An explosion is a rapid increase in volume and release of energy in an extreme manner, usually with the generation of high temperatures and the release of gases. An explosion creates a shock wave. If the shock wave is a supersonic detonation, then the source of the blast is called a "high explosive". Subsonic shock waves are created by low explosives through the slower burning process known as deflagration.

Causes [link]

Natural[link]

Explosions can occur in nature. Most natural explosions arise from volcanic processes of various sorts. Explosive volcanic eruptions occur when magma rising from below has much dissolved gas in it; the reduction of pressure as the magma rises causes the gas to bubble out of solution, resulting in a rapid increase in volume. Explosions also occur as a result of impact events and in phenomena such as hydrothermal explosions (also due to volcanic processes). Explosions can also occur outside of Earth in the universe in events such as supernova. Explosions frequently occur during Bushfires in Eucalyptus forests where the volatile oils in the tree tops suddenly combust.

Animal bodies can also be explosive, as some animals hold a large amount of flammable material such as animal fat. This, in rare cases, results in naturally exploding animals.

Astronomical[link]

Among the largest known explosions in the universe are supernovae, which result when a star explodes from the sudden starting or stopping of nuclear fusion, and gamma ray bursts, whose nature is still in some dispute. Solar flares are an example of explosion common on the Sun, and presumably on most other stars as well. The energy source for solar flare activity comes from the tangling of magnetic field lines resulting from the rotation of the Sun's conductive plasma. Another type of large astronomical explosion occurs when a very large meteoroid or an asteroid impacts the surface of another object, such as a planet.

Chemical[link]

The most common artificial explosives are chemical explosives, usually involving a rapid and violent oxidation reaction that produces large amounts of hot gas. Gunpowder was the first explosive to be discovered and put to use. Other notable early developments in chemical explosive technology were Frederick Augustus Abel's development of nitrocellulose in 1865 and Alfred Nobel's invention of dynamite in 1866. Chemical explosions (both intentional and accidental) are often initiated by an electric spark or flame. Accidental explosions may occur in fuel tanks, rocket engines, etc.

Electrical and magnetic[link]

A high current electrical fault can create an ''electrical explosion'' by forming a high energy electrical arc which rapidly vaporizes metal and insulation material. This arc flash hazard is a danger to persons working on energized switchgear. Also, excessive magnetic pressure within an ultra-strong electromagnet can cause a ''magnetic explosion''.

Mechanical and vapor[link]

Strictly a physical process, as opposed to chemical or nuclear, e.g., the bursting of a sealed or partially sealed container under internal pressure is often referred to as a 'mechanical explosion'. Examples include an overheated boiler or a simple tin can of beans tossed into a fire.

Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosions are one type of mechanical explosion that can occur when a vessel containing a pressurized liquid is ruptured, causing a rapid increase in volume as the liquid evaporates. Note that the contents of the container may cause a subsequent chemical explosion, the effects of which can be dramatically more serious, such as a propane tank in the midst of a fire. In such a case, to the effects of the mechanical explosion when the tank fails are added the effects from the explosion resulting from the released (initially liquid and then almost instantaneously gaseous) propane in the presence of an ignition source. For this reason, emergency workers often differentiate between the two events.

Nuclear[link]

In addition to stellar (star) nuclear explosions, a man-made nuclear weapon is a type of explosive weapon that derives its destructive force from nuclear fission or from a combination of fission and fusion. As a result, even a nuclear weapon with a small yield is significantly more powerful than the largest conventional explosives available, with a single weapon capable of completely destroying an entire city.

Properties of explosions[link]

Force[link]

Explosive force is released in a direction perpendicular to the surface of the explosive. If the surface is cut or shaped, the explosive forces can be focused to produce a greater local effect; this is known as a shaped charge.

Velocity[link]

The speed of the reaction is what distinguishes the explosive reaction from an ordinary combustion reaction . Unless the reaction occurs rapidly, the thermally expanded gases will be dissipated in the medium, and there will be no explosion. Again, consider a wood or coal fire. As the fire burns, there is the evolution of heat and the formation of gases, but neither is liberated rapidly enough to cause an explosion. This can be likened to the difference between the energy discharge of a battery, which is slow, and that of a flash capacitor like that in a camera flash, which releases its energy all at once.

Evolution of heat[link]

The generation of heat in large quantities accompanies most explosive chemical reaction. The exceptions are called entropic explosives and include organic peroxides such as acetone peroxide It is the rapid liberation of heat that causes the gaseous products of most explosive reactions to expand and generate high pressures. This rapid generation of high pressures of the released gas constitutes the explosion. The liberation of heat with insufficient rapidity will not cause an explosion. For example, although a pound of coal yields five times as much heat as a pound of nitroglycerin, the coal cannot be used as an explosive because the rate at which it yields this heat is quite slow. In fact, a substance which burns less rapidly (''i.e.'' slow combustion) may actually evolve more total heat than an explosive which detonates rapidly (''i.e.'' fast combustion). In the former, slow combustion converts more of the internal energy (''i.e.'' chemical potential) of the burning substance into heat released to the surroundings, while in the latter, fast combustion (''i.e.'' detonation) instead converts more internal energy into work on the surroundings (''i.e.'' less internal energy converted into heat); ''c.f.'' heat and work (thermodynamics) are equivalent forms of energy. See Heat of Combustion for a more thorough treatment of this topic.

When a chemical compound is formed from its constituents, heat may either be absorbed or released. The quantity of heat absorbed or given off during transformation is called the heat of formation. Heats of formations for solids and gases found in explosive reactions have been determined for a temperature of 15 °C and atmospheric pressure, and are normally given in units of kilocalories per gram-molecule. A negative value indicates that heat is absorbed during the formation of the compound from its elements; such a reaction is called an endothermic reaction. In explosive technology only materials that are exothermic—that have a net liberation of heat—are of interest. Reaction heat is measured under conditions either of constant pressure or constant volume. It is this heat of reaction that may be properly expressed as the "heat of explosion."

Initiation of reaction [link]

A chemical explosive is a compound or mixture which, upon the application of heat or shock, decomposes or rearranges with extreme rapidity, yielding much gas and heat. Many substances not ordinarily classed as explosives may do one, or even two, of these things.

A reaction must be capable of being initiated by the application of shock, heat, or a catalyst (in the case of some explosive chemical reactions) to a small portion of the mass of the explosive material. A material in which the first three factors exist cannot be accepted as an explosive unless the reaction can be made to occur when needed.

Statement [link]

Fragmentation is the accumulation and projection of particles as the result of a high explosives detonation. Fragments could be part of a structure such as a magazine. High velocity, low angle fragments can travel hundreds or thousands of feet with enough energy to initiate other surrounding high explosive items, injure or kill personnel and damage vehicles or structures.

Notable explosions [link]

Chemical explosions[link]

Nanaimo mine explosion 1887

Halifax Explosion 1917

Battle of Messines 1917

Oppau explosion, Ludwigshafen, Germany 1921

Bombay Explosion (1944)

Port Chicago disaster 1944

RAF Fauld explosion 1944

Texas City Disaster 1947

Nedelin catastrophe 1960

Soviet N1 rocket explosion 1969

Flixborough disaster 1974

PEPCON disaster, Henderson, Nevada 1988

Ryongchon disaster 2004

2005 Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal fire 2005

Albania explosion Gerdec 2008

Cataño oil refinery fire 2009

Nuclear testing[link]

Trinity test

Castle Bravo

Tsar Bomba

Use in war[link]

Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Hand grenades

Exploding volcanoes[link]

Santorini

Krakatoa

Mount St. Helens

Mount Tambora

Mount Pinatubo

Yellowstone Caldera

See also[link]

Deflagration

Detonation

Dust explosion

Explosion protection

Explosive limit

Fuel tank explosion

Implosion (mechanical process)

Internal combustion engine

Underwater explosion

Unexplained explosion event

Mushroom cloud

Piston engine

Plofkraak

Standards for electrical equipment in potentially explosive environments

References [link]

External links[link]

YouTube video blast wave in slow motion

Explosions: Most Dramatic Photos — slideshow by ''Life magazine''

Category:Hazards

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Name	Daddy Yankee
Background	solo_singer
Birth name	Ramón Ayala
Alias	Winchester 30-30El CangriEl JefeThe Big BossDYEl Máximo Lider
Birth date	February 03, 1977
Origin	San Juan, Puerto Rico
Genre	Reggaeton, Latin rap, hip-hop
Years active	1992–present
Label	El Cartel, Interscope, Sony Music Latin
Website	daddyyankee.com }}

Ramón Luis Ayala Rodríguez (born February 3, 1977), known artistically as Daddy Yankee, is a Latin Grammy Award-winning Puerto Rican reggaeton recording artist. Ayala was born in Río Piedras, the largest district of San Juan, where he became interested in music at a young age. In his youth he was interested in baseball, and aspired to become a Major League Baseball player. He was unable to continue this sport when he received an injury to one of his legs, leaving him unable to walk correctly. He then became involved in the underground rap movement that was in its early stages in Puerto Rico, later to be called reggaeton. After receiving lessons from several artists within the genre, he developed an independent career, first recording in a production titled ''Playero 37''. After this he began to produce independent albums. His first solo album was ''No Mercy''. He subsequently formed a duo with Nicky Jam, and then continued his solo career with the releases of ''El Cartel'' and ''El Cartel II''. This led him be one of many pioneers of the reggaeton genre earning him the nickname "El Cangri".

In 2002 ''El Cangri.com'' became Ayala's first album with international success, receiving coverage in the markets of New York and Miami. ''Barrio Fino'' was released in 2004, and the album received numerous awards, including Lo Nuestro Awards and a Latin Billboard, as well as receiving nominations for the Latin Grammy and MTV Video Music Awards. ''Barrio Fino'' performed well in the sales charts of the United States, Latin America, Europe, and Japan. On June 5, 2007, El Cartel Records released ''El Cartel: The Big Boss'', which was ranked as the top-selling album in Latin music genres in 2007. He promoted the album with an international tour which began in the United States and continued through Latin America, breaking attendance records in Ecuador and Bolivia.

His performances have appeared on more than 70 albums, including compilations such as ''Mas Flow 2'' and ''Blin Blin Vol. 1''. Outside of his work as a musician, Ayala has also worked as an actor and producer. Throughout his career, he has been generally reluctant to discuss his personal life, but has publicly expressed the importance of his wife and children to him.

Following the incident, he became interested in the underground movement, which at the time was in an early organizational stage. He also took more interest in the events that took place in the neighborhood in which he was raised, a public housing project named Villa Kennedy. Early in his career he attempted to imitate the style of Vico C. He went on to emulate other artists in the genre, including DJ Playero, DJ Nelson, and DJ Goldy, taking elements from their styles in order to develop an original style. In doing so, he eventually abandoned the traditional model of rap and became one of the first artists to perform reggaeton. Ayala first recorded with DJ Playero as a featured artist in a production titled ''Playero 37'', which was released in 1992.

Musical career[link]

Independent productions[link]

His first album, titled ''No Mercy'', was produced in 1995 when Ayala was eighteen years old. The production did not sell well, and he continued his work within the genre for the rest of the decade, eventually forming a duo with Nicky Jam. One of the duo's songs, "Posición", was included in the soundtrack of ''One Tough Cop'', a movie directed by Bruno Barreto, that was released in 1998. Beginning in 2000, Ayala began concentrating more on his solo career, releasing albums produced outside studios. The first production he released was titled ''El Cartel'', featuring elements of the mixtape style. In 2001 ''El Cartel II'' was released, a direct sequel to the previous production, and influenced by similar genres.

In 2005 ''El Cangri.com'' was released, and became the first album in Ayala's career to sell well outside Puerto Rico, mostly in the United States. The album was produced by VI Music, an independent recording studio in Puerto Rico, and was not supported by a major label. The most successful single from the album was "Latigazo", which received significant play on radio stations in New York and Miami. The album reached #43 on Billboard's Top Latin Albums chart. Following the release of this disc, Ayala performed at the Roberto Clemente Coliseum before 12,000 fans. The following year VI Music produced ''Los Homerun-es''. The album became the leader in sales in Puerto Rico during a year in which several other reggaeton artists released significant productions, including Luny Tune's ''Mas Flow'', Don Omar's ''The Last Don'', and Tego Calderón's ''El Abayarde''. The album's success helped Ayala receive the publicity required for a crossover to the United States market, and marked the last album he released with VI music before signing a contract with Universal

2004–2005[link]

Ayala's next album, ''Barrio Fino'', was produced by Luny Tunes and released in July 2004 by El Cartel Records and VI Music. It was the most highly anticipated album in the reggaeton community. Ayala had enjoyed Salsa music since he was young, and this led him to include music of genres besides reggaeton in the album. The most prominent of these cross-genre singles was "Melao", in which he performed with Andy Montañez. The album was described as his most complete, and with it he intended to introduce combinations of reggaeton and other genres to the English-speaking market. ''Barrio Fino'' was followed up by an international tour with performances in numerous countries including the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Honduras, Spain, Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela, and the United States. The album has sold over 500,000 copies in the United States alone and has sold well throughout Latin America and worldwide.

In 2005 Ayala won several international awards, making him one of the most recognized reggaeton artists within the music industry. The first award of the year was Lo Nuestro Awards within the "Latin music" category, which he received for ''Barrio Fino''. In this event he performed "Gasolina" in a performance that was described as "innovative". ''Barrio Fino'' also won the "Reggaeton Album of the Year" award in the Latin Billboard that took place on April 28, 2005, where he performed a mix of three of his songs in a duo with P. Diddy. The album was promoted throughout Latin America, the United States, and Europe, reaching certified gold in Japan. Due to the album's success, Ayala received promotional contracts with radio stations and soda companies, including Pepsi. His single "Gasolina" received the majority of votes cast for the second edition of ''Premios Juventud'', in which it received eight nominations and won seven awards. Ayala also made a live presentation during the award ceremony. "Gasolina" received nominations in the Latin Grammy and MTV Video Music Awards.

The successful single, "Gasolina", was covered by artists from different music genres. This led to a controversy when Los Lagos, a Mexican banda group, did a cover with the original beat but changed the song's lyrics. The group's label had solicited the copyright permission to perform the single and translate it to a different music style, but did not receive consent to change the lyrics; legal action followed. Speaking for the artist, Ayala's lawyer stated that having his songs covered was an "honor, but it must be done the right way."

2006–present[link]

On April 30, 2006, Ayala was named one of the 100 most influential people by Time magazine, which cited the 2 million copies of ''Barrio Fino'' sold, Ayala's $20 million contract with Interscope Records, and his Pepsi endorsement. During this period, Ayala and William Omar Landrón (more commonly known by his artistic name Don Omar) were involved in a rivalry within the genre, dubbed "tiraera". The rivalry received significant press coverage despite being denied early on by both artists. It originated with a lyrical conflict between the artists begun by Ayala's comments in a remix single, where he criticized Landron's common usage of the nickname "King of Kings". Don Omar responded to this in a song titled "Ahora Son Mejor", part of his album ''Los Rompediscotecas''.

''El Cartel: The Big Boss'' was released by Interscope on June 5, 2007. Ayala stated that the album marked a return to his hip-hop roots as opposed to being considered a strictly reggaeton album. The album was produced in 2006, and included the participation of will.i.am, Scott Storch, Tainy Tunes, Neli, and personnel from Ayala's label. Singles were produced with Héctor Delgado, Fergie, Nicole Scherzinger and Akon. The first single from the album was titled "Impacto", and was released prior to the completion of the album. The album was promoted by a tour throughout the United States, which continued throughout Latin America. He performed in Mexico, first in Monterrey, where 10,000 attended the concert, and later at San Luis Potosí coliseum, where the concert sold out, leaving hundreds of fans outside the building. Ayala performed in Chile as well, and established a record for attendance in Ecuador. He also performed in Bolivia, setting another record when 50,000 fans attended his Santa Cruz de la Sierra concert. This show was later described as "the best show with the biggest attendance in history" and as "somehappy that his album had sold more than those of Juan Luis Guerra and Juanes, and that this was an "official proof that reggaeton's principal exponent defeated the rest of the genres". Ayala made a guest appearance in an album titled "Caribbean he loved the color reed|Inner Circle]], Bounty Killer, Elephant Man and Wayne Wonder. In July 2008, Ayala announced that as part of his work, he would produce a cover version of Thalía's song, Ten Paciencia. Prior to the album's release, Ayala scheduled several activities, including an in-store contract signing. On February 27, 2009, he performed at the Viña del Mar International Song Festival in Chile. In this event, the artists receive awards based on the public's reaction. After performing "Rompe", "Llamado de emergencia", "Tú me dejaste caer", "Gasolina", "Limpia parabrisas" and "Lo que pasó, pasó" over the course of two hours, Ayala received the "Silver Torch", "Gold Torch" and "Silver Seagull" recognitions. On April 24, 2009, he received the Spirit of Hope Award as part of the Latin Billboard Music Awards ceremony. The recognition is given to the artists that participate in community or social efforts throughout the year. The single "Grito Mundial" was released on October 8, 2009, in order to promote his ninth album, ''Mundial''. Despite releasing "El Ritmo No Perdona (Prende)" more than a month before, that single was not considered the first official promotional single.

Film and other career projects[link]

Ayala has negotiated promotional deals with several companies outside of the music industry, releasing merchandise under his name. In 2005, he became the first Latin artist to sign a deal with Reebok, in order to produce accessories, including the licensed clothing line "DY", which was released in 2006. He also teamed up with the company to have his own shoes and sporting goods made, which were first distributed on May 23, 2006. Reebok continued the partnership with the introduction of the Travel Trainer collection in July 2007. In August 2007, Pepsi began an advertising campaign titled "Puertas", in which Ayala is depicted returning to his youth by opening a series of doors.

In 2008, Ayala participated in a campaign to promote voting in the 2008 general elections in Puerto Rico. This initiative included a concert titled "Vota o quédate callao". On August 25, 2008, Ayala endorsed John McCain's candidacy for President of the United States, stating that McCain "has been a fighter for the Hispanic community". As part of this campaign, Ayala moderated a debate titled “Vota o quédate callao: los candidatos responden a los jóvenes”, which was aired on October 9, 2008.

Ayala has worked in the film industry as both an actor and producer. His acting debut was the lead role of ''Vampiros'', a film directed by Eduardo Ortiz and filmed in Puerto Rico. The film premiered at the Festival of Latin American Cinema in New York, where it received a positive reaction. This led Image Entertainment to produce a DVD, internationally released in March 2005. Ayala played the main role "Edgar" in ''Talento de Barrio'', which was filmed in Puerto Rico and directed by José Iván Santiago. Ayala produced the film, which is based on his experience of growing up in a poor city neighborhood. While the film is not directly a biography, Ayala has stated that it mirrors his early life. ''Talento de Barrio's'' debut was scheduled for July 23, 2008, in New York's Latino Film Festival. After the premier, Ayala expressed satisfaction, saying that he had been invited to audition for other producers. On release, ''Talento de Barrio'' broke the record held by ''Maldeamores'' for the most tickets to a Puerto Rican movie sold in a single day in Caribbean Cinemas.

Ayala has been involved in the administration of three organizations, the first being El Cartel Records which he co-owns with Andres Hernandez. He also created the ''Fundación Corazón Guerrero'', a charitable organization in Puerto Rico which works with young incarcerated people. On April 26, 2008, he was presented with a "Latino of the Year Award" by the student organization ''Presencia Latina'' of Harvard College, receiving it for his work with Puerto Rican youth and creating ''Corazón Guerrero''. On February 6, 2008, Ayala announced in a Baloncesto Superior Nacional press conference that he had bought part of the Criollos de Caguas' ownership.

Personal life[link]

Ayala has kept most of his personal life private, rarely speaking about it in interviews. He has said that he avoids doing so because such details are the only aspect of his life that are not public and that they are like a "little treasure". He made an exception in 2006 when he spoke about his relationship with his wife and children in an interview with María Celeste Arrarás in Al Rojo Vivo. He stated that his marriage is strong because he and his wife are "friends above anything", adding that he has tried to ignore other temptations because "weakness is the reason for the downfall of several artists." He also described his "very close" communication with his children, in which he tries to offer advice against drugs and negative influences. His first daughter was born when he was seventeen years old, which he has described as confusing at first, adding that raising a daughter at that age was a hard experience.

Studio albums[link]

1995: ''No Mercy''

2002: ''El Cangri.com''

2004: ''Barrio Fino''

2007: ''El Cartel: The Big Boss''

2010: ''Daddy Yankee Mundial''

2012: ''Prestige''

Filmography[link]

;Film

! Year	! Title	! Role	! Note
2005	''Vampiros''	Bimbo
2008	''Talento de Barrio''	Edgar Dinero

;Television

! Year	! Title	! Role	! Note
2007		Daddy Yankee - Himself
2010	''The Bold and the Beautiful''	Daddy Yankee - Himself	6 episodes

See also[link]

Latin American music

List of Caribbean music genres

List of Puerto Ricans

List of Puerto Rican songwriters

Urban contemporary

References[link]

External links[link]

Official site

Category:1977 births Category:Living people Category:People from San Juan, Puerto Rico Category:American shooting survivors Category:Puerto Rican rappers Category:Puerto Rican reggaeton artists Category:Puerto Rican singers Category:Puerto Rican male singers Category:Latin Grammy Award winners Category:Spanish-language singers

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