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The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans^[2] to developing countries for capital programs.

The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty. According to the World Bank's Articles of Agreement (As amended effective 16 February 1989) all of its decisions must be guided by a commitment to promote foreign investment, international trade and facilitate capital investment.^[3]

The World Bank differs from the World Bank Group, in that the World Bank comprises only two institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA), whereas the former incorporates these two in addition to three more:^[4] International Finance Corporation (IFC), Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID).

History[link]

Lord Keynes (right) and Harry Dexter White, the "founding fathers" of both the World Bank and the IMF. Seen here at the Bretton Woods conference, where plans were laid to launch the two institutions.^[5]

The World Bank is one of five institutions created at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944. The International Monetary Fund, a related institution, is the second. Delegates from many countries attended the Bretton Woods Conference. The most powerful countries in attendance were the United States and United Kingdom, which dominated negotiations.^[6]

Although both are based in Washington, D.C., the World Bank is traditionally headed by a citizen of the United States while the IMF is led by a European citizen.

1944–1968[link]

From its conception until 1965 the bank undertook a relatively low level of lending. Fiscal conservatism and careful screening of loan applications was common. Bank staff attempted to balance the priorities of providing loans for reconstruction and development with the need to instill confidence in the bank.^[7]

Bank president John McCloy selected France to be first recipient of World Bank aid; two other applications from Poland and Chile were rejected. The loan was for US$250 million, half the amount requested and came with strict conditions. Staff from the World Bank monitored the use of the funds, ensuring that the French government would present a balanced budget and give priority of debt repayment to the World Bank over other governments. The United States State Department told the French government that communist elements within the Cabinet needed to be removed. The French Government complied with this diktat and removed the Communist coalition government. Within hours the loan to France was approved.^[8]

The Marshall Plan of 1947 caused lending by the bank to change as many European countries received aid that competed with World Bank loans. Emphasis was shifted to non-European countries and until 1968, loans were earmarked for projects that would enable a borrower country to repay loans (such projects as ports, highway systems, and power plants).

1968–1980[link]

From 1968 to 1980, the bank concentrated on meeting the basic needs of people in the developing world.^{[citation needed]} The size and number of loans to borrowers was greatly increased as loan targets expanded from infrastructure into social services and other sectors.^{[citation needed]}

These changes can be attributed to Robert McNamara who was appointed to the presidency in 1968 by Lyndon B. Johnson.^[9] McNamara imported a technocratic managerial style to the Bank that he had used as United States Secretary of Defense and President of the Ford Motor Company.^[10] McNamara shifted bank policy toward measures such as building schools and hospitals, improving literacy and agricultural reform. McNamara created a new system of gathering information from potential borrower nations that enabled the bank to process loan applications much faster. To finance more loans, McNamara told bank treasurer Eugene Rotberg to seek out new sources of capital outside of the northern banks that had been the primary sources of bank funding. Rotberg used the global bond market to increase the capital available to the bank.^[11] One consequence of the period of poverty alleviation lending was the rapid rise of third world debt. From 1976 to 1980 developing world debt rose at an average annual rate of 20%.^[12][13]

In 1980, the World Bank Administrative Tribunal was established to decide on disputes between the World Bank Group and its staff where allegation of non-observance of contracts of employment or terms of appointment had not been honored.^[14]

1980–1989[link]

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In 1980, A.W. Clausen replaced McNamara after being nominated by US President Jimmy Carter. Clausen replaced a large number of bank staffers from the McNamara era and instituted a new ideological focus in the bank. The replacement of Chief Economist Hollis B. Chenery by Anne Krueger in 1982 marked a notable policy shift at the bank. Krueger was known for her criticism of development funding, as well as of third world governments as rent-seeking states.

Lending to service third world debt marked the period of 1980–1989. Structural adjustment policies aimed at streamlining the economies of developing nations were also a large part of World Bank policy during this period. UNICEF reported in the late 1980's that the structural adjustment programs of the World Bank were responsible for the "reduced health, nutritional and educational levels for tens of millions of children in Asia, Latin America, and Africa".^[15]

1989–present[link]

From 1989, World Bank policy changed in response to criticism from many groups. Environmental groups and NGOs were incorporated in the lending of the bank in order to mitigate the effects of the past that prompted such harsh criticism.^[16]

Traditionally, and due to tacit agreement between the United States and Europe, the U.S. has always chosen the President of the World Bank. In 2012, for the first time, there are two candidates nominated for the presidency of the World Bank who are not from the United States.

On 23 March 2012, U.S. President Barack Obama announced that the United States would nominate Jim Yong Kim as the next President of the Bank.^[17]

The World Bank headquarters in Washington, DC

Criteria [link]

Many achievements have brought the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) targets for 2015 within reach in some cases. For the goals to be realized, six criteria must be met: stronger and more inclusive growth in Africa and fragile states, more effort in health and education, integration of the development and environment agendas, more and better aid, movement on trade negotiations, and stronger and more focused support from multilateral institutions like the World Bank.

1. Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger: From 1990 through 2004, the proportion of people living in extreme poverty fell from almost a third to less than a fifth. Although results vary widely within regions and countries, the trend indicates that the world as a whole can meet the goal of halving the percentage of people living in poverty. Africa's poverty, however, is expected to rise, and most of the 36 countries where 90% of the world's undernourished children live are in Africa. Less than a quarter of countries are on track for achieving the goal of halving under-nutrition.
2. Achieve Universal Primary Education: The number of children in school in developing countries increased from 80% in 1991 to 88% in 2005. Still, about 72 million children of primary school age, 57% of them girls, were not being educated as of 2005.
3. Promote Gender Equality: The tide is turning slowly for women in the labor market, yet far more women than men- worldwide more than 60% – are contributing but unpaid family workers. The World Bank Group Gender Action Plan was created to advance women's economic empowerment and promote shared growth.
4. Reduce Child Mortality: There is some what improvement in survival rates globally; accelerated improvements are needed most urgently in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. An estimated 10 million-plus children under five died in 2005; most of their deaths were from preventable causes.
5. Improve Maternal Health: Almost all of the half million women who die during pregnancy or childbirth every year live in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. There are numerous causes of maternal death that require a variety of health care interventions to be made widely accessible.
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria, and Other Diseases: Annual numbers of new HIV infections and AIDS deaths have fallen, but the number of people living with HIV continues to grow. In the eight worst-hit southern African countries, prevalence is above 15 percent. Treatment has increased globally, but still meets only 30 percent of needs (with wide variations across countries). AIDS remains the leading cause of death in Sub-Saharan Africa (1.6 million deaths in 2007). There are 300 to 500 million cases of malaria each year, leading to more than 1 million deaths. Nearly all the cases and more than 95 percent of the deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa.
7. Ensure Environmental Sustainability: Deforestation remains a critical problem, particularly in regions of biological diversity, which continues to decline. Greenhouse gas emissions are increasing faster than energy technology advancement.
8. Develop a Global Partnership for Development: Donor countries have renewed their commitment. Donors have to fulfill their pledges to match the current rate of core program development. Emphasis is being placed on the Bank Group's collaboration with multilateral and local partners to quicken progress toward the MDGs' realization.

Leadership[link]

The President of the Bank, currently Jim Yong Kim, is responsible for chairing the meetings of the Boards of Directors and for overall management of the Bank. Traditionally, the Bank President has always been a US citizen nominated by the United States, the largest shareholder in the bank. The nominee is subject to confirmation by the Board of Executive Directors, to serve for a five-year, renewable term. While most World Bank presidents have had banking experience, some have not.^[18][19]

The vice presidents of the Bank are its principal managers, in charge of regions, sectors, networks and functions. There two Executive Vice Presidents, three Senior Vice Presidents, and 24 Vice Presidents.^[20]

The Boards of Directors consist of the World Bank Group President and 25 Executive Directors. The President is the presiding officer, and ordinarily has no vote except a deciding vote in case of an equal division. The Executive Directors as individuals cannot exercise any power nor commit or represent the Bank unless specifically authorized by the Boards to do so. With the term beginning 1 November 2010, the number of Executive Directors increased by one, to 25.^[21]

List of Presidents[link]

Name	Dates	Nationality	Background
Eugene Meyer	1946–1946	United States	Newspaper publisher
John J. McCloy	1947–1949	United States	Lawyer and US Assistant Secretary of War
Eugene R. Black, Sr.	1949–1963	United States	Bank executive with Chase and executive director with the World Bank
George Woods	1963–1968	United States	Bank executive with First Boston Corporation
Robert McNamara	1968–1981	United States	US Defense Secretary, business executive with Ford Motor Company
Alden W. Clausen	1981–1986	United States	Lawyer, bank executive with Bank of America
Barber Conable	1986–1991	United States	New York State Senator and US Congressman
Lewis T. Preston	1991–1995	United States	Bank executive with J.P. Morgan
Sir James Wolfensohn	1995–2005	United States  Australia[note 1]	Corporate lawyer and banker
Paul Wolfowitz	2005–2007	United States	Various cabinet and government positions; US Ambassador to Indonesia, US Deputy Secretary of Defense
Robert Zoellick	2007–2012	United States	Bank executive with Goldman Sachs, Deputy Secretary of State and US Trade Representative
Jim Yong Kim	2012–present	United States	Korean-American physician and anthropologist, co-founder of Partners in Health and 17th President of Dartmouth College.[22] Elected on 16 April 2012.

José Antonio Ocampo, Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, and Jim Yong Kim were candidates for the 2012 election. It was announced on 16 April 2012, that Jim Yong Kim will succeed Robert Zoellick as president, continuing the chain of successive World Bank president nominees from the United States. His nomination has been strongly opposed by the Nigerian Finance Minister Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala.^[23]

List of chief economists[link]

Justin Yifu Lin

• Hollis B. Chenery (1972–1982)
• Anne Osborn Krueger (1982–1986)
• Stanley Fischer (1988–1990)
• Lawrence Summers (1991–1993)
• Michael Bruno (1993–1996)
• Joseph E. Stiglitz (1997–2000)
• Nicholas Stern (2000–2003)
• François Bourguignon (2003–2007)
• Justin Yifu Lin (June 2008– )

Members[link]

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) has 187 member countries, while the International Development Association (IDA) has 171 members.^[24] Each member state of IBRD should be also a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and only members of IBRD are allowed to join other institutions within the Bank (such as IDA).^[25]

Voting power[link]

In 2010, voting powers at the World Bank were revised to increase the voice of developing countries, notably China. The countries with most voting power are now the United States (15.85%), Japan (6.84%), China (4.42%), Germany (4.00%), the United Kingdom (3.75%), France (3.75%), India (2.91%), Russia (2.77%), Saudi Arabia (2.77%) and Italy (2.64%). Under the changes, known as 'Voice Reform – Phase 2', countries other than China that saw significant gains included South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Singapore, Greece, Brazil, India, and Spain. Most developed countries' voting power was reduced, along with a few poor countries such as Nigeria. The voting powers of the United States, Russia and Saudi Arabia were unchanged.^[26][27]

The changes were brought about with the goal of making voting more universal in regards to standards, rule-based with objective indicators, and transparent among other things. Now, developing countries have an increased voice in the "Pool Model," backed especially by Europe. Additionally, voting power is based on economic size in addition to International Development Association contributions.^[28]

Poverty reduction strategies[link]

For the poorest developing countries in the world, the bank's assistance plans are based on poverty reduction strategies; by combining a cross-section of local groups with an extensive analysis of the country's financial and economic situation the World Bank develops a strategy pertaining uniquely to the country in question. The government then identifies the country's priorities and targets for the reduction of poverty, and the World Bank aligns its aid efforts correspondingly.

Forty-five countries pledged US$25.1 billion in "aid for the world's poorest countries", aid that goes to the World Bank International Development Association (IDA) which distributes the loans to eighty poorer countries. While wealthier nations sometimes fund their own aid projects, including those for diseases, and although IDA is the recipient of criticism, Robert B. Zoellick, the president of the World Bank, said when the loans were announced on 15 December 2007, that IDA money "is the core funding that the poorest developing countries rely on".^[29]

Clean Technology Fund management[link]

The World Bank has been assigned temporary management responsibility of the Clean Technology Fund (CTF), focused on making renewable energy cost-competitive with coal-fired power as quickly as possible, but this may not continue after UN's Copenhagen climate change conference in December, 2009, because of the Bank's continued investment in coal-fired power plants.^[30]

Training wings[link]

World Bank Institute[link]

The World Bank Institute (WBI) creates learning opportunities for countries, World Bank staff and clients, and people committed to poverty reduction and sustainable development. WBI's work program includes training, policy consultations, and the creation and support of knowledge networks related to international economic and social development.

Global Development Learning Network[link]

The Global Development Learning Network (GDLN) is a partnership of over 120 learning centers (GDLN Affiliates) in nearly 80 countries around the world. GDLN Affiliates collaborate in holding events that connect people across countries and regions for learning and dialogue on development issues.

GDLN clients are typically NGOs, government, private sector and development agencies who find that they work better together on subregional, regional or global development issues using the facilities and tools offered by GDLN Affiliates. Clients also benefit from the ability of Affiliates to help them choose and apply these tools effectively, and to tap development practitioners and experts worldwide. GDLN Affiliates facilitate around 1000 videoconference-based activities a year on behalf of their clients, reaching some 90,000 people worldwide. Most of these activities bring together participants in two or more countries over a series of sessions. A majority of GDLN activities are organized by small government agencies and NGOs.

GDLN Asia Pacific[link]

The GDLN in the East Asia and Pacific region has experienced rapid growth and Distance Learning Centers now operate, or are planned in 20 countries: Australia, Mongolia, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Japan, Papua New Guinea, South Korea, Thailand, Laos, Timor Leste, Fiji, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal and New Zealand. With over 180 Distance Learning Centers, it is the largest development learning network in the Asia and Pacific region. The Secretariat Office of GDLN Asia Pacific is located in the Center of Academic Resources of Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.

GDLN Asia Pacific was launched at the GDLN’s East Asia and Pacific regional meeting held in Bangkok from 22 to 24 May 2006. Its vision is to become “the premier network exchanging ideas, experience and know-how across the Asia Pacific Region”. GDLN Asia Pacific is a separate entity to The World Bank. It has endorsed its own Charter and Business Plan and, in accordance with the Charter, a GDLN Asia Pacific Governing Committee has been appointed.

The committee comprises China (2), Australia (1), Thailand (1), The World Bank (1) and finally, a nominee of the Government of Japan (1). The organization is currently hosted by Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok, Thailand, founding member of the GDLN Asia Pacific.

The Governing Committee has determined that the most appropriate legal status for the GDLN AP in Thailand is a “Foundation”. The World Bank is currently engaging a solicitor in Thailand to process all documentation in order to obtain this legal status.

GDLN Asia Pacific is built on the principle of shared resources among partners engaged in a common task, and this is visible in the organizational structures that exist, as the network evolves. Physical space for its headquarters is provided by the host of the GDLN Centre in Thailand – Chulalongkorn University; Technical expertise and some infrastructure is provided by the Tokyo Development Learning Centre (TDLC); Fiduciary services are provided by Australian National University (ANU) Until the GDLN Asia Pacific is established as a legal entity tin Thailand, ANU, has offered to assist the governing committee, by providing a means of managing the inflow and outflow of funds and of reporting on them. This admittedly results in some complexity in contracting arrangements, which need to be worked out on a case by case basis and depends to some extent on the legal requirements of the countries involved.

Country assistance strategies[link]

As a guideline to the World Bank's operations in any particular country, a Country Assistance Strategy is produced, in cooperation with the local government and any interested stakeholders and may rely on analytical work performed by the Bank or other parties.

Clean Air Initiative [link]

Clean Air Initiative (CAI)^[31] is a World Bank initiative to advance innovative ways to improve air quality in cities through partnerships in selected regions of the world by sharing knowledge and experiences. It includes electric vehicles.

United Nations Development Business[link]

Based on an agreement between the United Nations and the World Bank in 1981, Development Business became the official source for World Bank Procurement Notices, Contract Awards, and Project Approvals.^[32] In 1998, the agreement was re-negotiated, and included in this agreement was a joint venture to create an electronic version of the publication via the World Wide Web. Today, Development Business is the primary publication for all major multilateral development banks, United Nations agencies, and several national governments, many of whom have made the publication of their tenders and contracts in Development Business a mandatory requirement.^[33] Currently, the subscription to "online version only" is not free, but costs US$ 550.^[34]

The World Bank or the World Bank Group is also a sitting observer in the United Nations Development Group.^[35]

Criticisms[link]

The World Bank has long been criticized by non-governmental organizations, such as the indigenous rights group Survival International, and academics, including its former Chief Economist Joseph Stiglitz who is equally critical of the International Monetary Fund, the US Treasury Department, US and other developed country trade negotiators.^[36] Critics argue that the so-called free market reform policies which the Bank advocates are often harmful to economic development if implemented badly, too quickly ("shock therapy"), in the wrong sequence or in weak, uncompetitive economies.^[36][37]

One of the strongest criticisms of the World Bank has been the way in which it is governed. While the World Bank represents 186 countries, it is run by a small number of economically powerful countries. These countries (which also provide most of the institution's funding) choose the leadership and senior management of the World Bank, and so their interests dominate the bank.^[38]

In the 1990s, the World Bank and the IMF forged the Washington Consensus, policies which included deregulation and liberalization of markets, privatization and the downscaling of government. Though the Washington Consensus was conceived as a policy that would best promote development, it was criticized for ignoring equity, employment and how reforms like privatization were carried out. Joseph Stiglitz argued that the Washington Consensus placed too much emphasis on the growth of GDP, and not enough on the permanence of growth or on whether growth contributed to better living standards.^[39]

Some analysis shows that the World Bank has increased poverty and been detrimental to the environment, public health and cultural diversity.^[40]

Criticism of the World Bank often takes the form of protesting as seen in recent events such as the World Bank Oslo 2002 Protests,^[41] the October Rebellion,^[42] and the Battle of Seattle.^[43] Such demonstrations have occurred all over the world, even amongst the Brazilian Kayapo people.^[44]

Another source of criticism has been the tradition of having an American head the bank, implemented because the United States provides the majority of World Bank funding. "When economists from the World Bank visit poor countries to dispense cash and advice," observed The Economist, as yet another American, Jim Yong Kim, was lined up in 2012, "they routinely tell governments to reject cronyism and fill each important job with the best candidate available. It is good advice. The World Bank should take it."^[45] Jim Yong Kim was duly named as president anyway.^[46]

Structural adjustment[link]

The effect of structural adjustment policies on poor countries has been one of the most significant criticisms of the World Bank. The 1979 energy crisis plunged many countries into economic crises.^[47] The World Bank responded with structural adjustment loans which distributed aid to struggling countries while enforcing policy changes in order to reduce inflation and fiscal imbalance. Some of these policies included encouraging production, investment and labour-intensive manufacturing, changing real exchange rates and altering the distribution of government resources.^[48] Structural adjustment policies were most effective in countries with an institutional framework that allowed these policies to be implemented easily.^[49] For some countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, economic growth regressed and inflation worsened.^[50] The alleviation of poverty was not a goal of structural adjustment loans, and the circumstances of the poor often worsened, due to a reduction in social spending and an increase in the price of food, as subsidies were lifted.^[51]

By the late 1980s, international organizations began to admit that structural adjustment policies were worsening life for the world's poor. The World Bank changed structural adjustment loans, allowing for social spending to be maintained, and encouraging a slower change to policies such as transfer of subsidies and price rises.^[52] In 1999, the World Bank and the IMF introduced the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach to replace structural adjustment loans.^[53] The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach has been interpreted as an extension of structural adjustment policies as it continues to reinforce and legitimize global inequities.^[54] Neither approach has addressed the inherent flaws within the global economy that contribute to economic and social inequities within developing countries.^[55] By reinforcing the relationship between lending and client states, many believe that the World Bank has usurped indebted countries' power to determine their own economic policy.^[56]

Sovereign immunity[link]

Despite claiming goals of "good governance and anti-corruption″^[57] the World Bank requires sovereign immunity from countries it deals with.^{[58][59][60][61][62]} Sovereign immunity waives a holder from all legal liability for their actions. It is proposed that this immunity from responsibility is a "shield which [The World Bank] wants resort to, for escaping accountability and security by the people."^[58] As the United States has veto power, it can prevent the World Bank from taking action against its interests.^[58]

References[link]

Notes[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• IBRD main page
• IDA main page
• Access to Information page

Jim Yong Kim 김용 金墉
President of the World Bank Group Elect
Taking office July 1, 2012
Nominated by	Barack Obama
Succeeding	Robert Zoellick
President of Dartmouth College
Incumbent
Assumed office July 1, 2009
Preceded by	James Wright
Succeeded by	TBD
Personal details
Born	(1959-12-08) December 8, 1959 (age 52) Seoul, South Korea
Spouse(s)	Younsook Lim
Children	2
Alma mater	University of Iowa Brown University Harvard University
Profession	Physician

Jim Yong Kim (Hangul: 김용; Hanja: 金墉; born December 8, 1959) is a Korean-American physician and the president-elect of the World Bank. He has been President of Dartmouth College since 2009. He was formerly the Chair of the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine at Harvard Medical School, and a co-founder and executive director of Partners In Health.

On March 2, 2009, Kim was named as the 17th president of Dartmouth College, a position he formally assumed on July 1, 2009, becoming the first Asian-American president of an Ivy League institution.^[1][2]

On March 23, 2012, President Barack Obama announced that the United States would nominate Kim as the next president of the World Bank. On April 16, Kim was elected to head the World Bank and will take office on July 1.^[3]

Background[link]

Born in Seoul, South Korea in 1959, Jim Yong Kim moved with his family to the U.S. at the age of five and grew up in Muscatine, Iowa. His father taught dentistry at the University of Iowa, while his mother received her PhD in philosophy.^[4] Kim attended Muscatine High School, where he was valedictorian, president of his class, and played both quarterback for the football team and point guard on the basketball team. After a year and a half at the University of Iowa, he transferred to Brown University, where he graduated magna cum laude with an A.B. in 1982. He was awarded an M.D. from Harvard Medical School in 1991, and a PhD from Harvard University, Department of Anthropology, in 1993.^[5] He was among the first enrollees of Harvard's experimental MD/PhD program in the social sciences.

Career[link]

Partners in Health (1987–2003)[link]

Jim Yong Kim, along with Paul Farmer, Todd McCormack, Thomas J. White and Ophelia Dahl, co-founded Partners In Health (PIH) in 1987. The organization began with radical new, community-focused health care programs in Haiti, which executed treatments based on local needs and by training community members to implement them. By the early 1990s, the program in Haiti was serving more than 100,000 people. It achieved remarkable success treating infectious diseases at low cost, spending $150 to $200 to cure tuberculosis patients in their homes, treatment that would have cost $15,000 to $20,000 in a U.S. hospital. Kim was instrumental in designing treatment protocols and cutting deals for cheaper, more effective drugs.

The PIH model was expanded to Peru in 1994. By 1998, extremely successful results curing both common and serious ailments prompted the World Health Organization to embrace the model, and support the adaptation of community-based care to impoverished communities around the world. Particular success in treating multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) prompted international organizations to rededicate efforts to the eradication of the disease, and in June 2002, the World Health Organization adopted prescriptions for dealing with the disease that were virtually the same as PIH had used in Peru. Kim's work with PIH to treat MDR-TB was the first large-scale attempt to treat the disease in a poor country, and the efforts have now been replicated in more than 40 countries around the world.^[6][7]

PIH now employs more than 13,000 people in 12 countries. Kim left the organization as Executive Director in 2003.^{[5][8][9][10]}

World Health Organization (2003–2006)[link]

Kim left PIH in 2003 to join the World Health Organization (WHO) as an adviser to the director-general. In March 2004, he was appointed as director of WHO’s HIV/AIDS department, after having success creating programs to fight the disease at PIH. Dr. Kim oversaw all of WHO’s work related to HIV/AIDS, focusing on initiatives to help developing countries scale up their treatment, prevention, and care programs. This included an ambitious “3x5 initiative” that was designed to put three million people in developing countries on AIDS treatment by the end of 2005. The goal was not met until 2007, but according to the WHO, served to push the treatment strategy for AIDS in Africa further and faster than could have otherwise been hoped.^[11][12] As of 2012, the program has treated more than 7 million Africans with HIV.^[13][14]

Harvard University (1993–2009)[link]

Beginning in 1993, Dr. Kim served as a lecturer at Harvard Medical School, eventually holding professorships in medicine, social medicine and human rights. At the time of his departure in 2009, Kim held positions as Chair of the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Chief of the Division of Global Health Equity at Brigham and Women’s Hospital, and Director of the François Xavier Bagnoud Center for Health and Human Rights at the Harvard School of Public Health.^[11][12][15]

Over his two decade career working to improve health in developing countries, Kim has been involved in a number of research and academic efforts. In recent years, Kim spearheaded the development of a new field focused on improving the implementation and delivery of health interventions in poor communities around the world. His programs operate with the philosophy that progress in developing more effective global health programs has been hindered by the paucity of large-scale systematic approaches to improving program design. This new field will rigorously gather, analyze, and widely disseminate a comprehensive body of practical, actionable insights on effective global health delivery. Towards these goals, Kim co-founded the Global Health Delivery Project, a joint initiative of Harvard Medical School’s Department of Social Medicine and the Harvard Business School’s Institute for Strategy and Competitiveness. The global health field case studies produced by this project form the core of a new global health delivery curriculum now taught at Harvard School of Public Health. Kim’s team also developed a web-based “community of practice”, GHDonline.org, to allow practitioners around the world to easily access information, share expertise, and engage in real-time problem solving.^[16]

During his time at Harvard, Kim published numerous articles for leading academic and scientific journals, including the New England Journal of Medicine, The Lancet, Science, and others; and contributed to several books. An expert in tuberculosis, Kim also chaired or served on a number of committees on international TB policy.^[15]

Cover of The Dartmouth, March 2, 2009, Global Health Leader Jim Yong Kim is Dartmouth's 17th President.^[17]

Dartmouth College (2009–present)[link]

In March 2009, Kim was named the 17th President of Dartmouth College, becoming the first Asian American to assume the post of president at an Ivy League institution. Kim has overseen the development of several innovative programs at Dartmouth, utilizing his past experience in health care and international affairs. In January 2010, Kim helped partner Dartmouth students and faculty with the organization he co-founded, Partners In Health, and other organizations, to respond to the devastating earthquake in Haiti, forming the Dartmouth Haiti Response. The initiative resulted in over $1 million in donations, the delivery of 18 tons of medical supplies and 25 volunteer medical professionals to Haiti, as well as hundreds of student volunteers contributing on campus.^[18][19] In April 2010, Kim launched the National College Health Improvement Project (NCHIP), which convenes a number of expert institutions to develop quantitative methods to address student health issues. The project launched its inaugural program, an effort to address binge drinking, in April 2011.^[20][21] In May 2010, Kim helped secure a $35 million anonymous grant to establish the Dartmouth Center for Health Care Delivery Science. The Center creates a groundbreaking new field of graduate study, fostering international collaboration between researchers and medical practitioners to design, implement, and scale new models of high-quality low-cost care.^[22][23] In 2012, following considerable concern^[24] and an extended effort by Kim to address sexual violence on campus, Dartmouth adopted a new campus-wide initiative to educate students on the importance of bystander intervention in sexual assault cases as part of a larger Sexual Assault Awareness Program.^[25][26]

Controversies during tenure[link]

In 2011, Kim was criticized for refusing to release the college's budget, prompting the passage of a resolution by faculty demanding more details.^[27][28] Kim answered this criticism by releasing a large supplementary report on the budget and holding a public meeting with faculty who afterward expressed satisfaction with the response.^[29] However, Kim did not address a request by the Student Assembly asking for access to information about all budget items exceeding $10,000.^[28] In 2011, a handful of editorials appeared in Dartmouth's student newspaper expressing dissatisfaction with Kim's presidency, with one describing Kim as "unpopular among many students these days."^[30][31] His leadership has also been criticized in the wake of a hazing scandal, which resulted in charges against the fraternity and the creation of a task force to address hazing; and amidst comments from some that Kim did not spend enough time on campus.^[32][33]

World Bank Presidency[link]

President Obama announces Dr. Jim Yong Kim as nominee to lead the World Bank.^[34]

On March 23, 2012, U.S. President Barack Obama announced his nomination of Jim Yong Kim to become the next president of the World Bank.^[35] That same day Jim Yong Kim sent a letter addressed to the Dartmouth Community stating that the position was "one of the most critical institutions fighting poverty and providing assistance to developing countries in the world today. After much reflection, I have accepted this nomination to national and global service" and that "if I am elected, our Board will take appropriate steps to ensure continuity of leadership and determine the timing of a search. For now, I remain president of Dartmouth."^[36]

On April 16, 2012, the World Bank officially elected Kim as its next president.^[37] He is the first Bank leader whose professional background is not in the political or financial sectors, and the first to have previous experience with dealing with issues of global poverty and experience with bringing healthcare in underdeveloped countries.^[38]

Personal life[link]

Kim, who is married to Younsook Lim, a pediatrician at Children's Hospital Boston, has two children, a son, Thomas, who was born in 2000, and a second son who was born on February 27, 2009, a few days before the announcement of Kim's presidency at Dartmouth College. He is actively involved in a variety of sports, including basketball, volleyball, tennis, and golf.^[15]

Kim also enjoys hip hop music.^[39]

Board memberships and honors[link]

Kim received a MacArthur Fellowship in 2003,^[40] was named one of America's 25 Best Leaders by US News & World Report in 2005, and in 2006 was listed as one of the top 100 most influential people in the world by Time Magazine.^[41] He serves on the Advisory Board of Incentives for Global Health, the NGO formed to develop the Health Impact Fund proposal. He is also a member of the Institute of Medicine of the U.S. National Academies.^[15] Kim was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2010.^[42]

References[link]

Publications[link]

• Farmer Paul E, Kim JY. Community-based approaches to the control of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: Introducing “DOTS-plus”. British Medical Journal 1998; 317:671-4.
• Becerra MC, Bayona J, Freeman J, Farmer PE, Kim JY. Redefining MDR-TB transmission “hot spots.” International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease 2000; 4(5):387-94.
• Farmer Paul, Leandre F, Mukherjee JS, Claude M, Nevil P, Smith-Fawzi MC, Koenig SP, Castro A, Becerra MC, Sachs J, Attaran A, Kim JY. Community-based approaches to HIV treatment in resource-poor settings. Lancet 2001; 358(9279):404-9.
• Farmer Paul, Leandre F, Mukherjee J, Gupta R, Tarter L, Kim JY. Community-based treatment of advanced HIV disease: Introducing DOT-HAART (Directly Observed therapy with highly active antiretroviral therapy). Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2001; 79(12):1145–51.
• Mitnick C, Bayona J, Palacios E, Shin S, Furin J, Alcántara F, Sánchez E, Sarria M, Becerra M, Fawzi MCS, Kapiga S, Neuberg D, Maguire JH, Kim JY, Farmer PE. Community-based therapy for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Lima, Peru. New England Journal of Medicine 2003; 348(2):119-28.
• Gupta Raj, Irwin A, Raviglione MC, Kim JY. Scaling up treatment for HIV/AIDS: Lessons learned from multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Lancet 2004; 363(9405):320-4.
• Kim Jim Yong, Farmer P. AIDS in 2006 – Moving toward one world, one hope? New England Journal of Medicine 2006; 355:645-7.
• Kim Jim Yong. Unexpected political immunity to AIDS. Lancet 2006; 368(9534):441-2.
• Kim Jim Yong. A lifelong battle against disease. U.S. News and World Report 2007; 143(18):62-4.
• Kim Jim Yong. Toward a Golden Age- Reflections on Global Health and Social Justice. Harvard International Review 2007; 29 (2): 20–25.
• Kim Jim Yong, Farmer Paul. Surgery and Global Health: A View from Beyond the OR. World Journal of Surgery 2008; 32(4): 533–6.
• Kim Jim Yong, Millen JV, A Irwin, J Gershman (eds.). Dying for Growth: Global Inequality and the Health of the Poor. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 2000.
• Jain Sachin H, Weintraub R, Rhatigan J, Porter ME, Kim JY. Delivering Global Health. Student British Medical Journal 2008; 16:27.[1]
• Kim Jim Yong, Rhatigan J, Jain SH, Weintraub R, Porter ME. From a declaration of values to the creation of value in global health: a report from Harvard University's Global Health Delivery Project. Glob Public Health. 2010 Mar; 5(2):181-8.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Jim Yong Kim

• Dartmouth Office of the President
• Profile at the Harvard Medical School Department of Global Health and Social Medicine
• Partners In Health
• Lecture by Jim Yong Kim on the Future of Global Health.
• Interview with Bill Moyers and Dr. Jim Yong Kim, September 11, 2009
• Dartmouth Inauguration Webcast, September 22, 2009
• Jim Yong Kim on Charlie Rose
• Appearances on C-SPAN
• Works by or about Jim Yong Kim in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
• Jim Yong Kim collected news and commentary at The New York Times

Sir James Wolfensohn KBE AO
9th President of the World Bank
In office 1 July 1995 – 30 June 2005
Preceded by	Lewis Preston
Succeeded by	Paul Wolfowitz
Personal details
Born	(1933-12-01) 1 December 1933 (age 78) Sydney, Australia
Nationality	Australian
Religion	Jewish
Website	http://www.wolfensohn.com/

Sir James David Wolfensohn KBE AO (born 1 December 1933) was the ninth president of the World Bank Group.

Early life[link]

James Wolfensohn was born in Sydney, Australia, on 1 December 1933. In his autobiography, A Global Life, he described that monetary insecurity was a fact of life from childhood and that he was always looking for a cushion to protect himself from it.^[1]

He was first educated at Woollahra Public School,^[1] then educated at Sydney Boys High School. He studied arts (BA) and law (LL.B) at the University of Sydney, and in 1959 earned a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree at Harvard Business School. In his 2010 memoirs he reveals he failed several university classes, including English, and was a 'late developer'. He was a member of the Australian fencing team at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne^[2] and an officer in the Royal Australian Air Force.^[3]

Business career[link]

Before attending Harvard, Wolfensohn was a lawyer in the Australian law firm of Allen, Allen & Hemsley in Sydney (now Allens Arthur Robinson).

Upon graduating from Harvard Business School, Wolfensohn worked briefly for Swiss cement giant Holderbank (now Holcim).^{[citation needed]} He then returned to his native Australia, where he worked for various banking institutions, including Darling & Co. In the late 1960s, he became a director of Darling's major shareholder J. Henry Schroder & Co, a London-based investment bank.^[1] He was a senior executive in the London office before becoming managing director of the bank's New York City office from 1970 to 1976.^{[citation needed]} He later became a senior executive at Salomon Brothers.

In 1979, he rescued Chrysler along with its boss Lee Iacocca and then President of the New York Fed Paul A. Volcker, who later became US Federal Reserve Bank chairman.^{[1][clarification needed]}

In 1980, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States, after it was rumored that he was a candidate to succeed Robert McNamara as president of the World Bank. After he was unsuccessful in this pursuit, he established his own investment firm, James D. Wolfensohn, Inc., along with partners including Paul A. Volcker. Upon accepting his nomination to serve as president of the World Bank in 1995, Wolfensohn divested of his ownership interest in James D. Wolfensohn, Inc. The firm was later bought by Bankers Trust.^[4]

In 2005, upon stepping down as president of the World Bank, he founded Wolfensohn & Company, LLC, a privately held firm that invests, and provides strategic consulting advice to governments and large corporations doing business, in emerging market economies.

Since 2006, Wolfensohn has also been the chairman of the International Advisory Board of Citigroup.^[5]

In 2009, he became a member of the International Advisory Council of the Chinese sovereign wealth fund China Investment Corporation.^[6]

In October 2010, Wolfensohn regained his Australian Citizenship.

World Bank tenure and other public service[link]

Wolfensohn (left) with U.S. President George W. Bush in the Oval Office, 2005.

Wolfensohn speaking at a press conference with Condoleezza Rice in 2006.

Wolfensohn became president of the World Bank on 1 July 1995 after he was nominated by U.S. President Bill Clinton. He was unanimously supported by the bank's board of executive directors to a second five-year term in 2000, becoming the third person to serve two terms in the position after Eugene R. Black and Robert McNamara. He visited more than 120 countries around the world during his term as president. He is credited, among other things, with being the first World Bank president to bring attention to the problem of corruption in the area of development financing.^[7]

On 3 January 2005, he announced that he would not seek a third term as president. During his term, the Alfalfa Club named him as their nominee for President of the United States in 2000 as part of a long-standing tradition, despite being constitutionally ineligible due to the natural-born citizen clause in Article II of the United States Constitution.^[8]

He also currently serves as an advisor to the Grassroots Business Fund^[9]

Civic and charitable activities[link]

In 2006, Wolfensohn founded the Wolfensohn Center for Development [2] at the Brookings Institution, a Washington, D.C.-based think tank.^[10] The center examines how to implement, scale up, and sustain development interventions to solve key development challenges at a national, regional, and global level and strives to bridge the gap between development theorists and practitioners. Current projects focus on youth exclusion in the Middle East, large-scale anti-poverty programs, reforms of global economic governance, and regional cooperation, particularly in Central Asia.

Wolfensohn is an honorary trustee of the Brookings Institution, and served as a trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation. He is a trustee and the former chairman of the board of trustees of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. He is also chairman emeritus of Carnegie Hall in New York and of the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C., and a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. He serves on the board of various charitable foundations, including the Wolfensohn Family Foundation. In July 2008, Wolfensohn was selected as one of the inaugural fellows of the Australian Institute of International Affairs.

Wolfensohn has attended meetings of the Bilderberg Group, the Aspen Institute, and the World Economic Forum.

In 2004, Wolfensohn was the commencement speaker at Brandeis University.^[11] Wolfensohn also sits on the board of Endeavor (non-profit).

Personal life and honors[link]

A friend of Jacqueline du Pré, he began cello studies with her at the age of 41 when she offered to teach him on the condition that he perform on his 50th birthday at Carnegie Hall in New York, which he did. He repeated the exercise on his 60th and 70th birthdays with Yo-Yo Ma and Bono.^[1] He continues to play and has appeared, together with musician friends, at private events at Carnegie Hall and elsewhere.

Wolfensohn has received numerous awards throughout his life, including becoming an honorary officer of the Order of Australia in 1987,^[12] and an honorary knighthood of the Order of the British Empire in 1995 for his service to the arts. The University of New South Wales conferred an honorary degree of Doctor of Science in 2006 and he is a recipient of The International Center in New York's Award of Excellence.

He is married to Elaine, née Botwinick, and has three grown children, Sara, Naomi, Adam, and seven grandchildren.

In New York, Wolfesohn found himself at a Jerusalem Foundation lunch next to Dorothy de Rothschild, widow of James. She could not tell him why his father suddenly had left Rothschild six decades earlier. But he was reassured that his father had been a "wonderful man".^[1]

In 2006, he received the Leo Baeck Medal for his humanitarian work promoting tolerance and social justice.

Further reading[link]

• James D. Wolfensohn: "Social Development", in: Frank-Jürgen Richter, Pamela Mar: Asia’s New Crisis, John Wiley 2004, ISBN 0-470-82129-9
• Sebastian Mallaby date The World's Banker. ISBN 1-59420-023-8. Critical biography by former The Economist writer and Washington Post contributor, emphasis on World Bank.
• James D. Wolfensohn and Andrew Kircher date Voice for the World's Poor: Selected Speeches and Writings of World Bank President James D. Wolfensohn, 1995–2005. ISBN 978-0-8213-6156-6. Collection of speeches, articles, memoranda and op-eds.
• James D. Wolfensohn 2010.A Global Life: My Journey among Rich and Poor, from Wall Street to the World Bank. Pan MacMillan. ISBN 978-1-58648-255-8. Memoirs.

References[link]

External links [link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: James Wolfensohn

• Wolfensohn and Company website

Biographies[link]

• World Bank biography
• Citigroup biography
• James D. Wolfensohn - Ten Years as World Bank Group President
• Who is James Wolfensohn?
• Endeavor biography

Documents[link]

• [3] Iraq: Paris Club Debt Relief. CRS Report for Congress. Updated 19 January 2005

"Iraq’s debts needed to be reduced by 33%, from roughly $120 billion to $80 billion in order to fund reconstruction needs and long-term economic development."

Robert Zoellick
President of the World Bank Group
Incumbent
Assumed office July 1, 2007
Nominated by	George W. Bush
Preceded by	Paul Wolfowitz
Succeeded by	Jim Yong Kim (Elect)
Deputy Secretary of State of the United States
In office February 22, 2005 – July 7, 2006
President	George W. Bush
Preceded by	Richard Armitage
Succeeded by	John Negroponte
Trade Representative of the United States
In office January 20, 2001 – February 22, 2005
President	George W. Bush
Preceded by	Charlene Barshefsky
Succeeded by	Rob Portman
Undersecretary of State for Economic and Agricultural Affairs of the United States
In office May 20, 1991 – August 23, 1992
President	George H. W. Bush
Preceded by	Richard McCormack
Succeeded by	Joan Spero
Counselor of the Department of State of the United States
In office March 2, 1989 – August 23, 1992
President	George H. W. Bush
Preceded by	Max Kampelman
Succeeded by	Tim Wirth
Personal details
Born	Robert Bruce Zoellick (1953-07-25) July 25, 1953 (age 58) Naperville, Illinois, U.S.
Political party	Independent (2006-present)
Other political affiliations	Republican Party (1989-2006)
Spouse(s)	Sherry Zoellick
Alma mater	Swarthmore College Harvard University
Religion	Lutheranism[1]

Robert Bruce Zoellick (/ˈzɛlɪk/; German: [ˈtsœlɪk]; born July 25, 1953) is the eleventh president of the World Bank, a position he has held since July 1, 2007.^[2] He was previously a managing director of Goldman Sachs,^[3] United States Deputy Secretary of State (resigning on July 7, 2006) and U.S. Trade Representative, from February 7, 2001 until February 22, 2005.

President George W. Bush nominated Zoellick on May 30, 2007 to replace Paul Wolfowitz as President of the World Bank.^[4] On June 25, 2007, Zoellick was approved by the World Bank's executive board.^[2][5]

Background[link]

Zoellick was born in Naperville, Illinois, the son of Gladys and William T. Zoellick.^[6] His family is of German origin^[7] and he was raised Lutheran.^[1] He graduated in 1971 from Naperville Central High School, graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1975 from Swarthmore College as a history major, and received his J.D. from Harvard Law School and a Master of Public Policy degree from Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government in 1981.^[8][9][10]

Career[link]

Judicial clerkship (1982–1983)[link]

Upon graduation from Harvard Law School Zoellick served as a law clerk for Judge Patricia Wald on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit.

Government service (1985–1992)[link]

Zoellick served in various positions at the Department of the Treasury from 1985 to 1988. He held positions including Counselor to Secretary James Baker, Executive Secretary of the Department, and Deputy Assistant Secretary for Financial Institutions Policy.

During George H. W. Bush's presidency, Zoellick served with Baker, by then Secretary of State, as Under Secretary of State for Economic and Agricultural Affairs, as well as Counselor to the Department (Under Secretary rank). In August 1992, Zoellick was appointed White House Deputy Chief of Staff and Assistant to the President.^[8] Zoellick was also appointed Bush's personal representative for the G7 Economic Summits in 1991 and 1992.

Business, academia, and politics (1993–2001)[link]

After leaving government service, Zoellick served from 1993 to 1997 as an Executive Vice President of Fannie Mae.^[11][12] Afterwards, Zoellick was appointed as the John M. Olin Professor of National Security at the U.S. Naval Academy (1997–98); Research Scholar at the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs at the John F. Kennedy School of Government; and Senior International Advisor to Goldman Sachs.^[9][12]

Zoellick signed the January 26, 1998 letter^[13] to President Bill Clinton from Project for a New American Century (PNAC) that advocated war against Iraq.

During 1999 Zoellick was, for a short period, the head of the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS).^[14]

Also during 1999, Zoellick served on a panel that offered Enron executives briefings on economic and political issues.^[15]

In the 2000 presidential election campaign, Zoellick served as a foreign policy advisor to George W. Bush as part of a group, led by Condoleezza Rice, that called itself The Vulcans. James Baker designated him as his second-in-command—"a sort of chief operating officer or chief of staff"—in the 36-day battle over recounting the vote in Florida.^[16]

U.S. Trade Representative (2001–2005)[link]

Zoellick was named U.S. Trade Representative in Bush's first term; he was a member of the Executive Office, with the rank of Ambassador. According to the U.S. Trade Representative website, Zoellick completed negotiations to bring China and Taiwan into the World Trade Organization (WTO); developed a strategy to launch new global trade negotiations at the WTO meeting in Doha, Qatar; shepherded Congressional action on the Jordan Free Trade Agreement and the Vietnam Trade Agreement; and worked with Congress to pass the Trade Act of 2002, which included new Trade Promotion Authority.^[9] He also heavily promoted the Central American Free Trade Agreement over the objections of labor, environmental, and human rights groups.^[17]

Zoellick played a key role in the U.S.-WTO dispute against the European Union over genetically modified foods. The move sought to require that the European Union comply with international obligations to use science-based methods in continuing its moratorium on the approval of new genetically modified crops within the E.U.^[18]

Deputy Secretary of State (2005–2006)[link]

Zoellick (right) with Jan Pronk, the United Nations' special representative to Sudan.

On January 7, 2005, Bush nominated Zoellick to be Deputy Secretary of State.^[19] Zoellick assumed the office on February 22, 2005. The New York Times reported on May 25, 2006 that Zoellick could soon announce his departure. Zoellick agreed to serve as Deputy Secretary of State for not less than one year. He was seen as a major architect of the Bush administration’s policies regarding China.

On September 21, 2005, Zoellick created a major stir on both sides of the Pacific by giving a remarkably candid speech to the National Committee on U.S.-China Relations. In the speech, he not only introduced the notion of China as a "responsible stakeholder" in the international community but sought to allay fears in the US of ceding dominance to China.^[20]

In addition, Zoellick chartered a new direction in the Darfur peace process.^[21] During a trip to a Darfur refugee camp in 2005, he wore a bracelet with the motto, "Not on our watch." Zoellick was seen by many as the administration's strongest voice on Darfur. His resignation catalyzed groups, such as the Genocide Intervention Network, to praise his record on human rights issues.^[22]

President of the World Bank (2007–2012)[link]

Zoellick officially took office as President of the World Bank on July 1, 2007.

In a major speech at the National Press Club in Washington on October 10, 2007, Zoellick formulated what he described as "six strategic themes in support of the goal of an inclusive and sustainable globalization" which he proposed should guide the future work of the World Bank:

First, the World Bank Group faces the challenge of helping to overcome poverty and spur sustainable growth in the poorest countries, especially in Africa... Second, we need to address the special problems of states coming out of conflict or seeking to avoid the breakdown of the state... Third, the World Bank Group needs a more differentiated business model for the middle income countries... Fourth, the World Bank Group will need to play a more active role in fostering regional and global public goods that transcend national boundaries and benefit multiple countries and citizens... Fifth, one of the most notable challenges of our time is how to support those seeking to advance development and opportunities in the Arab World... Finally, while the World Bank Group has some of the attributes of a financial and development business, its calling is much broader. It is a unique and special institution of knowledge and learning. It collects and supplies valuable data. Yet this is not a university – rather it is a “brain trust” of applied experience that will help us to address the five other strategic themes.^[23]

During Zoellick's time at the World Bank, the institution's capital stock has been expanded^[24] and lending volumes increased to help member countries deal with the global financial and economic crisis;^[24] assistance has been stepped-up to deal with the famine in the Horn of Africa;^[25] a major increase in resources has been achieved for the institution's soft loan facility, the International Development Association (IDA), which lends to the poorest countries;^[26] and a reform has been carried out to the World Bank's shareholding, Executive Board and voting structure, to increase the influence of developing and emerging economies in the World Bank's governance.^[27]

Possible successors[link]

United States Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton, the former U.S. First Lady and former U.S. Senator from New York, has frequently been mentioned as a possible successor to President Zoellick at the end of his term in mid-2012. Clinton has publicly expressed the desire to hold no further political office (specifically ruling out another four years as U.S. Secretary of State in a possible second Obama term). Anonymous sources cited by Huffington Post claimed that Clinton had been in discussions with the White House about leaving her present position to assume leadership of the World Bank. The White House declined to comment and a spokesman for Clinton was quoted by Huffington Post as denying that Clinton wanted the job or had held conversations with the White House about it.^[28]

On March 23, 2012, President Barack Obama announced that the United States would nominate Jim Yong Kim as the next president of the World Bank.^[29]

Another very suitable candidate considered is Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, Minister of Finance of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.^[30][31] The African Union Commission has supported her candidacy.^[32] Former Colombia Finance Minister Jose Antonio Ocampo dropped out of the race and fully backed the election of Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala.^[33]

Board memberships and honors[link]

Zoellick has served as a board member for a number of private and public organizations, including Alliance Capital, Said Holdings, and the Precursor Group; as a member of the advisory boards of Enron^[34] and Viventures, a venture fund; and a director of the Aspen Institute's Strategy Group.

He has also served on the boards of the German Marshall Fund and the European Institute and on the World Wildlife Fund Advisory Council. He was a member of Secretary William Cohen's Defense Policy Board Advisory Committee.^{[citation needed]} He is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations.

In 1992, he received the Knight Commander's Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany for his eminent achievements in the course of German reunification. In 2002, he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from Saint Joseph's College in Rensselaer, Indiana.

Views[link]

Robert Zoellick with Shinzo Abe

In 2005 Tom Barry, the policy director of the International Relations Center, wrote that Zoellick "regards free trade philosophy and free trade agreements as instruments of U.S. national interests. When the principles of free trade affect U.S. short-term interests or even the interests of political constituencies, Zoellick is more a mercantilist and unilateralist than free trader or multilateralist."^[35]

Gavan McCormack has written that Zoellick used his perch as U.S. trade representative to advocate for Wall Street's policy goals abroad, as during a 2004 intervention in a key privatization issue in Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi's re-election campaign. McCormack has written, "The office of the U.S. Trade Representative has played an active part in drafting the Japan Post privatization law. An October 2004 letter from Robert Zoellick to Japan’s Finance Minister Takenaka Heizo, tabled in the Diet on August 2, 2005, included a handwritten note from Zoellick commending Takenaka. Challenged to explain this apparent U.S. government intervention in a domestic matter, Koizumi merely expressed his satisfaction that Takenaka had been befriended by such an important figure… It is hard to overestimate the scale of the opportunity offered to U.S. and global finance capital by the privatization of the Postal Savings System."^[36]

In a January 2000 Foreign Affairs essay entitled "Campaign 2000: A Republican Foreign Policy," he was one of the first of those now associated with Bush's foreign policy to invoke the notion of "evil," writing: "[T]here is still evil in the world—people who hate America and the ideas for which it stands. Today, we face enemies who are hard at work to develop nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons, along with the missiles to deliver them. The United States must remain vigilant and have the strength to defeat its enemies. People driven by enmity or by a need to dominate will not respond to reason or goodwill. They will manipulate civilized rules for uncivilized ends."^[37] The same essay praises the "idealism" of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson.^{[citation needed]} Two years earlier, Zoellick was one of the signatories (who also included Donald Rumsfeld, Paul Wolfowitz, Richard Perle, Elliott Abrams, Zalmay Khalilzad, John R. Bolton, Richard Armitage, and Bill Kristol) of a January 26, 1998 letter to President Bill Clinton drafted by the Project for the New American Century calling for "removing Saddam [Hussein]'s regime from power."^[13]

While in the position of Deputy Secretary of State, Zoellick visited Sudan four times. He supported expanding a United Nations force in the Darfur region to replace African Union soldiers. He was involved in negotiating a peace accord between the government of Sudan and the Sudan Liberation Army, signed in Abuja, Nigeria in May 2006.

Zoellick is considered an influential advocate of US-German relations. Fluent in German, he possesses considerable knowledge of Germany, the country of his family background.

In the lead-up to the 2010 G-20 Seoul summit and in the immediate wake of the U.S. elections and subsequent Fed QE2 monetary-policy move, Zoellick published a noted^[38] call for the return of some form of gold standard in a post-Bretton Woods II world.^[39] The reaction of economists to this suggestion was largely negative, dismissing a renewed gold standard as unrealistic.^[40]

See also[link]

• The Keynesian Resurgence of 2008 / 2009

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Robert Zoellick

• World Bank biography
• State Department biography
• Zoellick in Zmag
• "China and America: Power and Responsibility" – An address by Zoellick to the Asia Society Annual Dinner in New York, on February 25, 2004
• Robert Zoellick's list of federal campaign contributions
• Zoellick reports, clippings and sources
• Profile of Zoellick in the Harvard Law Record
• Appearances on C-SPAN
• Robert Zoellick on Charlie Rose
• Robert Zoellick at the Internet Movie Database
• Robert Zoellick collected news and commentary at The New York Times
• Robert Zoellick collected news and commentary at The Wall Street Journal
• Works by or about Robert Zoellick in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
• Robert Zoellick at the Notable Names Database

v t e Deputy Secretary of State of the United States of America John N. Irwin, II · Kenneth Rush · Robert S. Ingersoll · Charles W. Robinson · Warren Christopher · William P. Clark · Walter John Stoessel, Jr. · Kenneth W. Dam · John C. Whitehead · Lawrence Eagleburger · Clifton R. Wharton, Jr. · Strobe Talbott · Richard Armitage · Robert Zoellick · John Negroponte · James Steinberg · William Joseph Burns

v t e United States Trade Representative Christian Herter (1962) William M. Roth (1967) Carl J. Gilbert (1969) William D. Eberle (1971) Frederick B. Dent (1975) Robert S. Strauss (1977) Reubin Askew (1979) William E. Brock III (1981) Clayton K. Yeutter (1985) Carla A. Hills (1989) Mickey Kantor (1993) Charlene Barshefsky (1997) Robert Zoellick (2001) Rob Portman (2005) Susan Schwab (2006) Ron Kirk (2009)