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Wastewater, also spelled waste water, is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence. It comprises liquid waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial properties, industry, and/or agriculture and can encompass a wide range of potential contaminants and concentrations. In the most common usage, it refers to the municipal wastewater that contains a broad spectrum of contaminants resulting from the mixing of wastewater from homes, businesses, industrial areas and often storm drains, especially in older sewer systems. Municipal wastewater is usually treated in a combined sewer, sanitary sewer, effluent sewer or septic tank.

Sewage is the subset of wastewater that is contaminated with feces or urine, but is often used to mean any wastewater. Sewage includes domestic, municipal, or industrial liquid waste products disposed of, usually via a pipe or sewer (sanitary or combined), sometimes in a cesspool emptier.

Sewerage is the physical infrastructure, including pipes, pumps, screens, channels etc. used to convey sewage from its origin to the point of eventual treatment or disposal. It is found in all types of sewage treatment, with the exception of septic systems, which treat sewage on-site.

Origin[link]

Wastewater or sewage can come from (text in brackets indicates likely inclusions or contaminants):

• Human waste (fæces, used toilet paper or wipes, urine, or other bodily fluids), also known as blackwater, usually from lavatories;
• Cesspit leakage;
• Septic tank discharge;
• Sewage treatment plant discharge;
• Washing water (personal, clothes, floors, dishes, etc.), also known as greywater or sullage;
• Rainfall collected on roofs, yards, hard-standings, etc. (generally clean with traces of oils and fuel);
• Groundwater infiltrated into sewage;
• Surplus manufactured liquids from domestic sources (drinks, cooking oil, pesticides, lubricating oil, paint, cleaning liquids, etc.);
• Urban rainfall runoff from roads, carparks, roofs, sidewalks, or pavements (contains oils, animal feces, litter, gasoline, diesel or rubber residues, metals from vehicle exhausts, etc.);
• Seawater ingress (high volumes of salt and microbes);
• Direct ingress of river water (high volumes of micro-biota);
• Direct ingress of manmade liquids (illegal disposal of pesticides, used oils, etc.);
• Highway drainage (oil, de-icing agents, rubber residues);
• Storm drains (almost anything, including cars, shopping trolleys, trees, cattle, etc.);
• Blackwater (surface water contaminated by sewage);
• Industrial waste
• industrial site drainage (silt, sand, alkali, oil, chemical residues);
  • Industrial cooling waters (biocides, heat, slimes, silt);
  • Industrial process waters;
  • Organic or biodegradable waste, including waste from abattoirs, creameries, and ice cream manufacture;
  • Organic or non bio-degradable/difficult-to-treat waste (pharmaceutical or pesticide manufacturing);
  • Extreme pH waste (from acid/alkali manufacturing, metal plating);
  • Toxic waste (metal plating, cyanide production, pesticide manufacturing, etc.);
  • Solids and emulsions (paper manufacturing, foodstuffs, lubricating and hydraulic oil manufacturing, etc.);
  • agricultural drainage, direct and diffuse.

Wastewater constituents[link]

The composition of wastewater varies widely. This is a partial list of what it may contain:

• Water ( > 95%) which is often added during flushing to carry waste down a drain;
• Pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, prions and parasitic worms;
• Non-pathogenic bacteria;
• Organic particles such as feces, hairs, food, vomit, paper fibers, plant material, humus, etc.;
• Soluble organic material such as urea, fruit sugars, soluble proteins, drugs, pharmaceuticals, etc.;
• Inorganic particles such as sand, grit, metal particles, ceramics, etc.;
• Soluble inorganic material such as ammonia, road-salt, sea-salt, cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, thiocyanates, thiosulfates, etc.;
• Animals such as protozoa, insects, arthropods, small fish, etc.;
• Macro-solids such as sanitary napkins, nappies/diapers, condoms, needles, children's toys, dead animals or plants, etc.;
• Gases such as hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.;
• Emulsions such as paints, adhesives, mayonnaise, hair colorants, emulsified oils, etc.;
• Toxins such as pesticides, poisons, herbicides, etc.
• Pharmaceuticals and other hormones.

Wastewater quality indicators[link]

Any oxidizable material present in a natural waterway or in an industrial wastewater will be oxidized both by biochemical (bacterial) or chemical processes. The result is that the oxygen content of the water will be decreased. Basically, the reaction for biochemical oxidation may be written as:

Oxidizable material + bacteria + nutrient + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + oxidized inorganics such as NO₃^- or SO₄^--

Oxygen consumption by reducing chemicals such as sulfides and nitrites is typified as follows:

S^-- + 2 O₂ → SO₄^--

NO₂^- + ½ O₂ → NO₃^-

Since all natural waterways contain bacteria and nutrients, almost any waste compounds introduced into such waterways will initiate biochemical reactions (such as shown above). Those biochemical reactions create what is measured in the laboratory as the Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Such chemicals are also liable to be broken down using strong oxidizing agents and these chemical reactions create what is measured in the laboratory as the Chemical oxygen demand (COD). Both the BOD and COD tests are a measure of the relative oxygen-depletion effect of a waste contaminant. Both have been widely adopted as a measure of pollution effect. The BOD test measures the oxygen demand of biodegradable pollutants whereas the COD test measures the oxygen demand of oxidizable pollutants.

The so-called 5-day BOD measures the amount of oxygen consumed by biochemical oxidation of waste contaminants in a 5-day period. The total amount of oxygen consumed when the biochemical reaction is allowed to proceed to completion is called the Ultimate BOD. Because the Ultimate BOD is so time consuming, the 5-day BOD has been almost universally adopted as a measure of relative pollution effect.

There are also many different COD tests of which the 4-hour COD is probably the most common.

There is no generalized correlation between the 5-day BOD and the ultimate BOD. Similarly there is no generalized correlation between BOD and COD. It is possible to develop such correlations for specific waste contaminants in a specific wastewater stream but such correlations cannot be generalized for use with any other waste contaminants or wastewater streams. This is because the composition of any wastewater stream is different. As an example an effluent consisting of a solution of simple sugars that might discharge from a confectionery factory is likely to have organic components that degrade very quickly. In such a case, the 5 day BOD and the ultimate BOD would be very similar since there would be very little organic material left after 5 days. However a final effluent of a sewage treatment works serving a large industrialised area might have a discharge where the ultimate BOD was much greater than the 5 day BOD because much of the easily degraded material would have been removed in the sewage treatment process and many industrial processes discharge difficult to degrade organic molecules.

The laboratory test procedures for the determining the above oxygen demands are detailed in many standard texts. American versions include the "Standard Methods For the Examination Of Water and Wastewater" ^[1]

Sewage disposal[link]

Industrial wastewater effluent with neutralized pH from tailing runoff. Taken in Peru.

In some urban areas, sewage is carried separately in sanitary sewers and runoff from streets is carried in storm drains. Access to either of these is typically through a manhole. During high precipitation periods a sanitary sewer overflow can occur, forcing untreated sewage to flow back into the environment. This can pose a serious threat to public health and the surrounding environment.

Sewage may drain directly into major watersheds with minimal or no treatment. When untreated, sewage can have serious impacts on the quality of an environment and on the health of people. Pathogens can cause a variety of illnesses. Some chemicals pose risks even at very low concentrations and can remain a threat for long periods of time because of bioaccumulation in animal or human tissue.

Treatment[link]

There are numerous processes that can be used to clean up wastewaters depending on the type and extent of contamination. Most wastewater is treated in industrial-scale wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) which may include physical, chemical and biological treatment processes. However, the use of septic tanks and other On-Site Sewage Facilities (OSSF) is widespread in rural areas, serving up to one quarter of the homes in the U.S.^[2] The most important aerobic treatment system is the activated sludge process, based on the maintenance and recirculation of a complex biomass composed by micro-organisms able to absorb and adsorb the organic matter carried in the wastewater. Anaerobic processes are widely applied in the treatment of industrial wastewaters and biological sludge. Some wastewater may be highly treated and reused as reclaimed water. For some wastewaters ecological approaches using reed bed systems such as constructed wetlands may be appropriate. Modern systems include tertiary treatment by micro filtration or synthetic membranes. After membrane filtration, the treated wastewater is indistinguishable from waters of natural origin of drinking quality. Nitrates can be removed from wastewater by microbial denitrification, for which a small amount of methanol is typically added to provide the bacteria with a source of carbon. Ozone Wastewater Treatment is also growing in popularity, and requires the use of an ozone generator, which decontaminates the water as Ozone bubbles percolate through the tank.

Disposal of wastewaters from an industrial plant is a difficult and costly problem. Most petroleum refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants^[3][4] have onsite facilities to treat their wastewaters so that the pollutant concentrations in the treated wastewater comply with the local and/or national regulations regarding disposal of wastewaters into community treatment plants or into rivers, lakes or oceans. Other Industrial processes that produce a lot of waste-waters such as paper and pulp production has created environmental concern leading to development of processes to recycle water use within plants before they have to be cleaned and disposed of.^[5]

Reuse[link]

Treated wastewater can be reused as drinking water, in industry (cooling towers), in artificial recharge of aquifers, in agriculture (70% of Israel's irrigated agriculture is based on highly purified wastewater)^{[citation needed]} and in the rehabilitation of natural ecosystems (Florida's Everglades).

Use of untreated wastewater by agriculture[link]

Around 90% of wastewater produced globally remains untreated, causing widespread water pollution, especially in low-income countries. Increasingly, agriculture is using untreated wastewater for irrigation. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users, there is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste directly to water their crops.

Health hazards of polluted irrigation water[link]

There can be significant health hazards related to using the water in this way. Wastewater from cities can contain a mixture of chemical and biological pollutants. In low-income countries, there are often high levels of pathogens from excreta, while in emerging nations, where industrial development is outpacing environmental regulation, there are increasing risks from inorganic and organic chemicals. The World Health Organization has developed guidelines for safe water use.

The International Water Management Institute has worked in India, Pakistan, Vietnam, Ghana, Ethiopia, Mexico and other countries on various projects aimed at assessing and reducing risks of wastewater irrigation. They advocate a ‘multiple-barrier’ approach to wastewater use, where farmers are encouraged to adopt various risk-reducing behaviours. These include ceasing irrigation a few days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in the sunlight, applying water carefully so it does not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw, cleaning vegetables with disinfectant or allowing fecal sludge used in farming to dry before being used as a human manure.^[6]

Etymology[link]

The words "sewage" and "sewer" came from Old French essouier = "to drain", which came from Latin exaquāre. Their formal Latin antecedents are exaquāticum and exaquārium.

Legislation[link]

European Union[link]

Council Directive 91/271/EEC on Urban Wastewater Treatment was adopted on 21 May 1991,^[7] amended by the Commission Directive 98/15/EC.^[8] Commission Decision 93/481/EEC defines the information that Member States should provide the Commission on the state of implementation of the Directive.^[9]

See also[link]

Water portal

• APHA color
• ATP test
• Combined sewer
• Ecological sanitation
• Industrial water treatment
• List of waste types
• List of waste-water treatment technologies
• Pt/Co scale
• Rain gardens
• Sanitation
• The Environmental Institute
• Waste management
• Water management
• Water treatment

References[link]

External links[link]

Media related to Wastewater at Wikimedia Commons

Franklin C. Miller KBE (born 1950) is a retired senior U.S. government official who is now an independent defense consultant and a Principal at the Washington-based international business advisory firm The Scowcroft Group. He also holds positions with the Center for Strategic and International Studies and the Center for Naval Analyses. He serves on several corporate Boards and also is a member of a number of U.S. government advisory bodies. Miller served 31 years in the U.S. government, including the Department of State, the Department of Defense and, finally at the White House as a Special Assistant to President George W. Bush.^[1]

History[link]

• August 2010 - becomes a Principal at The Scowcroft Group
• March 2008 - becomes a Senior Counselor at Cohen Group
• March 2005 - joins The Cohen Group as a vice president
• January 2001 - serves at White House as a Special Assistant to President George W. Bush and as Senior Director for Defense Policy and Arms Control on the National Security Council staff
• November 1997 - Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense (Threat Reduction Policy)
• September 1996 - Acting Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Policy
• July 1993 - Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Policy
• December 1989 - Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Nuclear Forces and Arms Control Policy

Education and career[link]

Mr. Miller attended Williams College and graduated (Phi Beta Kappa) in 1972 with highest honors in Political Science and honors in History. Following graduation from Williams, he joined the U.S. Navy and served three years onboard USS Joseph Hewes (DE 1078) as Communications Officer and then as the ship's Anti-Submarine Warfare Officer. He earned the Surface Warfare Officer designator while on the Hewes. Following active duty, Mr. Miller attended Princeton University's Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, earning a Masters in Public Affairs (MPA) degree in 1977. During his time as a graduate student Miller served in the naval reserve and was assigned to the Philadelphia-based destroyer USS Johnston (DD 821).

Immediately following graduation from the Woodrow Wilson School, Mr. Miller joined the U.S. Department of State as a Political-Military Affairs Officer, a post he held until the summer of 1979. He then joined the Theater Nuclear Policy Office in the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD), a post he held for two years. In late 1981 he was promoted to head OSD's Strategic Forces Policy office. He held this post for eight years, during which he had unusual influence on the evolution of US deterrence policy and on US nuclear targeting policy. During this period he also forged new and important relationships between the Department of Defense and the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence. He was promoted into the Senior Executive Service (SES) in mid-1984.

Mr. Miller was promoted to the position of Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Nuclear Forces and Arms Control Policy in the fall of 1989. In addition to continuing his pioneering work in nuclear deterrence and targeting policy and in US-UK interaction, Mr. Miller played a significant role in the completion of the START 1 treaty, in the 1991 Presidential Nuclear Initiatives, and in the creation of the START 2 treaty.

In 1993 Mr. Miller was promoted to be the Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense (International Security Policy). In September 1996 he became the Acting Assistant Secretary (ISP), a post he held for fourteen months. In November 1997, he became the Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary for Strategy and Threat Reduction, a newly created organization. He became Acting Assistant Secretary for Strategy and Threat Reduction in October 2000 and held that post until January 20, 2001. During the periond September 1996 through January 2001 Miller served concurrently as chairman of NATO's nuclear policy committee, the "High Level Group" (HLG).

In late January 2001 Mr. Miller joined the White House staff as a Special Assistant to President George W. Bush and as the Senior Director for Defense Policy and Arms Control on the National Security Council (NSC) staff. He retired from the U.S. Government in March 2005 with an accumulated 31 years of federal service.

Mr. Miller's first post-government employment was as a vice president with The Cohen Group, a Washington-based international business consulting firm. In March 2008 he became a senior counselor at Cohen Group and also began practicing on his own. In August 2010 he left Cohen Group to become a Principal at the Scowcroft Group. He also holds positions as a non-resident Senior Advisor at the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) and as a Distinguished Fellow at the Center for Naval Analyses (CNA). He serves on the Board of Directors of EADS-North America and of the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory. Mr. Miller also serves pro bono on a number of U.S. Government advisory boards.

Honors and awards[link]

U.S. Awards and Honors:

Mr. Miller has been awarded the Defense Department's highest civilian medal, the Department of Defense Distinguished Civilian Service Award, five times. He was awarded the Department's Distinguished Public Service Medal in lieu of a sixth award. In addition, over the course of his career, Mr. Miller was honored with the Department of State Distinguished Honor Medal, the Department of the Navy's Distinguished Public Service Medal, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Joint Distinguished Civilian Service Medal, the National Nuclear Security Administration Administrator's Gold Medal for Distinguished Service, the Defense Intelligence Agency's Director's Medal and the Presidential rank award of "Distinguished Executive" .

Foreign Awards and Honors:

Mr. Miller has also been given three major foreign awards. He has received the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit in the grade of Grand Officer, the French Legion of Honor in the grade of Officer, and, in December 2006, he was awarded an honorary knighthood, a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE), by Queen Elizabeth II.

External links[link]

• 9/11 involvement
• Senate hearing on technology transfer to China
• Contradicting book by colleague, Richard Clarke

References[link]