A red team is a group of penetration testers that assess the security of an organization, which is often unaware of the existence of the team or the exact assignment. Red teams provide a more realistic picture of the security readiness than exercises, role playing, or announced assessments. Red team may trigger active controls and countermeasures in effect within a given operational environment.

In wargaming, the opposing force (or OPFOR) in a simulated military conflict may be referred to as a red team and may also engage in red team activity, which is used to reveal weaknesses in military readiness. The key theme is that the aggressor is composed of various threat actors, equipment, and techniques that are at least partially unknown by the defenders.

Some of the benefits of red team activities are that it challenges preconceived notions by demonstration; they also serve to elucidate the true problem state that planners are attempting to mitigate. Additionally, a more accurate understanding can be gained about how sensitive information is externalized, as well as highlight exploitable patterns and instances of undue bias with regard to controls and planning.

United States Army[link]

In the US Army, red teaming is defined as: “structured, iterative process executed by trained, educated and practiced team members that provides commanders an independent capability to continuously challenge plans, operations, concepts, organizations and capabilities in the context of the operational environment and from our partners’ and adversaries’ perspectives.” (TRADOC News Service, July 13, 2005) ^[1]

The Army Red Team Leaders Course is conducted by the University of Foreign Military and Cultural Studies (UFMCS) at Fort Leavenworth. The target students are graduates of the U.S. Army CGSC or equivalent intermediate and senior level school (Major through Colonel, and Chief Warrant Officer 3/4/5 with MEL IV qualification or equivalent).

The Red Team Leader’s Course (RTLC) is graduate-level education of 720 Academic Hours (18 weeks) designed to effectively anticipate change, reduce uncertainty, and improve operational decisions. The typical academic day is 8 hours and the typical reading load is 250 pages per night.^{[citation needed]}

The University of Foreign Military and Cultural Studies was formed as an outgrowth of recommendations from the Army Chief of Staff's Actionable Intelligence Task Force. UFMCS, as an element of the TRADOC (DCSINT) Intelligence Support Activity, or TRISA, located at Fort Leavenworth, KS, is an Army directed education, research and training initiative for Army organizations and other joint and government agencies designed to provide a Red Teaming capability.

A UFMCS-trained Red Team is educated to look at problems from the perspectives of the adversary and our multinational partners, with the goal of identifying alternative strategies. The Red Team provides commanders with critical decision-making expertise during planning and operations. The team’s responsibilities are broad—from challenging planning assumptions to conducting independent analysis to examining courses of action to identifying vulnerabilities.

Red Team Leaders are expert in:

1. Analyzing complex systems and problems from different perspectives to aid in decision making using models of theory.
2. An analysis of the concepts, theories, insights, tools and methodologies of cultural and military anthropology to predict other’s perceptions of our strengths and vulnerabilities.
3. Applying critical and creative thinking in the context of the operational environment to fully explore alternatives to plans, operations, concepts, organizations, and capabilities.
4. Applying advanced analytical skills and techniques at tactical level through strategic level and develop products supporting command decision making and operational execution.

[edit] U.S. Joint Forces Commands' Joint Enabling Capabilities Command (Now US Transportation Command's JECC)

Two operational positions associated with red teaming existed at the United States Joint Forces Command formerly called Blue Red Planners within the Standing Joint Force Headquarters (SJFHQs). These two positions, filled by Robert Yingling and John Boggs, now called Red Team Leaders (RTLs) were designed to provide the Joint Task Force Plans and Operations Groups with insight into the adversary’s political and military objectives and potential course of action (COA) in response to real or perceived Blue action. RTLs are the leads of a RT Cell composed of operationally oriented experts that analyze Blue conditions-driven COA from an adversary-based perspective. The RT Cell also anticipates potential adversary responses to counter Blue COA and end-state objectives. The RT also identifies critical Blue vulnerabilities and potential operational miscues. The RT cell also assists in war gaming, COA development early in the Joint Operations Planning Process (JOPP). RTLs, in collaboration with the Combatant Commander's staff and Centers of Excellence, provide in-depth knowledge of the local political landscape, of the adversary’s history, military doctrine, training, political and military alliances and partnerships, and strategic and operational objectives. The RTLs will postulate the adversary’s desired end-state, and also, postulate what the adversary may surmise Blue’s desired end-state or objectives to be. Finally, the RTLs help identify, validate, and/or re-scope potential critical nodes identified through systems developed understanding of the operational environment.

United States Government[link]

Red teaming is normally associated with assessing vulnerabilities and limitations of systems or structures. Various watchdog agencies such as the Government Accountability Office and the National Nuclear Security Administration employ red teaming, sometimes with dramatic findings.

• In exercises and war games, red teaming refers to the work performed to provide an adversarial perspective, especially when this perspective includes plausible tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP) as well as realistic policy and doctrine.

Important cases[link]

The FAA has been implementing red teams since the Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. Red teams conduct tests at about 100 US airports annually. Tests were on hiatus after September 11, 2001 and resumed in 2003.^[2]

The FAA use of red teaming revealed severe weaknesses in security at Logan International Airport in Boston, where two of the four hijacked 9/11 flights originated. Some former FAA investigators who participated on these teams feel that the FAA deliberately ignored the results of the tests and that this resulted in part in the 9/11 terrorist attack on the US.

Other examples include:

• Billy Mitchell – a passionate early advocate of air power – demonstrated the obsolescence of battleships in bombings against the captured World War I German battleship Ostfriesland and the U.S. pre-dreadnought battleship Alabama.
• Rear Admiral Harry E. Yarnell demonstrated in 1932 the effectiveness of an attack on Pearl Harbor almost exactly showing how the tactics of the Japanese would destroy the fleet in harbor nine years later. Although the umpires ruled the exercise a total success, the umpire's report on the overall exercises makes no mention of the stunning effectiveness of the simulated attack. Their conclusion to what became known as Fleet Problem XIII was surprisingly quite the opposite:

It is doubtful if air attacks can be launched against Oahu in the face of strong defensive aviation without subjecting the attacking carriers to the danger of material damage and consequent great losses in the attack air force." ^[3]

Intelligence work[link]

When applied to intelligence work, red-teaming is sometimes called alternative analysis.^[4]

See also[link]

References[link]

1. ^ "TRADOC News Service". Tradoc.army.mil. http://www.tradoc.army.mil/pao/tnsarchives/July05/070205.htm. Retrieved 2011-07-19. 
2. ^ Deborah Sherman (30 March 2007). "Test devices make it by DIA security". Denver Post. http://www.denverpost.com/news/ci_5552494. 
3. ^ "Real Architect of Pearl Harbor, The – page 3 – Wings of Gold". http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3834/is_200504/ai_n15743392/pg_3. ^{[dead link]}
4. ^ Dr. Mark Matesk (June 2009). "Red Teaming: A Short Introduction (1.0)". http://redteamjournal.com/resources/. http://redteamjournal.com/papers/A%20Short%20Introduction%20to%20Red%20Teaming%20(1dot0).pdf. Retrieved 2011-07-19. 

• http://www.tradoc.army.mil/pao/tnsarchives/July05/070205.htm

External links[link]

• FAA Red Team leader Bogdan Dzakovic's report to the 911 commission
• GAO Red Team reveals Nuclear material can easily be smuggled into the United States years after 911 attack.
• Proactive Risk
• Lares Red Team
• Sandia Red Team.
• Red Team Final Report.^{[dead link]}
• Officers With PhDs Advising War Effort
• Red Team U. creates critical thinkers
• Red Team Journal
• Reflections from a Red Team Leader – From Military Review
• Red Teaming: A Short Introduction – Mark Mateski – June 2009
• Defense Science Board – Task Force on The Role and Status of DoD Red Teaming Activities
• – A GUIDE TO RED TEAMING – DCDC GUIDANCE NOTE – United Kingdom

Red
— Spectral coordinates —
Wavelength		~620–740[1][2] nm
Frequency		~480–400 THz
— Common connotations —
Aggression, anger, love, negativity, passion, socialism, communism, Valentine's Day, heat, fire, beauty, hunger, leadership, masculinity, injury, danger, blood, Christmas, volcanoes, conservatism (US), error, courage, stop, failure, drug intolerance, wrong way, death, Christianity, war
— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet		#FF0000
sRGBB	(r, g, b)	(255, 0, 0)
Source		X11
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

Red is any of a number of similar colors evoked by light consisting predominantly of the longest wavelengths discernible by the human eye, in the wavelength range of roughly 630–740 nm.^[2] Longer wavelengths just past this range are called infrared (below red) and cannot be seen by the naked eye although they can be sensed as heat. In some cultures, certain shades of red are used to symbolize anger or aggression.

It is the color of blood when it is exposed to sunlight. In western countries, it is most commonly referred to as a color of evil, love, and sometimes, though rarely, happiness.

Etymology and definitions[link]

The word red comes from the Old English rēad.^[3] The word can be further traced to the Proto-Germanic rauthaz and the Proto-Indo European root reudh-. In Sanskrit, the word rudhira means red or blood. In the English language, the word red is associated with the color of blood, certain flowers (e.g., roses), and ripe fruits (e.g., apples, cherries). Fire is also strongly connected, as is the sun and the sky at sunset. Healthy, light-skinned people are sometimes said to have a "ruddy" complexion (as opposed to appearing pale). After the rise of socialism in the mid-19th century, red was used to symbolize and describe revolutionary movements.^[4]

In science[link]

Red blood cell agar

Colorimetry, color science, photography[link]

Red is any of a number of similar colors evoked by light, consisting predominantly of the longest wavelengths of light discernible by the human eye in the wavelength range of approximately 630–700 nm.^[2] Longer wavelengths just past this range are called infrared, or below red, and cannot be seen by human eyes, although they can be sensed as heat.^[5] Red's wavelength has been an important factor in laser technologies; red lasers, used in early compact disc technologies, are being replaced by blue lasers, as red's longer wavelength causes the laser's recordings to take up more space on the disc than would blue-laser recordings.^[6] A main theory for why primates developed sensitivity to red is that it allowed ripe fruit to be distinguished from unripe fruit and inedible vegetation.^[7] This further drove other adaptations taking advantage of this new ability, such as red faces.^[8] Red light is also used to preserve night vision in low-light or night time situations, as the rod cells in the human eye are not sensitive to red.^[9][10] Red is one of the three additive primary colors of light, complementary to cyan, in RGB color systems. Red is also one of the three subtractive primary colors of RYB color space, but not of CMYK color space.^[11]

One common use of red as an additive primary color is in the RGB color model. Because red is not by itself standardized, color mixtures based on red are not exact specifications of color either. The United States government sets certain specifications for what paints to use when red is stated in a design.^[12] In order for computers to produce exact colors, the color red needs to be defined in terms of an absolute color space, such as sRGB^[13] color correction (so that a standardized red is produced that is not in fact the full intensity of only the red colorant).

Red illumination was (and sometimes still is) used as a safelight while working in a darkroom as it does not expose most photographic paper and some films.^[14] Though many more modern darkrooms use an amber safelight, red illumination is closely associated with the darkroom in the public mind.

Lasers[link]

Lasers emitting in the red region of the spectrum have been available since the invention of the ruby laser in 1960. In 1962 the red helium-neon laser was invented,^[15] and these two types of lasers were widely used in many scientific applications including holography, and in education. Red helium-neon lasers were used commercially in LaserDisc players. The use of red laser diodes became widespread with the commercial success of modern DVD players, which use a 660 nm laser diode technology. Today, red and red-orange laser diodes are widely available to the public in the form of extremely inexpensive laser pointers. Portable, high-powered versions are also available for various applications.^[16] More recently, 671 nm diode-pumped solid state (DPSS) lasers have been introduced to the market for all-DPSS laser display systems, particle image velocimetry, Raman spectroscopy, and holography.^[17]

In nature[link]

Mars possesses a distinct red color, particularly when seen up close

Mars is called the Red Planet because of the reddish color imparted to its surface by the abundant iron oxide present there.^[18] Astronomical objects that are moving away from the observer exhibit a Doppler red shift. Jupiter's surface displays a Great Red Spot caused by an oval-shaped gigantic storm south of the planet's equator.^[19] Many elements exhibit a red color when burned: calcium, for example, produces a brick-red when combusted.^[20]

Oxygenated blood is red due to the presence of oxygenated hemoglobin.^[21] When used to describe natural animal coloration, "red" usually refers to a brownish, reddish-brown or ginger color. In this sense it is used to describe coat colors of reddish-brown cattle and dogs, and in the names of various animal species or breeds such as red fox, red squirrel, red deer, Robin redbreast, Red Grouse, Red Knot, Redstart, Redwing, Red Setter, Red Devon cattle, etc. This reddish-brown color is also meant when using the terms red ochre, red hair and Red Indian. The red herring dragged across a trail to destroy the scent gets its color from the heavy salting and slow smoking of the fish, which results in a warm, brown color. When used for flowers, red often refers to purplish (red deadnettle, red clover, red helleborine) or pink (red campion, red valerian) colors.

Red is associated with dominance in a number of animal species.^[22] For example, in mandrills, red coloration of the face is greatest in alpha males, increasingly less prominent in lower ranking subordinates, and directly correlated with levels of testosterone.^[23] Red can also affect the perception of dominance by others, leading to significant differences in mortality, reproductive success and parental investment between individuals displaying red and those not.^[24] In humans, wearing red has been linked with increased performance in competitions, including professional sport^[25][26] and multiplayer video games.^[27] Controlled tests have demonstrated that wearing red does not increase performance or levels of testosterone during exercise, so the effect is likely to be produced by perceived rather than actual performance.^[28] Judges of tae kwon do have been shown to favor competitors wearing red protective gear over blue,^[29] and, when asked, a significant majority of people say that red abstract shapes are more "dominant", "aggressive", and "likely to win a physical competition" than blue shapes.^[22] In contrast to its positive effect in physical competition and dominance behavior, exposure to red decreases performance in cognitive tasks^[30] and elicits aversion in psychological tests where subjects are placed in an "achievement" context (e.g., taking an IQ test).^[31]

Symbolism[link]

Emotions[link]

Artificial red poppies, worn in some countries to commemorate those who died in war

Red is used as a symbol of guilt, sin, passion, and anger, often as connected with blood or sex.^[32] A biblical example is found in Isaiah: "Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be white as snow."^[33] Also, The Scarlet Letter, an 1850 American novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne, features a woman in a Puritan New England community who is punished for adultery with ostracism, her sin represented by a red letter 'A' sewn onto her clothes.^[34] This all comes from a general Hebrew view inherited by Christianity which associates red with the blood of murder,^[35] as well as with guilt in general. Often, objects meant to scare will be red.^[36] Another popular example is the phrase "caught red-handed", meaning either caught in an act of crime or caught with the blood of murder still on one's hands.^[37] At one one point, red became associated with prostitutes and brothels (red-light districts).^[38][39] In Roman Catholicism, red represents wrath, one of the Seven Deadly Sins. In Christianity, Satan is usually depicted as colored red and/or wearing a red costume in both iconography and popular culture.^[40] Statistics have shown that red cars are more likely to be involved in accidents.^[41]

The color red is associated with lust, passion, love, beauty, and danger. The association with love and beauty is possibly related to the use of red roses as a love symbol.^[42] Both the Greeks and the Hebrews considered red a symbol of love as well as sacrifice.^[43] Psychological research has shown that men find women who are wearing red more attractive.^[44]

Courage and sacrifice[link]

Red is used as a symbol of courage and sacrifice, as in blood spilt in sacrifice, or courage in the face of lethal danger.^[45] Examples are found in the flags of many nations, including the United States, as well as in the novel The Red Badge of Courage, in which a soldier in the American Civil War discovers the meaning of courage.^[46] In Christianity, red is the liturgical color for the feast of martyrs, representing the blood of those who suffered death for their faith. It is sometimes used as the liturgical color for Holy Week, including Palm Sunday and Good Friday, although this is a modern (20th century) development. It is also the liturgical color used to commemorate the Holy Spirit (for this reason it is worn at Pentecost and during Confirmation masses). Because of its association with martyrdom and the Spirit, it is also the color used to commemorate the Apostles (except for the Apostle St. John, who was not martyred, where white is used), and as such, it is used to commemorate bishops, who are the successors of the Apostles (for this reason, when funeral masses are held for bishops, cardinals, or popes, red is used instead of the white that would ordinarily be used). In Roman mythology red is associated with the god of war, Mars.^[45] A Roman general receiving a triumph had his entire body painted red in honor of his achievement.^[47] Red was also the traditional color of the uniforms worn by the British Army, and such British soldiers were often known as Redcoats. The phrase "red-blooded" describes someone who is audacious, robust, or virile.^[37] In Edward de Bono's book Six Thinking Hats, a red hat represents feelings and emotions.^[48]

Warning[link]

Stop sign used in various countries. The shape and color red is used nearly universally today.^{[citation needed]}

Red sky at night, sailor's/shepherd's delight.

Red catches people's attention and can be used either in a negative way to indicate danger and emergency, in a positive way in advertising to gain more viewers, or in nature, as a ripe fruit announces its ripeness by its red color.^[49] Several studies have indicated that red carries the strongest reaction of all the colors, with the level of reaction decreasing gradually with the colors orange, yellow, and white, respectively.^[50] Because of this, red is often used to catch people's attention in a variety of situations (see: penalty card).^[51]

The port, or left, side of a sea-faring vessel carries a red navigation light to warn other vessels approaching from that side to change course to avoid a collision.^[52] Red light is scattered the least among all colors of the visible spectrum and therefore reaches the greatest distance. Therefore, it is used to indicate "stop" in traffic signal lights.

Red in different cultures and traditions[link]

This section contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

In China, red (simplified Chinese: 红; traditional Chinese: 紅; pinyin: hóng) is the symbol of fire and the south (both south in general and Southern China specifically). It carries a largely positive connotation, being associated with courage, loyalty, honor, success, fortune, fertility, happiness, passion, and summer.^[53][54] In Chinese cultural traditions, red is associated with weddings (where brides traditionally wear red dresses) and red paper is frequently used to wrap gifts of money or other objects. Special red packets (simplified Chinese: 红包; traditional Chinese: 紅包; pinyin: hóng bāo in Mandarin or lai see in Cantonese) are specifically used during Chinese New Year celebrations for giving monetary gifts. On the more negative side, obituaries are traditionally written in red ink, and to write someone's name in red signals either cutting them out of one's life, or that they have died.^[54] Red is also associated with either the feminine or the masculine (yin and yang respectively), depending on the source.^[54][55] The Little Red Book, a collection of quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-Tung, founding father of the People's Republic of China (PRC), was published in 1966 and widely distributed thereafter.

In Japan, red is a traditional color for a heroic figure.^[56] In the Indian subcontinent, red is the traditional color of bridal dresses, and is frequently represented in the media as a symbolic color for married women.^[57] The color is associated with purity, as well as with sexuality in marital relationships through its connection to heat and fertility.^[58] It is also the color of wealth, beauty, and the goddess Lakshmi.^[45]

In Central Africa, Ndembu warriors rub themselves with red paint during celebrations. Since their culture sees the color as a symbol of life and health, sick people are also painted with it. Like most Central African cultures, the Ndembu see red as ambivalent, better than black but not as good as white.^[59] In other parts of Africa, however, red is a color of mourning, representing death.^[60] Because red bears are associated with death in many parts of Africa, the Red Cross has changed its colors to green and white in parts of the continent.^[61]

The early Ottoman Turks led by the first Ottoman Sultan, Osman I, carried red banners symbolizing sovereignty, Ghazis and Sufism, until according to legend he saw a new red flag in his dream inlaid with a crescent.

In sports[link]

Teams throughout the world wear red on their uniforms. Numerous national sports teams wear red, often through association with their national flags. These include teams from Spain (with a soccer team nicknamed La Furia Roja or "The Red Fury"), Belgium (whose football team bears the nickname Rode Duivels or "Red Devils"), other examples being teams from England, Wales, Canada, Denmark, Tonga, Chile, Puerto Rico, Russia and Switzerland.

Major League Baseball is especially well known for red teams.^[62] The Cincinnati Red Stockings are the oldest professional baseball team, dating back to 1869.^[63] The franchise soon relocated to Boston and is now the Atlanta Braves, but its name survives as the origin for both the Cincinnati Reds and Boston Red Sox. During the 1950s when red was strongly associated with communism, the modern Cincinnati team was known as the "Redlegs" and the term was used on baseball cards. After the red scare faded, the team was known as the "Reds" again.^[64] The Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim are also known for their color red, as are the St. Louis Cardinals, Arizona Diamondbacks, and the Philadelphia Phillies.

In the NHL, red jerseys are worn by the Detroit Red Wings, Washington Capitals, Calgary Flames, Carolina Hurricanes, Chicago Blackhawks, Colorado Avalanche, Minnesota Wild, Montreal Canadiens, Ottawa Senators, Phoenix Coyotes, and the New Jersey Devils.

In association football, teams such as Manchester United, Bayern Munich, Liverpool, Arsenal, Toronto FC, and S.L. Benfica primarily wear red jerseys. Other teams that prominently feature red on their kits include AC Milan (nicknamed i rossoneri for their red and black shirts), AFC Ajax, Olympiacos, River Plate, Atletico Madrid, and Flamengo. A red card is issued to a player who commits a serious infraction: the player is immediately disqualified from further play and his team must continue with one less player for the game's duration.

In rugby union, Ireland's Munster rugby, New Zealand's Canterbury provincial team and the Crusaders Super 14 rugby side wear red as a major color in their playing strips.

In the NFL, teams with a shade of the color red as the primary color of either the team's dark "home" jersey (or an alternate thereof) or its "throwback" jersey include the Arizona Cardinals, Atlanta Falcons, Houston Texans, Kansas City Chiefs, New England Patriots, San Francisco 49ers, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, and Washington Redskins.

The Cleveland Cavaliers basketball team uses a deeper shade of red called wine. A fellow National Basketball Association team, the Los Angeles Clippers, wears red uniforms for road games, as do the Chicago Bulls, Atlanta Hawks, Portland Trail Blazers, and the Houston Comets of the WNBA. A similar shade to the Cavaliers' tone (known in this instance as claret) is used by the English association football teams Aston Villa, West Ham United, and Burnley.

In boxing, red is often the color used on a fighter's gloves. George Foreman wore the same red trunks he used during his loss to Muhammad Ali when he defeated Michael Moorer 20 years later to recuperate the title he lost. Boxers named or nicknamed "red" include Red Burman, Ernie "Red" Lopez, and his brother Danny "Little Red" Lopez.

Rosso Corsa is the red international motor racing color of cars entered by teams from Italy. Since the 1920s Italian race cars of Alfa Romeo, Maserati, Lancia, and later Ferrari and Abarth have been painted with a color known as rosso corsa ("racing red"). National colors were mostly replaced in Formula One by commercial sponsor liveries in 1968, but unlike most other teams, Ferrari always kept the traditional red, although the shade of the color varies.

On flags[link]

The red flag of the Soviet Union

Red is one of the most common colors used on national flags. The use of red has similar connotations from country to country: the blood, sacrifice, and courage of those who defended their country; the sun and the hope and warmth it brings; and the sacrifice of Christ's blood (in some historically Christian nations) are a few examples. Red is the color of the flags of several countries that once belonged to the former British Empire. The British flag bears the colors red, white, and blue; it includes the cross of Saint George, patron saint of England, and the saltire of Saint Patrick, patron saint of Ireland, both of which are red on white.^[65] The flag of the United States bears the colors of Britain,^[66] the colors of the French tricolore include red as part of the old Paris coat of arms, and other countries' flags, such as those of Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji, carry a small inset of the British flag in memory of their ties to that country.^[67] Many former colonies of Spain, such as Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Peru, and Venezuela, also feature red-one of the colors of the Spanish flag-on their own banners. Red flags are also used to symbolize storms, bad water conditions, and many other dangers. Navy flags are often red and yellow. Red is prominently featured in the flag of the United States Marine Corps.

The red on the flag of Nepal represents the floral emblem of the country, the rhododendron.

Red, blue, and white are also the Pan-Slavic colors adopted by the Slavic solidarity movement of the late nineteenth century. Initially these were the colors of the Russian flag; as the Slavic movement grew, they were adopted by other Slavic peoples including Slovaks, Slovenes, and Serbs. The flags of the Czech Republic and Poland use red for historic heraldic reasons (see Coat of arms of Poland and Coat of arms of the Czech Republic) & not due to Pan-Slavic connotations. In 2004 Georgia adopted a new white flag, which consists of four small and one big red cross in the middle touching all four sides.

Red, white, and black are the colors of Pan-Arabism and are used by many Arab countries.^[68]

Red, gold, green, and black are the colors of Pan-Africanism. Several African countries thus use the color on their flags, including South Africa, Ghana, Senegal, Mali, Ethiopia, Togo, Guinea, Benin, and Zimbabwe. The Pan-African colors are borrowed from the flag of Ethiopia, one of the oldest independent African countries.^[68][69] Rwanda, notably, removed red from its flag after the Rwandan Genocide, because Pan-Africanism was so strongly associated with the event and because of red's association with blood.^[70]

The flag of Japan has a red circle in the middle. The flag of the Philippines has a red trapezoid on the bottom signifying blood, courage, and valor (also, if the flag is inverted so that the red trapezoid is on top and the blue at the bottom, it indicates a state of war). The flag of Singapore has a red rectangle on the top. The field of the flag of Portugal is green and red.

Use by political movements[link]

As early as the 9th century, the Khurramites (successors to the Mazdak religion and proto-communists in the Middle Ages of the Middle East) used red as their symbol for revolution. Even before Europe's Revolutions of 1848, Socialist red was used as a color of European Revolutionaries, often in the form of a red flag. It was also used by Garibaldi's camicie rosse (redshirts) in the Italian Risorgimento, and taken up by Leftist and generally revolutionary groups, while the white of legitimist Bourbon partisans became associated with pre-World War I conservatives. The red color recalls the term "blood of the workers", representing the suffering of the proletariat. For instance, the Civil War in Russia and the Civil War in Finland were fought between the Red Army and various White Armies.

Members of a People's Republic of China military honor guard.

The identification of Communism with Socialist red (with the red flag being the primary color of the flag of the Soviet Union) and the red star being a Communist emblem led to such Cold War phrases as "the Red Menace" and "Red China" (as distinguished from Nationalist China, "Blue China" or "Free China"). China's de-facto anthem under Mao Zedong was "The East Is Red".^[71] Mao Zedong was sometimes referred to as a "red sun".^[72] The color was also associated with political vehicles such as the Red Guard in China and the Red Guards during the Russian Revolution of 1917 as well as with left-wing paramilitary terrorist groups such as the Red Army Faction in Germany and the Japanese Red Army. Red remains associated with parties on the left of the political spectrum.

Social-democratic political parties throughout the world, particularly in Europe, are most commonly symbolized by the color red. Red is also the color associated with the Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico.

In the United States, red is associated with the center-right Republican Party and blue with the Democrats – a reverse of the traditional European scheme. This convention is relatively recent: before the 2000 presidential election, media outlets assigned red and blue (the colors of the American flag) to both parties, sometimes alternating the allocation for each election. Fixed usage was established during the 39-day recount following the 2000 election, when the media began to discuss the contest in terms of "red states" versus "blue states".^[73]

Food and drink[link]

Pommes d'amour

Most red foods derive from one of two sources. Plants like apples, strawberries, cherries, tomatoes, peppers, and pomegranates are often colored by forms of carotenoids, red pigments that were originally developed to assist photosynthesis.^[74] Red meat gets its color from the iron found in the myoglobin and hemoglobin in the muscles and residual blood.^[75]

Social and special interest groups[link]

Such names as Red Club (a bar), Red Carpet (a discothèque) or Red Cottbus and Club Red (event locations) suggest liveliness and excitement. The Red Hat Society is a social group founded in 1998 for women 50 and over.

Use of the color red to call attention to an emergency situation is evident in the names of such organizations as the Red Cross (humanitarian aid), Red Hot Organization (AIDS support), and the Red List of Threatened Species (of IUCN).

Corporate design[link]

Red is associated with a number of worldwide companies and brands which use the color prominently on their logos and advertisements, presumably because it is conspicuous and attracts attention. These include:

Airline logo

Car rental logo

Soft drink logo

Airline logo

Gas station logo

Cigarette logo

Store chain logo

Idioms[link]

Many idiomatic expressions exploit the various connotations of red:

Expressing emotion

• "to see red" (to be angry or aggressive)
• "to have red ears / a red face" (to be embarrassed)
• "to paint the town red" (to have an enjoyable evening, usually with a generous amount of eating, drinking, dancing)

Giving warning

• "to raise a red flag" (to signal that something is problematic)
• "like a red rag to a bull" (to cause someone to be enraged)
• "to be in the red" (from the accounting habit of writing deficits and losses in red ink)

Calling attention

• "a red-letter day" (commemorating a special or important event)
• "to print in red ink" (for emphasis or easy identification)
• "to lay out the red carpet" or "give red-carpet treatment" (to treat someone royally as a very special person)
• "to catch someone red-handed" (in the act of doing something wrong, such with blood on his hands after a murder or poaching game)
• "to tie up in red tape" (originally, a way to identify important administrative documents in an archive, now, excessive bureaucratic regulation)

In film[link]

Many movie titles have included the color's name, such as:

• The Woman in Red, a 1935 American film
• Reds, a 1981 film about Communism in the USA and Russia
• The Woman in Red, a 1984 American comedy film
• Raise the Red Lantern, a 1991 Chinese film directed by Zhang Yimou about a concubine
• Red, a Tamil movie from 2002
• Red, an American movie from 2008
• Red, an action comedy from 2010, starring Bruce Willis
• Red Dog, a 2011 Australian film

See also[link]

• Gules
• List of colors
• Red Riding Hood
• Scarlet (color)
• Variations of red

References[link]

Red & White Cigarette

External links[link]

• Seeing Red - slideshow by Life magazine

Find more about Red on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Images and media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks

A team at work

A team comprises a group of people or animals linked in a common purpose. Teams are especially appropriate for conducting tasks that are high in complexity and have many interdependent subtasks.

A group in itself does not necessarily constitute a team. Teams normally have members with complementary skills and generate synergy through a coordinated effort which allows each member to maximize his/her strengths and minimize his/her weaknesses. Team members need to learn how to help one another, help other team members realize their true potential, and create an environment that allows everyone to go beyond their limitations.^[1]

Thus teams of game players can form (and re-form) to practise their craft. Transport logistics executives can select teams of horses, dogs or oxen for the purpose of conveying goods.

Theorists in business in the late 20th century popularised the concept of constructing teams. Differing opinions exist on the efficacy of this new management fad. Some see "team" as a four-letter word: overused and under-useful. Others see it as a panacea that finally realizes the human relations movement's desire to integrate what that movement perceives as best for workers and as best for managers. Still others believe in the effectiveness of teams, but also see them as dangerous because of the potential for exploiting workers — in that team effectiveness can rely on peer pressure and peer surveillance.

Compare the more structured/skilled concept of a crew, and the advantages of formal and informal partnerships.

Team size, composition, and formation[link]

Team size and composition affect the team processes and outcomes. The optimal size (and composition) of teams is debated and will vary depending on the task at hand. At least one study of problem-solving in groups showed an optimal size of groups at four members. Other works estimate the optimal size between 5-12 members.^{[citation needed]} Belbin did extensive research on teams prior to 1990 in the UK that clearly demonstrated that the optimum team size is 8 roles plus a specialist as needed.^[2] Fewer than 5 members results in decreased perspectives and diminished creativity. Membership in excess of 12 results in increased conflict and greater potential of sub-groups forming.

David Cooperrider suggests that the larger the group, the better. This is because a larger group is able to address concerns of the whole system. So while a large team may be ineffective at performing a given task, Cooperider says that the relevance of that task should be considered, because determining whether the team is effective first requires identifying what needs to be accomplished.

Regarding composition, all teams will have an element of homogeneity and heterogeneity. The more homogeneous the group, the more cohesive it will be. The more heterogeneous the group, the greater the differences in perspective and increased potential for creativity, but also the greater potential for conflict.

Team members normally have different roles, like team leader and agents. Large teams can divide into sub-teams according to need.

Many teams go through a life-cycle of stages, identified by Bruce Tuckman as: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning.

Types of teams[link]

Independent and interdependent teams[link]

A rugby union scrum

Of particular importance is the concept of different types of teams. A distinction is usually drawn between "independent" and "interdependent" teams. To continue the sports team example, a rugby team is clearly an interdependent team:

• no significant task can be accomplished without the help and cooperation of any of the members;
• within that team members typically specialize in different tasks (running the ball, goal kicking & scrum feeding), and
• the success of every individual is inextricably bound to the success of the whole team. No rugby player, no matter how talented, has ever won a game by playing alone.

On the other hand, a chess or bowling team is a classic example of an independent team:

• matches are played and won, or points are scored, by individuals or partners;
• every person performs basically the same actions;
• how one player performs has no direct effect on the performance of the next player. If all team members each perform the same basic tasks, such as students working problems in a math class, or outside sales employees making phone calls, then it is likely that this team is an independent team. They may be able to help each other — perhaps by offering advice or practice time, by providing moral support, or by helping in the background during a busy time — but each individual's success is primarily due to each individual's own efforts. Chess players do not win their own matches merely because the rest of their teammates did, and math students do not pass tests merely because their neighbours know how to solve the equations.

Coaching an "interdependent" team like a football team necessarily requires a different approach from coaching an "independent" team because the costs and benefits to individual team members — and therefore the intrinsic incentives for positive team behaviors — are very different. An interdependent team benefits from getting to know the other team members socially, from developing trust in each other, and from conquering artificial challenges (such as offered in outdoors ropes courses).

Project teams[link]

A team used only for a defined period of time and for a separate, concretely definable purpose, often becomes known as a project team. Managers commonly label groups of people as a "team" based on having a common function. Members of these teams might belong to different groups, but receive assignment to activities for the same project, thereby allowing outsiders to view them as a single unit. In this way, setting up a team allegedly facilitates the creation, tracking and assignment of a group of people based on the project in hand. The use of the "team" label in this instance often has no relationship to whether the employees are working as a team.

Sports teams[link]

A sports team is a group of people which play a sport together. Members include all players (even those who are waiting their turn to play) as well as support members such as a team manager or coach.

Virtual teams[link]

Developments in communications technologies have seen the emergence of the virtual work team. A virtual team is a group of people who work interdependently and with shared purpose across space, time, and organisation boundaries using technology to communicate and collaborate. Virtual team members can be located across a country or across the world, rarely meet face-to-face, and include members from different cultures.^[3] Ale Ebrahim, N., Ahmed, S. & Taha, Z. in their recent (2009) literature review paper, added two key issues to definition of a virtual team “as small temporary groups of geographically, organizationally and/ or time dispersed knowledge workers who coordinate their work predominantly with electronic information and communication technologies in order to accomplish one or more organization tasks”.^[4] Many virtual teams are cross-functional and emphasis solving customer problems or generating new work processes. The United States Labour Department reported that in 2001, 19 million people worked from home online or from another location, and that by the end of 2002, over 100 million people world-wide would be working outside traditional offices.^[5]

Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary teams[link]

Teams, such as in medical fields, may be interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary.^[6] Multidisciplinary teams involve several professionals who independently treat various issues a patient may have, focusing on the issues in which they specialise. The problems that are being treated may or may not relate to other issues being addressed by individual team members. Interdisciplinary team approach involves all members of the team working together towards the same goal. In an interdisciplinary team approach, there can often be role blending by members of the core team, who may take on tasks usually filled by other team members.^[6]

Not all groups are teams[link]

Some people also use the word "team" when they mean "employees." A "sales team" is a common example of this loose or perhaps euphemistic usage, though inter dependencies exist in organisations, and a sales team can be let down by poor performance on other parts of the organisation upon which sales depend, like delivery, after-sales service, etc.. However "sales staff" is a more precise description of the typical arrangement.

From groups to teams[link]

Groups develop into teams in four stages. The four stages are: dependency and inclusion, counter dependency and fighting, trust and structure, and work. In the first stage, group development is characterized by members' dependency on the designated leader. In the second stage, the group seeks to free itself from its dependence on the leader and groups have conflicts about goals and procedures. In the third stage, the group manages to work through the conflicts. And in the last stage, groups focus on team productivity.^{[7][clarification needed]}

See also[link]

• Air-defense experiments
• Coalition
• Community
• Forming-storming-norming-performing
• Group (sociology)
• Groups of people
• Team Action Management
• Judge–advisor system
• Teamwork
• Team building
• Player
• Virtual team
• The Five Dysfunctions of a Team
• Driving (horse)
• Team Composition

References[link]

Look up teem or team in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.