbishop of York and the Mother Church, York Minster, and administrative centre of the northern province of the Church of England and the Diocese of York.^[69] York is in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Middlesbrough, has eight Roman Catholic churches and a number of different Catholic religious orders.^[70]

Other Christian denominations that are active in York include Religious Society of Friends who have a number of meeting houses in York,^[71] Methodists with the York North and York South circuits of The Methodist Church York and Hull District,^[72] and Unitarians. There is one mosque in York which also contains a UK Islamic Mission Islamic centre.^[73] Various Buddhist traditions are represented in the city and around York.^[74]

Economy[link]

Offices of Aviva in York

York's economy is based on the service industry, which in 2000 was responsible for 88.7% of employment in the city.^[75] The service industries in York include public sector employment, health, education, finance, information technology (IT) and tourism that accounts for 10.7% of employment. Tourism has become an important element of the local economy, with the city offering a wealth of historic attractions, of which York Minster is the most prominent, as well as a variety of cultural activities. In 2009, York was the 7th most visited city by UK residents and the 13th most visited by overseas visitors.^[76][77]

Unemployment in York is low at 4.2% in 2008 compared to the United Kingdom national average of 5.3%.^[75] The biggest employer in York is the City of York Council, with over 7,500 employees. Employers with more than 3,000 staff include Aviva (formerly Norwich Union Life), Selby and York Primary Care Trust, Shepherd Building Group (including Portakabin), and University of York. Other major employers include British Telecom, CPP Group (life assistance products), Nestlé, NFU Mutual and a number of railway companies.^[78][79]

Today's economic position is very different from the position of the economy as recently as the 1950s, when York's prosperity was based on chocolate manufacturing and the railways. This position continued until the early 1980s when 30% of the workforce were employed by just five employers and 75% of manufacturing jobs were in four companies.^[80] Most of the industry around the railway has gone, including the carriage works (known as Asea Brown Boveri or ABB at the time of closure) which at its height in 1880s employed 5,500 people, but, closed in the mid 1990s.^[80][81] York is the headquarters of the confectionery manufacturer Nestlé York (formerly Nestlé Rowntrees), and home to the KitKat and eponymous Yorkie bar chocolate brands. Terry's chocolate factory, makers of the Chocolate Orange, was also located in the city; but it closed on 30 September 2005, when production was moved by its owners, Kraft Foods, to Poland. However, the historic factory building can still be seen, situated next to the Knavesmire racecourse.

It was announced on 20 September 2006 that Nestlé would be cutting 645 jobs at the Rowntree's chocolate factory in York.^[82] This came after a number of other job losses in the city at Aviva, British Sugar and Terry's chocolate factory.^[83] Despite this, the employment situation in York remained fairly buoyant until the effects of the late 2000s recession began to be felt.^[84]

Since the closure of York's carriage-works, the site has been developed into the headquarters for CPP Group and two housing schemes, one of which was a self-build project. York's economy has been developing in the areas of science, technology and the creative industries. The city has become a founding National Science City with the creation of a science park near the University of York.^[85] Between 1998 and 2008 York gained 80 new technology companies and 2,800 new jobs in the sector.^[86]

Regional gross value added figures for York, at 2005 basic prices in pounds sterling, are:^[87]

Transport[link]

York's location on the River Ouse and in the centre of the Vale of York means that it has always had a significant position in the nation's transport system.^[30] The city grew up as a river port at the confluence of the River Ouse and the River Foss. The Ouse was originally a tidal river, accessible to sea-going ships of the time. Today both of these rivers remain navigable, although the Foss is only navigable for a short distance above the confluence. A lock at Naburn on the Ouse to the south of York means that the river in York is no longer tidal.^[88]

Until the end of the 20th century, the Ouse was used by barges to carry freight between York and the port of Hull. The last significant traffic was the supply of newsprint to the local newspaper's Foss-side print works, which continued until 1997. Today navigation is almost exclusively leisure-oriented. YorkBoat provides cruises on the river.^[88]

Panorama of the River Ouse looking south from Lendal Bridge

Like most cities founded by the Romans, York is well served by long distance trunk roads. The city lies at the intersection of the A19 road from Doncaster to Tyneside, the A59 road from Liverpool to York, the A64 road from Leeds to Scarborough, and the A1079 road from York to Hull. The A64 road provides the principal link to the motorway network, linking York to both the A1(M) and the M1 motorways at a distance of about 10 miles (16 km) from the city.

Stonegate is pedestrianised during the day

The city is surrounded on all sides by an outer ring road, at a distance of some 3 miles (4.8 km) from the centre of the city, which allows through traffic to by-pass the city. The street plan of the historic core of the city dates from medieval times and is not suitable for modern traffic. As a consequence many of the routes inside the city walls are designated as car free during business hours or restrict traffic entirely. To alleviate this situation, five bus based park and ride sites operate in York. The sites are located towards the edge of the urban area, with easy access from the ring road, and allow out of town visitors to complete their journey into the city centre by bus.^[89]

York railway station and Royal York Hotel

York has been a major railway centre since the first line arrived in 1839 at the beginning of the railway age. For many years the city hosted the headquarters and works of the North Eastern Railway.^[40] York railway station is a principal stop on the East Coast Main Line from London to Newcastle and Edinburgh. It takes less than two hours to get to York from London by rail, with at least 25 direct trains each weekday. The station is also served by long distance trains on Cross Country services linking Edinburgh and Newcastle with destinations in south and west England via Birmingham.^[90] TransPennine Express provide a frequent service of semi-fast trains linking York to Newcastle, Scarborough, Leeds, Manchester, Manchester Airport, and Liverpool. Local stopping services by Northern Rail connect York to Bridlington, Harrogate, Hull, Leeds, Sheffield and many intermediate points, as well as many other stations across Greater Manchester and Lancashire.^[90]

York has an airfield at the former RAF Elvington, some 7 miles (11 km) south-east of the city centre, which is the home of the Yorkshire Air Museum. Elvington is used for private aviation. Plans have been drafted to expand the site for business aviation or a full commercial service.^[91]

York is linked to Manchester Airport by an hourly direct TransPennine Express train, giving access to the principal airport serving the north of England, with connections to many destinations in Europe, North America, Africa, and Asia.^[90] Leeds Bradford Airport is closer to York but the hourly York Air Coach service operated by First York was withdrawn as of April 2009.^[92] Leeds Bradford Airport provides connections to most major European and North African airports as well as Pakistan and New York.

Public transport within the city is largely bus based. The principal bus operator is First York, a part of FirstGroup plc. First York operates the majority of the city's local bus services, as well as the York park and ride services. York is the location of the first implementation of FirstGroup's experimental, and controversial, ftr bus concept, which seeks to confer the advantages of a modern tramway system at a lower cost.^[93] Transdev York and York Pullman also operate a number of local bus services. Open top tourist and sightseeing buses are operated by Transdev York on behalf of City Sightseeing, and by York Pullman.^[94]

Rural services, linking local towns and villages with York, are provided by a number of companies.^[95] Longer distance bus services are provided by a number of operators including, Arriva Yorkshire services to Selby, East Yorkshire Motor Services on routes to Hull, Beverley, Pocklington, Harrogate & District services to Knaresborough and Harrogate. Yorkshire Coastliner links Leeds via York with Scarborough, Filey, Bridlington and Whitby.^[96]

Local Transport Plan 2006[link]

English local authorities are required to produce Local Transport Plans (LTPs), strategies for developing local integrated transport as part of a longer-term vision. LTPs are used by central government to allocate funding for transport schemes.The final Local Transport Plan 2006–2011 for York was submitted to central government in March 2006. The plan addresses the fact that traffic in York is predicted to grow considerably over the coming years. The key aims of the plan are to ease congestion and improve accessibility, air quality and safety. Major funding allocations earmarked for the first five years of the plan's life span include outer ring road improvements, improved management of the highway network, improvements to the bus network including park and ride services, provision of off-road walking and cycling routes, air quality improvements and safety measures.^[97]

Education[link]

University of York, view across the lake to Central Hall

The University of York's main campus is on the southern edge of the city at Heslington and is currently undergoing significant expansion with new buildings and departments including Management, Law, Theatre, Film, and Television at Heslington East. The Department of Archaeology and the graduate Centres for Eighteenth Century Studies and Medieval Studies are located in the historic King's Manor in the city centre.^[98] It was York's only institution with university status until 2006, when the more centrally located York St John University, formerly an autonomous college of the University of Leeds, attained full university status. The city also hosts a branch of The College of Law. The University of York also has a highly rated^[99] medical school, Hull York Medical School.

The city has two major further education institutions. York College is an amalgamation of York Technical College and York Sixth Form College. Students there study a very wide range of academic and vocational courses, and range from school leavers and sixth formers to people training to make career moves.^[100] Askham Bryan College offers further education courses, foundation and honours degrees, specialising in more vocational subjects such as horticulture, agriculture, animal management and even golf course management.^[101]

There are 70 local authority schools with over 24,000 pupils in the City of York Council area.^[102] The City of York Council manages most primary and secondary schools within the city. Primary schools cover education from ages 5–11, with some offering early years education from age 3. From 11–16 education is provided by 10 secondary schools, four of which offer additional education up to the age of 18.^[103] In 2007 Oaklands Sports College and Lowfield Comprehensive School merged to become one school known as York High School.^[104]

York also has several private schools. St Peter's School was founded in 627 and the scholar Alcuin, who went on to serve Charlemagne, taught here.^[105] It was also the school attended by Guy Fawkes.^[106] Two schools have Quaker origins: Bootham School is co-educational^[107] and The Mount School is all-girls.^[108] On the outskirts of the city is Queen Margaret's School. Pupils from The Minster School, York sing in York Minster choir.

Public services[link]

Under the requirements of the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, York City Council had to appoint a Watch Committee which established a police force and appointed a chief constable.^[109] On 1 June 1968 the York City, East Riding of Yorkshire and North Riding of Yorkshire police forces were amalgamated to form the York and North East Yorkshire Police. Since 1974, Home Office policing in York has been provided by the North Yorkshire Police. The force's "Central Area" has its headquarters for policing York and nearby Selby in Fulford, York.^[110] Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the North Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service, whose headquarters is at Northallerton.^[111]

York Crown Court

The first hospital in York, the York County Hospital, opened in 1740 in Monkgate^[112] and was funded by public subscription. It closed in 1976 when it was replaced by the purpose built York Hospital, which opened in 1976 and gained Foundation status in April 2007. It has 524 adult inpatient beds and 127 special purpose beds providing general healthcare and some specialist inpatient, daycase and outpatient services.^[113] It is also known as York District Hospital and YDH.^[113]

The Yorkshire Ambulance Service NHS Trust was formed on 1 July 2006 bringing together South Yorkshire Ambulance Service, West Yorkshire Metropolitan Ambulance Service and the North and East Yorkshire parts of Tees, East and North Yorkshire Ambulance Service to provide patient transport.^[114] Other forms of health care are provided for locally by several small clinics and surgeries.

The city's first subscription library opened in 1794,^[115] but it wasn't until 1893 that York's first free public library was built to mark Queen Victoria's jubilee. The library was initially on Clifford Street, but a new building was built on Museum Street which opened in 1927, and which is still the library today.

Since 1998 waste management has been co-ordinated via the York and North Yorkshire Waste Partnership.^[116] York's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is CE Electric UK;^[117] there are no power stations in the city. Yorkshire Water, which has a local water extraction plant on the River Derwent at Elvington, manages York's drinking and waste water.^[118] The city has its own Magistrates' Court,^[119] and more unusually a Crown Court^[120] and County Court too.^[121] The Crown Court was designed by the architect John Carr, next to the then prison (including execution area).^[122] The former prison is now the Castle Museum but still contains the cells.

Main sights[link]

York Minster, the largest Gothic cathedral in northern Europe, stands at the city's centre.^[123]

Clifford's Tower, part of York Castle

York Castle, a complex of buildings ranging from the medieval Clifford's Tower to the 20th century entrance to the York Castle Museum (formerly a prison) has had a chequered history.

York's centre is enclosed by the city's medieval walls, which are a popular walk.^[124] These defences are the most complete in England. They have the only walls set on high ramparts and they retain all their principal gateways.^[125] They incorporate part of the walls of the Roman fortress and some Norman and medieval work, as well as 19th- and 20th-century renovations.^[126] The entire circuit is approximately 2.5 miles (4 km), and encloses an area of 263 acres (106 ha).^[127] The north-east section includes a part where walls never existed, because the Norman moat of York Castle, formed by damming the River Foss, also created a lake which acted as a city defence. This lake was later called the King's Fishpond, as the rights to fish belonged to the Crown.

Looking towards the Minster from the city walls

A feature of central York is the Snickelways, narrow pedestrian routes, many of which led towards the former market-places in Pavement and St Sampson's Square.^[128] The Shambles is a narrow medieval street, lined with shops, boutiques and tea rooms. Most of these premises were once butchers' shops, and the hooks from which carcasses were hung and the shelves on which meat was laid out can still be seen outside some of them. The street also contains the Shrine of Margaret Clitherow, although it is not located in the house where she lived.^[129] Goodramgate has many medieval houses including the early 14th century Lady Row built to finance a Chantry, at the edge of the churchyard of Holy Trinity church.

As well as the Castle Museum, the city contains numerous other museums and historic buildings such as the Yorkshire Museum and its Museum Gardens, JORVIK Viking Centre, the York Art Gallery, the Richard III Museum, the Merchant Adventurers' Hall, the reconstructed medieval house Barley Hall (owned by the York Archaeological Trust), Fairfax House (owned by the York Civic Trust), the Mansion House (the historic home of the Lord Mayor), and the Treasurer's House (owned by the National Trust).^[130] The National Railway Museum is situated just beyond the station, and is home to a vast range of transport material and the largest collection of railway locomotives in the world. Included in this collection are the world's fastest steam locomotive LNER 4468 Mallard and the world famous 4472 Flying Scotsman, which is being overhauled in the Museum.^[131]

York is noted for its numerous churches and pubs. Most of the remaining churches in York are from the medieval period. St William's College behind the Minster, and Bedern Hall, off Goodramgate, are former dwelling places of the canons of the Minster.^[132]

Culture[link]

Theatre[link]

The Theatre Royal

The Theatre Royal, which was established in 1744, produces an annual pantomime which attracts loyal audiences from around the country to see its veteran star, Berwick Kaler.^[133] The Grand Opera House and Joseph Rowntree Theatre also offer a variety of productions.^[134][135] The city is home to the Riding Lights Theatre Company, which as well as operating a busy national touring department, also operates a busy youth theatre and educational departments. York is also home to a number of amateur dramatic groups.^[136] The Department of Theatre, Film and Television, and Student Societies of the University of York put on public drama performances.^[137]

The York Mystery Plays are performed every 4 years with texts based on the original medieval plays of this type that were performed by the guilds - often with specific connections to the subject matter of each play. (For instance the fishmongers used to present the play of Noah and the Flood). The York Cycle of Mystery Plays or Pageants is the most complete in England. Originally performed from wagons at various locations around the city, following their resurrection in the middle of the 20th century as part of the quadrennial York City Festival, they were mostly produced in a temporary open-air theatre within the ruins of St. Mary's Abbey, using a mixture of professional and amateur actors. Lead actors have included Christopher Timothy (in the role of Christ) and Dame Judi Dench (who has appeared three times). Latterly the cycle has also been presented within York Minster and occasionally from wagons in the streets, recreating the original productions. In 2012 the York Mystery Plays will be performed between 2 and 27 August at St. Mary's Abbey in the York Museum Gardens.^[138]

Music[link]

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Among many music groups performing regularly in York are the Academy of St Olave's, a chamber orchestra which gives concerts in the beautiful setting of St Olave's Church, Marygate.^[139] A former church, St Margaret's, Walmgate, is now the National Centre for Early Music, which hosts concerts, broadcasts, competitions and events through the year, especially during the York Early Music Festival.^[140][141] Students, staff and visiting artists of York St John University music department regularly perform lunchtime concerts in the University chapel, alongside special performances such as the annual Christmas concert. The staff and students of the University of York also perform in the city and particularly in the Sir Jack Lyons Concert Hall on the Heslington campus.^[142]

Gastronomy[link]

Bettys Café Tea Rooms

In September, York has an annual Festival of Food and Drink, which has been held in the city since 1997. The aim of the festival is to spotlight food culture in York and North Yorkshire by promoting local food production.The Festival generates up to 150,000 visitors over 10 days, from all over the country.^[143] One of the notable local products is York ham, a type of cured ham,^[144] which is a mild-flavoured ham that has delicate pink meat and does not need further cooking before eating. It is traditionally served with Madeira Sauce.^[145][146] It is a lightly smoked, dry-cured ham, which is saltier but milder in flavour than other European dry-cured hams.^[147] Folklore has it that the oak construction for York Minster provided the sawdust for smoking the ham. Robert Burrow Atkinson's butchery shop, in Blossom Street, is the birthplace of the original “York Ham” and the reason why the premises became famous.^[148]

In the centre of York, in St Helen’s Square, there is the York branch of Bettys Café Tea Rooms. Bettys founder, Frederick Belmont, travelled on the maiden voyage of the Queen Mary in 1936. He was so impressed by the splendour of the ship that he employed the Queen Marys’ designers and craftsmen to turn a dilapidated furniture store in York into an elegant café in St Helen’s Square. A few years after Bettys opened in York war broke out, and the basement ‘Bettys Bar’, became a favourite haunt of the thousands of airmen stationed around York. ‘Bettys Mirror’, on which many of them engraved their signatures with a diamond pen, remains on display today as a tribute to them.^[149]

Media[link]

The York area is served by a local newspaper, The Press (known as the Evening Press until April 2006), The York Advertiser newspaper (based at The Press on Walmgate), and two local radio stations Minster FM and BBC Radio York.^{[150][151][152][153]} Local news and events are covered by a social media enterprise called One&Other.^[154]

York St John University has a Film and Television Production department with links to many major industrial partners. The department hosts an annual festival of student work and a showcase of other regional films.^[155]

The University of York has its own television station York Student Television (YSTV) and two campus newspapers Nouse and York Vision.^[156] Its radio station URY is the longest running legal independent radio station in the UK, and was voted BBC Radio 1 Student Radio Station of the Year 2005.^[157][158]

Sport[link]

Bootham Crescent is the home ground of York City F.C.

The city's football team is York City, and are playing in League Two at the start of the 2012–2013 season. York have played as high as the old Second Division but are best known for their "giant killing" status in cup competitions, having reached the FA Cup semi-final in 1955 and beaten Manchester United 3–0 during the 1995–96 League Cup. Their matches are played at Bootham Crescent.^[159]

York also has a strong rugby league history. York FC, later known as York Wasps, formed in 1901, were one of the oldest rugby league clubs in the country but the effects of a move to the out of town Huntington Stadium, poor results and falling attendances led to their bankruptcy in 2002.^[160] The supporters formed a new club, York City Knights, who now play at the same stadium in Championship 1.^[161] There are three amateur rugby league teams in York, New Earswick All Blacks, York Acorn and Heworth. York International 9s is a rugby league nines tournament which takes place in York each year.^[162] Amateur side York Lokomotive compete in the Rugby League Conference.

An open rowing club York City Rowing Club is located underneath Lendal Bridge.^[163] The rowing clubs of The University of York, York St John University Rowing Club and Leeds University Boat Club as well as York City RC using the Ouse for training.

A view of the Stands at York Racecourse

York Racecourse was established in 1731 and from 1990 has been awarded Northern Racecourse of the Year for 17 years running. This major horseracing venue is located on the Knavesmire and sees thousands flocking to the city every year for the 15 race meetings. The Knavesmire Racecourse also hosted Royal Ascot in 2005.^[164] In August racing takes place over the three day Ebor Festival that includes the Ebor Handicap dating from 1843.^[165]

Motorbike speedway once took place at York. The track in the Burnholme Estate was completed in 1930 and a demonstration event staged. In 1931 the track staged team and open events and the York team took part in the National Trophy.^[166]

The most notable sportsmen to come from York in recent years are footballer Marco Gabbiadini and former England manager Steve McClaren,^[167] who both attended Nunthorpe Grammar School (now called Millthorpe School).^[168]

There are two sailing clubs close to York, both of which sail dinghies on the River Ouse. The York RI (Railway Institute) Sailing Club has a club bouse and boat park on the outskirts of Bishopthorpe, a village 3 miles (4.8 km) to the south of York. The Yorkshire Ouse Sailing Club has a club house in the village of Naburn, 5 miles (8.0 km) south of York.

Twin cities[link]

York is twinned with: Dijon, France (1953)^[169] and Münster, Germany (1957).^[169] There is also a community link with Fanteakwa District, Ghana.^[170]

See also[link]

• List of people associated with York

Notes[link]

^a There was no census in 1941: figures are from National Register. United Kingdom and Isle of Man. Statistics of Population on 29 September 1939 by Sex, Age and Marital Condition.

^b There is a discrepancy of 37 between Office of National Statistics figures (quoted before) and those on the Vision of Britain website (quoted here).

References[link]